Perlakuan Panas dan

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03
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Perlakuan Panas untuk Meningkatkan Kekuatan

Logam (Strengthening Mechanisms)
Haris Wahyudi, ST. M.Sc

Fakultas
Teknik

Program Studi
Teknik Mesin
Why strengthening of metal is required?
• As pure metal are inherently weak due to presence of
dislocation.
• We can enhance the mechanical properties by eliminating/
hindering dislocation movement.
– Dislocation: a displacement of part of a crystal lattice structure.
– Dislocations are present due to the accidents of imperfect growth
• Strength of Material can be increased by hindering
dislocation, which is responsible for plastic deformation
(strengthening mechanism)
– The relationship between dislocation motion and mechanical
behavior of metals is significance to the understanding of
strengthening mechanisms.
– The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability
of dislocations to move.
• Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is strengthened.

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Methods for Strengthening of Metal
• Different ways to hinder dislocation motion/
Strengthening mechanisms:
– In single-phase materials
A. Grain size reduction
B. Solid solution strengthening
C. Strain hardening
– In multi-phase materials
D. Precipitation strengthening
E. Dispersion strengthening
F. Phase Transformation (Martensite strengthening)

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A. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
• Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
– Barrier "strength" increases
with Increasing angle of
misorientation.
– Smaller grain size: more
barriers to slip
• It is based on the fact that Yield strength is related to grain
dislocations will size (diameter, d) as Hall-Petch
experience hindrances relation:
while trying to move from
a grain into the next
because of abrupt change
K is constant, d is average grain
in orientation of planes. size diameter
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A. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
• Grain size reduction techniques
– Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
– Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate
heat treatment.
• Notes
– Grain size reduction also improves toughness of many
alloys.
– Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in
interfering with the slip process because of the small
crystallographic misalignment across the boundary.
– Boundaries between two different phases are also
impediments to movements of dislocations.

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Impure foreign atoms in a single-phase material produces
lattice strains which can anchor the dislocations.
• Effectiveness of this strengthening depends on two factors–
size difference and volume fraction of solute.

Stress Concentration at Dislocations

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 B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Solute atoms interact with dislocations in many
ways:
– elastic interaction
– modulus interaction
– stacking-fault interaction
– electrical interaction
– short-range order interaction
– long-range order interaction
• Elastic, modulus, and long-range order
interactions are of long-range i.e. they are
relatively insensitive to temperature and continue
to act about 0.6*Tm.
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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Solid Solution
– When the atoms of base metal (solvent) and the
alloying elements (solute) completely dissolve in
each other and become an integral part of the solid
phase of alloy, the resulting phase is called a Solid
Solution.
• Types of Solid Solution
a. Interstitial solid solution
b. Substitutional solid solution

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Interstitial Solid Solution
– Solute atoms are much smaller than solvent atoms, so they occupy
interstitial position in solvent lattice.
– Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the
“Compressive stress side”
– Reduce mobility of dislocation increase strength
– Carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and boron are the element
which commonly form interstitial solid solution.

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Substitutional Solid Solution
– Solute atoms sizes are roughly similar to solvent atoms.
• Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on “Tensile Stress”
side – pinning dislocation
– Due to similar size solute atoms occupy vacant site in
solvent atoms.
– Copper and zinc, copper and nickel, are the example of
substitutional solid solution

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• Hume Rothery’s Rule
– Hume rothery studied a number of alloy systems and
formulated condition that favour extensive
substitutional solid solubility.
– Three conditions of Hume Rothery’s rule:
1. The size difference between solute and solvent atoms must
be less than 15%
2. The crystal structure of metal must be same.
3. The electronegativity difference between the metal must be
small.
• Strengthening mechanisms depends on:
– Difference in size between solute and solvent atoms
– Amount of solute added,
– Nature of distortion produced by solute atoms

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B. Solid Solution Strengthening
• How this parameters affect strengthening mechanisms
– As the size difference between solute and solvent atoms increases ,
the intensity of stress field around solute atom increases and
resistance to dislocation is increases, so strength of metal is also
increases.
– A large concentration of solute atoms are added it means more
frequent obstacles to dislocation. The strength increases in
proportion of C ½, where c is a concentration of solute atoms.
– The nature of distortion produced by solute atoms are also
important.
• Spherical distortion produced by substituional solute
atoms.
• Non-spherical distortion produced by interstitial solute
atoms.
• Non spherical distortion produced maximum effect i.e. it
increases yield strength.
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C. Strain Hardening
• Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and
harder when they are deformed plastically is called strain
hardening or work hardening.
• Increasing temperature lowers the rate of strain
hardening.
– Hence materials are strain hardened at low temperatures,
thus also called cold working.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases.
– And thus their interaction with each other resulting in
increase in yield stress.
• Dislocation density (ρ) and shear stress (τ) are related as
follows:

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C. Strain Hardening
• During strain hardening, in addition to mechanical
properties, physical properties also changes:
– A small decrease in density
– An appreciable decrease in electrical conductivity
– Small increase in thermal coefficient of expansion
– Increased chemical reactivity (decrease in corrosion
resistance).
• Negative effects of cold work can be removed by heating
the material to suitable temperatures–Annealing.
• It restores the original properties into material. It consists
of three stages–recovery, recrystallization and grain
growth.
• In industry, alternate cycles of strain hardening and
annealing are used to deform most metals to a very great
extent
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 C. Strain Hardening
• As cold work is increased:
– Yield strength (YS) increases
– Tensile strength (TS) increases
– Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases

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C. Strain Hardening
• Cold cork analysis
– What is the percent cold work (%CW) after cold
working?

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C. Strain Hardening
• Cold work analysis
– What is the tensile strength and ductility after cold
working?

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C. Strain Hardening
• Effect of heating after %CW
– 1 hour treatment at Tanneal
• decreases TS and increases %EL.
– Effects of cold work are reversed!

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C. Strain Hardening
• Recovery
– Annihilation reduces dislocation density

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Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth
• Recrystallization
– New grains are formed that:
• have a low dislocation density
• are small
• consume cold-worked grains.

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Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth
• Further recrystallization
– All cold-worked grains are consumed

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Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth
• Recrystallization temperature, TR
– TR = recrystallization temperature = point
of highest rate of property change
1. TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion → annealing time → TR
= f(t) shorter annealing time => higher
TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain
hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR
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Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth
• Grain Growth
– At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
– Why?
• Grain boundary area (and therefore energy) is reduced.

• Empirical relation

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Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth

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D &E. Precipitation & Dispersion Hardening
• External/foreign particles can also obstructs movement of
dislocations i.e. increases the strength of the material.
• External particles can be introduced in two ways:
– precipitation and mixing
– consolidation technique.
• Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening
because strength increases with time.
– If aging occurs at room temperature – Natural aging
– If material need to be heated during aging – Artificial aging
• Requisite for precipitation hardening is that second phase
must be soluble at an elevated temperature but
precipitates upon quenching and aging at a lower
temperature.
– e.g.: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn alloys
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D &E. Precipitation & Dispersion Hardening

• In dispersion hardening, fine second particles are mixed

with matrix powder, consolidated, and pressed in powder
metallurgy techniques.
• For dispersion hardening, second phase need to have
very low solubility at all temperatures.
– e.g.: oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, etc.
• Dislocation moving through matrix embedded with
foreign particles can either cut through the particles or
bend around and by pass them.
• Cutting of particles is easier for small particles which can
be considered as segregated solute atoms.
• Effective strengthening is achieved in the bending
process, when the particles are submicroscopic in size
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D &E. Precipitation & Dispersion Hardening

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F. Phase Transformation (Martensite Strengthening)

• This strengthening method is based on formation of

martensitic phase from the retained high temperature
phase at temperatures lower then the equilibrium
invariant transformation temperature.
• Martensite forms as a result of shearing of lattices.
• Martensite plate lets assumes characteristic lenticular
shape that minimizes the elastic distortion in the matrix.
• These platelets divide and subdivide the grains of the
parent phase.
– Always touching but never crossing one another.
• Martensite platelets grow at very high speeds (1/3 rd of
sound speed) i.e. activation energy for grow this less.
– Thus volume fraction of martensite exist is controlled by its
nucleation rate.

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• Martensite platelets attain their shape by two successive
shear displacements
– first displacement is a homogeneous shear through out the plate
which occurs parallel to a specific plane in the parent phase known
as the habit plane
– second displacement, the lesser of the two, can take place by one
of two mechanisms:
• slip as in Fe-C martensite or
• twinning as in Fe-Ni Martensite.
• Martensite formation occurs in many systems.
– e.g.: Fe-C, Fe-Ni, Fe-Ni-C, Cu-Zn, Au-Cd, and even in pure metals
like Li, Zr and Co
– However, only the alloys based on Fe and C show a pronounced
strengthening effect.
• High strength of Martensite is attributed to its characteristic
twin structure and to high dislocation density
– In Fe-C system, carbon atoms are also involved in strengthening
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Terima Kasih
Haris Wahyudi, ST. M.Sc