First Theme: The Indigenous Algerian Society: Constituents and

Regularities

War is a prevailing theme in all times. It does not arise upon specific and consistent
foundations, and it does not bend the knee to any moral compass. War is born out of a
persistent desire to control and cease spoils and gains. It is a struggle for interests,
dominance, and impulses. If we go back to the farthest points in history where man was part
of a small hunting-gathering group, war exhibited very primitive expressions like the struggle
for simple needs which are determined by deprivation and uncontrolled desires. Eventually,
war put on a new definition with the emergence of more complex political organizations i.e.
the birth of the notion of a president or king with an army under his command. It is by then
that war became an absolute mission for expansion, control, influence, and access to greater
resources.

By the emergence of the political nation-state of "Athens" with its state-like notion, another
conception of war has risen to the surface. It now became a citizen-soldier war that took upon
it the mission of defense, followed by dominance and state control. The Romans extended
this notion even more. And it began holding more broad intentions with the imperialist
project that had nothing in mind but the subjugation of different nations and ethnicities to the
total dominance of Rome, while, at the same time, allowing Romans to enjoy a fully
independent statehood. It could be suggested that what Rome accomplished in the domain of
expansion, control, and their consequent regulatory policies and procedures have pushed
humanity towards the age of organized power (imperial army). This was all monitored, of
course, by political interests (Rome's interests, the nation). What the army does is to commit
to the instructions of implementing and achieving these goals. As a result, the project became
a model.

The emergence of the nation-state was a determining characteristic of modern times. Its
development and accomplishments were heading towards the ultimate project of domination
(imperialism) despite the fact that it all went under a monarchy. The English example is the
closest to what Rome aspired to, especially after the Parliament and people's revolutions in
1948 and 1688, which ended the divine right of kings' doctrine and handed on the torch of
sovereignty to the people whom the king is supposed to derive his authority from. Thus, the
project of expansion and imperial domination is mainly in the interest of the state (and its
people) through its army, by means of expanding power beyond the borders of Europe to
colonies.

With a distinct model than that of Britain, France also followed the path towards expansion
and domination. And that was with a long series of wars that characterized the rule of King
Louis XIV (1661-1715)1 and Louis XV (1710-1774) outside Europe. However, France did
also apply its model through controlling colonies along with Spain and Portugal who agreed
to conquer the world and divide it equally with the help of papacy before being shortly
interrupted by their loss to Augsburg Union (Spain, England, and the United Kingdom), thus,

1
Thirty-three years in his fifty-four-ruling period.
the end of the attempt and ambition of French domination, which only resumed with
Napoleon III (1808- 1873).
Based on what was previously highlighted in the first chapter about the imperial superiority
of England after the treaty of 1763, and its advancements in economy by virtue of the
industrial revolution, and then also from what resulted of Vienna Treaty in 1815, we see that
France is coming back to the international scene after its engagement with the modernization
path which was established in King Louis Philippe's reign and realized by the success of the
military campaign against the regency of Algiers.

When modern history was in the making, i.e. the era of modern empires, our Arab-Islamic
world was still sinking in an epoch of ignorance and backwardness. Although it shined and
prospered under the reign of the Turks, they could not, however, keep pace with that wheel of
progress. They could not sustain the scientific and technological revolution. Thus, they could
not secure their position in the conflict and competition quest against their rivals. The doom
started alongside France, whom they allied with, but, unlike them, France knew how to arise
from the ashes of its frailty in mid-nineteenth-century. They, however, witnessed, firsthand, a
total collapse and wore, as a result, an old bedridden man's gown. They then started losing
their Ayalets2 one by one, and did almost lose their capital after the march of Russians
towards their lands if not for the English confrontation and defense.

The Arab-Islamic world refrained itself from development and progress. The Maghreb's fate
was deeply intertwined with that of the Muslim empires (Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid
Caliphate). Some new Barbarian kingdoms that had no influence on this fate started emerging
(Rustamid kingdom, Idrisid Dynasty, the Fatimid Caliphate, Aghlabids, and others of which
history did not bother to remember except their names). Then comes what is known by the
"Barbaric Era" as was quoted from Mebarek El Mili 3, which was characterized by the rule of
six large dynasties: the Hammadid dynasty, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Hafsid
dynasty, Marinid Sultanate, and Zayyanid dynasty. We are, nonetheless, not in need of
restating their characteristics and features4, all that is worthy of mentioning is that these
dynasties were Sultani-style with a tribal foundation that decides its ruling legitimacy by
means of inheritance, religious invitation, and sometimes by the privilege of the founder.

The fall of Almohad Caliphate in the thirteenth century is: "an exhibition of complete
degradation; kings became too many, they crowded and they clashed. The crowd, then, found
their way to chaos, governors to rebellion, atrocities spread and the streets became cruel" 5. As
a result, the fundamental political shift in the construction of an empire and the clearing out
of the tribal dimension of social formations did not take place. This transformation was the
essence of the formation of the state in its Athenian and then modern European concept due
to the absence of a political center (embodied by the king at a primary stage), and also due to
the lack of a contractual dimension that establishes a sovereign state who belongs to the
people, which was a defining characteristic for the Maghreb society to enter the modern era.
The Turks, upon their domination of the Maghreb, did nothing but the establishment of a
2
The primary administrative division of the Ottoman Empire.
3
Mebarek El Mili, "The Algerian History: Ancient and Modern", second chapter, National Book Foundation.
4
See the first chapter of this study: Algeria...society and nation, Al-Wesam Al-Arabi press, 2013, Algeria. And
also see the first theme that tackled the making of the Algerian society.
5
Mebarek El Mili, previously mentioned source, p.362.
political center that is fully separated from the indigenous society. For they cared about
nothing but extending their influence wherever they can to achieve their own goals.
The characteristics of the Maghreb society can thus be defined and recognized through their
tribal complexion which remained, even in the absence of a socio-political contract, their
major aspect. In terms of ethnic origins and throughout the ages, these tribes are Berber as
they have been described since the dawn of time, only to be recognized, at the end of the
twentieth century, as Amazigh6. These tribes (i.e. the inhabitants of the Algerian homeland)
that Ibn Khaldun got creative, throughout his life, with describing their ancestral
composition, namely, Zenata, Sanhaja, Kutama, Zawawa, Ajisa, Azdagha, Mestassa, Beni
Faten, and some others from Laguatan, Nefzaoua, Hawwara, Zawagha, Miknasa, Masmuda,
Lamtuna and Awrba. All of these tribes have branches spread over the rest of the Maghreb 7.
The Zanata dominion was through its two largest tribes, Maghraa and Yefren. What was
common about its people was "travelling, living in tents, caring for livestock, and trading on
land"8.

Then came the great waves of immigration9 (lasting for over a century) among the tribes of
the Arabian Peninsula (Salim, Duraid, Al-Athbaj, and Riah) which would permanently
change, from the eleventh century onwards, this tribal structure leading to their demographic
and cultural domination. They are nomadic tribes: "who live in houses they can carry when
travel calls, and own horses to travel with and cattle to carry their belongings and provide
them with milk and clothes and furniture. They head to the desert when winter falls and to a
highland when summer arrives. They gain their livings from robberies and stolen goods.
Grain is the food they rely upon for their year" 10…"Their most honorable deed is raid, and
their best gains are those of plunder. They were not adorned by the ethics of Islam. And no
one could control them, neither Ummayyads or Abbasids, nor Fatimid Caliphates. They
resulted in great chaos and damaged their land along with its people"11.

This war was accompanied by destruction, devastation and domination over homelands:
"This resulted in complete ruination and a poor quality of life. Both geographers and
historians differed in counting their numbers"12. Thus, the considerable result was that:
"North Africa being added to the Arabian Peninsula ethnically after being already part of it
both politically and religiously"13, i.e. 'The Maghreb made Arabized'. And as Ibn Khaldun
concluded, the change that caught Banu Hilal at home 'barbarised Arabs and arabized
Berbers'14 because there was a similarity in their pattern of livelihood which was based on
grazing sheep, hunting and gathering, and moving to more warm areas in winter and the vice
6
an ethnic group native to North Africa and West Africa, specifically Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya,
Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger, and the Canary Islands. Smaller Berber populations are also found in
Burkina Faso and Egypt's Siwa Oasis.
7
Mebarek El Mili, previously mentioned source, p.208. For more information about the branches and scattering
across Algerian land, read to the end of p. 227.
8
The previous reference, p.75.
9
Historians disagreed about their exact numbers which ranged from one hundred thousand to 150 thousand to a
quarter of a million people.
10
The previous reference, p. 187.
11
The previous reference, p. 179.
12
The previous reference, p.185.
13
The previous reference, p.184.
14
Husayn Mu'nis, The History of Maghreb and its Civilization, first volume, El Asr El Hadith publisher, Beirut,
first edition, 1992, p.633.
versa during summer. Almost every region in the Middle Maghreb was Arabized except for
some mountain enclaves. Mebarek El Mili estimates that: "The Arab settlers in Algeria are of
Banu Hilal and their allies. As for Salim, the Banu Awf tribe advanced them around the
eighth century from Tunisia to the sub-district of Annaba 15. Due to the significance of this,
we include the distribution of these Arab tribes in Algeria after colonialism in this table (with
an emphasis on the nature of change and difference which are linked to factors that we will
mention later):

Table 1: Locations of Arab Tribes in Algeria

Tribe Origins Location Tribe Soldiers

Awlad Sabir Between Tlemcen 23000
and Oran
Banu Amir Between Tlemcen 60000
and Oran
Awlad Horua Mostaganem region 18000
Awlad Aqaba Miliana region 11500
Awlad Habara Between 3000
Mostaganem and
Oran
Awlad Muslim Msila Region ???
Riyah Hanancha Between 2000
Constantine and
Bona (a city in
Annaba)
Awlad Said Between Ténès and 18000
Nomidia
Awlad Hassan Thaaliba Between Mitidja and 44000
Nomidia
Awlad Hassan Awlad Said Between 2000
Mostaganem and
Chlef

This is how the face of the country was subtly defined; first, when it came to ethnic duality
and second when it came to the dominance of the Arab race culturally and in terms of the
population, and finally when it came to the primacy of the nomadic pastoral living model
(cattle and camel) in addition to the previously mentioned political factors that were
excellently detailed in Ibn Khaldun's account.

It is a must that we base our analysis on the geographical and climatic characteristics of the
countries of the Middle Maghreb which is divided into three categories: hills with their
steppes, mountains, valleys, and characterized by a moderate rainy climate followed by dry
high plateaus areas that are cold in winter and hot in summer. And finally, desert areas where
land is completely desolate except for oases scattered here and there. What we notice from
the previous table is that Arab tribes have spread across all Algeria, and this means that their
influence was all-encompassing, and, of course, this has led to important changes i.e. the
15
Mebarek El Mili, the previous reference, p. 192.
domination of pastoral activity at the expense of land cultivation and social life 16 as upcoming
statistics will indicate17.

In traditional societies, one's homeland (despite its importance) is not defined by its tribes. A
tribe is defined by blood ties, alliances, and most importantly, the number of its members.
Power is the sole driver of survival, and having it provides its possessor with an identity.
Naturally, a tribe has no breath without a land, but land is a replaceable variable. Migration
has always been a controlling factor in social activity. It is always driven by material needs
and necessities. But the most important driver is, certainly, war and invasions. Moving from
one place to another was a persistent element in societal history. And it was played out at the
mercy of climate change and seasonal movement. Stability is not an end in itself, but a
situation that brings benefit and protection, thus, power. It was common that a tribe member
would quit his tribe when the living space becomes too restricted and narrow due to the direct
relationship between population and place, an alternative was always available until very
recently. Up to the eighties of the twentieth century, it was noticed that nomads settled
permanently in the northern regions without being intercepted because the region was neither
private nor collective property. Political factors, availability, and insecurity had the greatest
influence in determining the morphology of attachment to the land.

However, and at the same time, a complex intermingling took place between the Arab tribes
and the barbarian tribes, and was driven by their motives and circumstances (i.e.
rapprochement through marriage or war or settling down in the same places to escape harsh
conditions). We understand this from the translated oral accounts of the tribes that were
documented by the translator Ferro. After long and complex narratives of the many
interactions and wars between the tribes against the Hafsids, and then later the Turks, Ferro
arrives at some conclusions regarding this mixing between Arabs and Berbers. Each group
took up arms, chose a certain region that suited their needs and started expelling strangers
who threatened their stability. This has taken them more than a century and many conflicts
upon land to finally settle down in a permanent and specific place to form their own tribes.
Ferro says: "Arab and Barber tribes blended with each other and united in having a common
goal. With the nowadays observed complex commixture, we can define the non-similar
components that make the tribes that were affected by the happenings of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries in the region of Constantine"18.

This interaction and influence was sparked by both parties (as Ibn Khaldun noticed). Jean
Dubois, for instance, stated what happened in the Hodna region which had taken hill tribes
from the Aures region19 "with their customs and language (Shawiya) and herds of cows and

16
Jean-Paul Dubois says: "The tent instead of a solid shelter and a hatred towards agriculture and handicraft
work; thus, their dependence on 'fate' that makes them give in to harsh climatic conditions along with their
belief in the will of God as it is mentioned in the Qur'an". See:
jean Dubois, le Hodna (Algérie), PUF, Paris 1953, p 137.
17
Muhammad Abu Khubza details the statistics as follows: in the years 1830, nomadic or semi-nomadic people
made up between 60 to 65 percent of the total Algerian population scattered all around the country. See:
Muhammad Abu Khubza, Monde rural: contraintes et mutations, OPU, Algiers,1992, p12
18
Charles L.féraud, les Harar seigneurs des Hanencha, études historiques
sur la province de constantine, revue africane, 1874 v 18, p 148
19
The Aures Mountains are an eastern prolongation of the Atlas Mountain System that lies to the east of the
Saharan Atlas in northeastern Algeria and northwestern Tunisia, North Africa.
goats and donkeys that eventually blended with the nomads' cattle, camels and horses along
with their fondness for agriculture, an endeavor that sheepherders abhor"20. Arabs were then
affected by the characteristics of the local climate and the land's nature because "their
nomadic lifestyle, their preoccupations, their preferences, and their customs were all
dependent on them"21. However, Arabs did also contribute to the land.

It is not possible to precisely demarcate or distinguish between the different patterns of life in
Middle Maghreb, i.e. between a life of nomadism and that of sedentary. And it is difficult to
do that because of the wide-ranging circumstances, challenges and difficulties encountered by
the tribes, especially when it comes to shelter and farming practices. The North was indeed
defined in terms of its stable living standards (in relation to shelter: huts and tents) in addition
to its pastoral and peasantry practices (vegetables and fruits) and cattle raising. So, we read in
the book of Description of Africa about sixteenth century tribes (of the Middle Maghreb):
"They are very aggressive and free from all royalties. They are extremely generous and own
fertile lands that are good for farming along with an abundant number of cattle and horses…
They set up markets that only know livestock, grain, wool, and a few fabrics which are
bought from neighboring cities 22.

In the sparsely populated and rainy high plateaus, nomadic tribes live on herding sheep, while
some of them grow grains in particular. They move in search for grass and other pasture
plants for its cattle; for this reason, they rarely settle down. Their social life was marked by
these characteristics. In desert landscapes and regions, tribes would head to oases due to the
availability of water. Their number is very shy. These regions (i.e. deserts) are also known for
their castles and for the passage of caravans who even reach Sudan. In addition to the
aforementioned characteristics of the Maghrebian society, we shall add their attachment to
the phenomenon of Sufi practices that are related to Marabouts (who all, surprisingly enough,
come from Western Sahara). Through their strong influence in the indigenous society and
contribution to shaping the political sphere (i.e. tribal gatherings, councils), Marabouts
indirectly played a role in the general societal fragmentation. However, they played a critical
role in organizing and establishing the unity of the Algerian indigenous society during
advanced stages in its history, as we shall see repeatedly in this work.

Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldoun (died in 1406) could orchestrate for this socio-political
Maghrebian mosaic a very unique analytical model. He explains everything that became of
these societies from collapse, deterioration, chaos and ignorance to the destruction of urban
constructions and the decline of state (the central authority). There is a dialectical relationship
between the two: no state can stand without urbanization (i.e. human gatherings), and no
urbanization can take place without the state. An urbanized state is a civilized one that
provides for its citizens a good quality of living. He also points to a critical characteristic of
the formation of the Maghrebian society by quoting Umar ibn Al-Khattab when he said that
Africa is a place of quarrel, pointing out to "the large number of packs and tribes who do not
conform to anyone"23. And this is to express the state of sharp division in the social and
political structure as he described it in detail in his outstanding and famous book. Given its
20
Jean Dubois, Op.cit, p 137.
21
Marie-Joseph-Bernard, Gaillard, Op.cit.
22
Leo Africanus, Description of Africa, Vol 2, Translated by Mohammed Hadji & Mohammed El Akhdar,
second edition, Western Islam Press, 1983, p.46.
immense weight, we use this Khaldunian theory as a framework for understanding and
analysis. He first begins with the human urbanization by dividing it into Bedouins
urbanization and civil urbanization.

In his treatment of the state of urbanization in respect to flourishment and hunger, and what
results of them from side effects to the bodies of people and their behaviors and morals, Ibn
Khaldun explains the effect of the coarse, tough and ascetic living style of nomads (of Africa)
on their habits and hard behaviors and religiosity. He says: "They are better in terms of
religiosity and worship than the rich people of fertile lands. Therefore, we notice that the
former are only few in cities and towns because these places are filled with ignorance and
ruthlessness". Then comes what he says in the seventh chapter: "Towns and cities in Africa
are very few", explaining " These regions were the Barber's for thousands of years before
Islam. Their architecture was nomadic, and civilization did not last there until the process of
its emergence in the empires that governed them (i.e. Arabs and Franks) was completed.
Despite this, nomads remained the same; their houses did not grow in number, and factories
-one of the consequences of civilization- were far away from them because they lived deep in
desert regions. Barbers did not care much about civilization. Thus, they did not master its
tools. They were not fond of buildings, let alone cities. They marry each other and take pride
in that. Cities take the people who inhabit it as protectors (garrison support), and for this
reason, nomads abstain from them. Most of the African architecture was Bedouins: tents and
mountain shelters. On the other hand, westerners' architecture was mostly villages, small
cities, and building gatherings from Andalusia, the Levant, Egypt and the non-Arabic Iraq,
etc. Westerners are indifferent to pedigrees. They do not take pride in it and do not protect it.
Whereas nomads (or Bedouins) have really close ties with pedigrees, and out of this arises
tribalism and the blind loyalty to one's group. This is exactly why Bedouins prefer nomadism
over the life of cities, who make the children of its inhabitants their protectors".

This is the summary that Ibn Khaldun gave about the nature of the Maghreb society in the
fifteenth century, where Nomadic architecture prevails over civilized architecture. There is
nothing in Ibn Khaldun's conclusion that makes it a prophetic one, all that he does is referring
us to the explanation found in the nineteenth chapter from his aforementioned book: "The
cities that serve as seats to the kings will fall as soon as their state falls into chaos and
destruction". He is basically saying that when it comes to the process of urbanization and
architecture, if the state lost its balance, the city that plays the role of the king's seat will be
destroyed. There are, however, reasons behind this. The first one being that the state has to go
through the Bedouin phase in dealing loosely with people's money and avoiding being
pedantic. This results in less charges that form a country's gains. If a city's (i.e. a king's seat)
gains started decreasing and the faces of flourishment started disappearing, those who are in
charge will also start losing their stability because they are its followers, so they create a state
either willingly because of their very human nature through conforming to their leader or
because of their hatred towards the state due to what the latter leads to from the lack of
advantages. This is what we can call the fall of a city. The second thing is that the state is
dominated by those who have taken it by force, usually after enmity and war. The latter
necessitates rivalry between people of two states. One of them will usually be more powerful

23
Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab Al-Ibar, Wa Diwan al Mobtadae wa Al-Khabar, Chapter One:
Introduction, Moufam Press, Algeria, 1995, p. 341-342.
and advantageous than the other. So, one state would look down on another, which results in
the creation of a new civilization in the inferior state. Therefore, its former civilization will
start withering down (i.e. the imbalance of its architecture). Furthermore, the third thing is
that every nation has to have a homeland of their own. And if they owned other properties,
the latter would all belong to the first state. And the king's influence on them will only grow.
Due to the importance of the king's city (his seat), it should sit at the very middle of other
states. The people would conform to the state, and therefore, the urbanizing process would
move from one state to the first state. Civilization is the existence of urbanization as we have
detailed. So, the second inferior state would lose its civilization in the process. This is what is
meant by 'imbalance'. This is exactly what happened to the Seljuk Empire when they lost
their seat to Baghdad and Isfahan, and to Arabs before them when they gave in their cities to
Kufa and Basra, and when Béni Abbès did the same thing with losing Damascus to Baghdad
and Marinid Sultanate in Maghreb when giving in Marrakesh to Fez. When the state takes its
seat in a different city, this will affect the architecture of the first one.

Finally, the fourth thing is that the second state would transfer the citizens of the first one to a
different region, so that the ruling city's citizens would be only from the first one. Most of the
citizens of the seat are the followers of the dominant state. And if they are not its followers
through fanatism and intolerance, they would be through inclination, love and shared beliefs.
The nature of the renewed state will erase the remnants of the previous one, so it moves their
central throne city to the more capable and powerful city. Some of them would do so through
exile and imprisonment and others would follow the road of generosity and kindness so that it
will not lead to aversion that the only remaining people would be the merchants and their
likes and the remaining inhabitants. If the city's throne gets weaker, it will eventually become
empty, thus, the imbalance of architecture. Another architecture would arise in the new state
and eventually another civilization would prevail. However, this only happens for those who
have houses and buildings with certain clear architectural characteristics and could
demonstrate an ability to change those and reshape them based on what they choose and
suggest. So, they would completely destroy the old houses and rebuild it again. This has
happened to many throne cities throughout history. The first natural reason behind it is
that both the state and king are to architecture what an image is to its substance; it is
what keeps it intact. And it is of general wisdom that the two cannot be separated from each
other. The state without urbanization cannot be imagined, and urbanization without a state or
a king cannot happen due to the nature of human beings that calls for aggression that shapes
its politics. As for legislation and kingship, from where the state derives its meaning, they
both affect each other; the imbalance of one affects the other, and the lack of one makes the
other disappear as well. And the major imbalance is in the situation of the whole state".

We arrive after this categorization of the human urbanization, and the importance and role of
the state in its maintenance, at a central conception in the formation of the state which is the
predominant fanaticism i.e. the tribal dimension, which is, by large, the initial factor in the
emergence of states, in terms of its transformation into a controlling force over the rest of the
tribes, and the religious calling it requires to fortify the king.

This is what Ibn Khaldun explained in his socio-political theory. It gives us an explanatory
idea about the general situation the Islamo-Arab world was going through from decline and
recession after the demise of the great powers, the last of them being Almohad Caliphate. We
can expect more decline and fragmentation in the one-hundred-years that followed Ibn
Khaldun's death and the domination of the Turks over the Middle Maghreb. It is a period of
fragmentation but with the existence of two states who were struggling to maintain a
supposed unity: the Ziyani state and the Hafsid state. The situation has fallen into a state of
instability and insecurity which was characterized by the independence of the tribes and royal
families and their fight, as described by Al-Hassan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan Al-Fassi (Leo
Africanus): tribes that are "very valiant, free from all royalty, abundant in wealth, and
generous. They have good land for farming, and a great deal of livestock and horses. These
tribes often fight each other to the extent that no one, whether a native of the tribe or a
foreigner, can pass by peacefully unless he is accompanied by a guardian"24.

The political vacuum and instability have led to a general deterioration and a decline in
'urbanization', industries and trade, thus, a complete cultural deterioration. Due to its
significant weight, we will be describing Algerian cities before the coming of the Turks, in
order to distinguish the changes that will take place afterwards. For there is a transitional
phase that followed the destruction and collapse that obliterated many urban landmarks,
before the Turks came.

Tlemcen presents itself as one of those landmarks in which the historian Al-Bakri says in its
favor: "the base of the middle Maghreb and the mother of the Zenata region…And the midst
of the Berber tribes and the destination of aspiring merchants. It has markets, mosques, a
Farzad mosque25, trees and rivers…some Christians have remained there until our time, and
they also have their own church"26. The Moroccan travel writer Mohammed al-Abdari al-Hihi
also said in Tlemcen's favor: "It is a large mountainous plain city, with beautiful sights. It is
divided by two walls which have a mure between them. It has a spacious good mosque along
with sleeping markets. Its people are kind and of good morals" 27. Hassan Al-Wazzan
considers its people to be "gentle, generous, and are friendly with foreigners." 28 They split
into four categories: manufacturers, merchants, students, and soldiers. Merchants are very
loyal and honest. They always make sure that their city is sufficiently supplied…Their wealth
is abundant. Manufacturers are strong people who live in peace and joy; they like enjoying
life. As for the king's soldiers, they are all good people who are paid very well"29.

As for the city of Algiers (and it is called Banu Muzaghna), it was the construct of Sanhaja. It
was reigned by Ziri ibn Manad30, and was inhabited by his children after him 31. Al- Bakari
says about it: "It is a venerable old city with monuments and busy streets indicating that it is a
city of governance. Its courtyard is furnished with small colored stones like mosaics in which

24
Al-Hassan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan Al-Fassi, a previous reference, p. 46.
25
A type of mosque which is the main mosque of a certain area that hosts the special Friday noon prayers
known as jumu'ah.
26
Abi Obeid Al-Bakari, Morocco in the mention of Africa and the Maghre, from the book of Highways and
Kingdoms, Al- Muthanna Library, Baghdad, p.1
27
Mebarek El Mili, the previous reference, p. 446
28
Al-Hassan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan Al-Fassi, a previous reference, p. 30
29
Al-Hassan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan Al-Fassi, a previous reference, p. 21
30
Ziri ibn Manad or Ziri son of Mennad (died in 971) was the founder of the Zirid dynasty in the Berber world.
31
Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab Al-Ibar, Wa Diwan al Mobtadae wa Al-Khabar fi Ayam Al- Arab Wa Al
Ajam Wa Al Barbar, Chapter 7, Fikr press, Beirut, 2000, p. 134.
animal images were made with the finest work that the succession of centuries could not
change. It has markets and mosques along with a Farzad one. And it used to have a great
church, but what remained of it is a small wall running from east to west, engraved with
many inscriptions and pictures. Today, it became the qibla32of the Sharia for the two Islamic
festivals"33. And because of its climate, it has attracted a mixture of residents at a time where
tribalism played an important role in the establishment of power and influence. This
lighthearted atmosphere made the residents of the city of Algiers make room for earnings
without giving the political ruling much attention. This atmosphere gave the Turkish rulers a
wrong impression about the reality of Algeria as a country"34.

The city of Constantine was famous for its craftsmanship (salt, shoes), its trade that spread
deep into Africa, its agriculture, and its mixed population. Hassan Al-Wazzan considers that
it was: "Very civilized, full of beautiful houses and respectable buildings such as the Great
Mosque"35. While Bona describes Annaba and its people saying: "Men there are kind, some
of them are merchants and others are manufacturers and knitters who sell a great deal of linen
in the cities of Numidia. However, the people of Annaba are arrogant and violent to the
extent that they not only accept to murder their rulers, but dare to threaten to hand over the
city to the Christians if the king did not assign righteous and far rulers for them. In addition to
this arrogance, there lays a great deal of naivety, because they honor and idolize insane
people and consider them to be righteous saints. They surround them with all respect and
appreciation"36. He also says about the great marina near the city of Oran that: "the Grand
Port, a port I think there exists no one like around the world. It is a place where hundreds of
boats and warships can easily dock."37 As for the residents of Dellys, they were: "cheerful and
lighthearted. Almost all of them play on the oud and guitar. They own many pastoral lands
that produce wheat abundantly. And they dress just like the Algerian Hadar."38

We mentioned these urban characteristics of some Algerian cities in order to highlight the
beginning of the formation of a modern society who is in need of the emergence of the
middle classes. We do not, of course, separate this transition from the inevitability of the
change of the modes of production and the exchange that would ensure shifting the center of
pressure towards it. However, this did not happen for many reasons, one of the most
important ones being the political element and the fragility of stability: The inability of the
countries preceding the coming of the Turks to build a strong sultanistic 39 center (compared
to the farthest Maghreb), and the pressure of the Spanish attacks and their occupation of some
coastal cities. An important factor that should not be overlooked is when the Spanish
launched, after the fall of the last Andalusian kingdom (kingdom of Granada) in 1492, some
naval invasions to control some coastal cities in North Africa, followed by their direct
interference in internal conflicts. This should be taken into consideration from a religious
standpoint, and exactly within the legacy of the Crusades and the painful memories of
32
The direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca.
33
Mebarek El Mili, the previous reference, p. 444
34
The previous reference, p. 11
35
Al-Hassan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan Al-Fassi, a previous reference, p. 56
36
The previous reference, p. 61-62
37
The previous reference, p. 31
38
The previous reference, p. 42
39
A form of authoritarian government characterized by the extreme personal presence of the ruler in all elements
of governance.
Andalusians, be it before or after their departure from Andalusia. And then comes the royal
political system the Turks have sat, which links back to the emergence of a great Islamic
power: the Ottoman Turks, who could, for instance, stop the expansion of the Spanish, which
has led to change in the equations of the conflict when they imposed their control over the
Mediterranean basin and then their authority over the countries of the Middle Maghreb. What
matters to us here is to realize the impact of this presence and connectedness that lasted for
five centuries on the structure of the tribal society. This connectedness is what defines the
nature of the relation between the two. That is, what is imposed by the domination of a very
closed system controlled by the Turks through their military power which is represented by
the Janissary army 40 whom its members are coming from outside the country.

We mention this independent pattern of each Eyalat (province) of the Ottoman Sultanate
Eyalats, which due to autonomy were able to extend their power, which is attested by the
wars that happened between Algeria and Tunisia against Morocco without the supervision of
the Sultanate.

So, with the help of the Janissary army, the Turkish minority extended its dominance over the
areas where their control reached or by its representatives, add to that it took hold of all the
administrative positions (Al-Dawawin) and the ministries. One of the French officers
wonders how one thousand men "were occupying each Eyalat", and working on ending the
status of chaos but without eliminating the continuous fighting status between the tribes to
invest them in supporting their power (divide and conquer policy and purchase of
receivables). This power declined through piracy operations that were practiced by its fleet in
the Mediterranean, and the large supplies that were provided to them especially under the title
of lands ownership (Byalik or Isolated lands properties). Those agricultural lands belong to
the ruling elite in which the indigenous people work whether by specifying days of
harnessing through Tweeza41 or abandoning it according to Al-Khamasa system 42. Then
collecting the regular taxes (The largest amount of these taxes are given in kind, except for
monopoly taxes) which are represented in the monopoly ( renting Beylik's lands), the tithe,
the fine, Al-Lazma, in addition to other in-kind and cash taxes change according to the
occasion, Which are:

1- Al-Danoush job: by which the Bay buys the gifts that are directed to Algeria Dai,
which are sent to him every six months.
2- Al-Bashara: The happy occasions or designation gifts, which the Bay gets every six
months, when he gets reinstalled in his position, they were presented on important
occasions also.
3- Maher Al-Pasha: A tax of 600 to 700 horses to transfer Al-Danoush gifts to Algeria.
4- Hak Al-Banous: a tax collected by the Bay in return for the designation.
5- Al-Mashergh: a tax similar to the previous one, given by the senior elders (sheikhs).

40
The Ottoman Sultan's household troops.
41
The term used in Algeria to designate the cooperation in a sufi and cultural heritage in which a group from the
tariqa or zawiya in a community or village gathers and cooperates in order to contribute to the achievement of
charitable work, help the needy or the poor, build a house for a person or a mosque, clean a cemetery or village
or mosque, or harvest wheat fields and olive trees.
42
A system like the Feudal system, through which the poor farmer works for the rich land owner and doesn't
take but one-fifth of the products
 6- Al-Makad: the horses tax given to Dar Al-Bay or his employees. Some of the tribes
are obligated to give butter to the Bay (called Al-Bakrag tax), honey, firewood, etc. In
addition to serving the Bay whether by men who are obligated to the military service,
or their animals which handle the transportation for the Bay. Add to that, traditional
gifts (Al-Hak) presented by the farmer to the ordinary employees.

From the properties of the political relations which organized the relationship between the
center and the outskirts and the Independence of the indigenous society in terms of the social
regulation, the role of the local leaders emerged through several levels and regulation types,
in addition to what was under the direct authority of the Turkish rulers (Al-Makhzen). It
related to the role of the powerful families in terms of the nobility of the sword (AL-Ajwad)
or notability in religion (Al-Ashraf and Al-Mourabiten), they had complete Independence in
regulating the power within the tribe or between a group of tribes (Confederation), thus, all
that was granted to the Turkish rulers is to send the symbolic recommendation.

One of the results of the separation was the lack of development of the Turks rule project of
Algeria to a state project. And to avoid repeating what has been already mentioned before,
the effect of the political gab in deepening the chasm of underdevelopment from the
civilization in all life aspects is recognized. But we add this affirmation again, that Abo Al-
Qasim Saad-Allah has counted the achievements of the Turks rule era, and the results were
that they are weak in terms of the economic aspect. That Algerian products weren't able to
compete with European's products or even the Moroccan's or Tunisian's, while most of the
trade was between foreign hands. And the agriculture means were rudimentary ( The simple
plow and sickle), so the rural areas' residents were suffering from famines and diseases due to
drought.

While regarding the cultural aspect, It's characterized by cultural stagnation "as studying was
dominated by the characteristic of the middle ages, the lack of renewal, and memorization",
without denying the role of the quicksilvers in teaching writing and reading but it was limited
and Insufficient. Add to that the health field which was being practiced with rudimentary
means using herns as medications or giving up to the blessing of Al-Mourabiten and jugglers
to get healed from diseases.

We don't know to what extent we can depend on such a conclusion about the general status
that Algeria was living during the Ottoman era: "... Then the Turkish dominance destroyed all
the seeds of civilization that Muslim conquerors brought from the east and reached Spain.
And in the middle of the wars which the chaos of rule feed them, consecutive conspiracies
and revolutions emerged during many centuries, as no achievements that call for security and
peace of mind appeared. The moral degeneration reached a point that it was combined with
the lack of literary taste. But the position of this historical period of the Arab-Islamic world
age, known as the era of degeneration and the absence of any contributions similar to other
previous periods. Though we say that the status of the Maghreb had a special distinguished
status in terms of the political aspect, due to the instability except for the era of A-
Mouahideen rule. And we passed by the explanation of Ibn Khaldun of the status of
underdevelopment and chaos, and we think It's enough.
So the subjective fate of the indigenous society wasn't accomplished outside the guardianship
of the Sublime Porte (The Chief Office of the Sultan) over the Eyalat in the beginning, then
almost a complete Independence from it in the second phase. Its status began to fall apart
over time despite the success in liberating Oran city.

From one side the Eyalat's supplies receded from the piracy, then the status of the political
instability characterized by the short period of ruling regarding the Dais. Coinciding with the
continuous state of decline in terms of the power element, internal solidarity, the absence of
any openness to the indigenous society, the continuation of adhering to old means of rule and
administration, the absence of any signs of reformation and change, and finally, as an
important factor, the underdevelopment in the production fields in all sectors that the
dependence on rudimentary means and being susceptible to climatic fluctuations were the
distinguished characteristics of the agricultural sector.

In short, while Europe was at the end of its feudal era with the emergence of many technical
achievements, not only in the pioneer countries but in other countries like Russia, the
necessity of the change was understood by inserting the necessary adjustments to increase the
efficiency and effectiveness in the institutions of administration and military. We see that the
Algerian Indigenous society kept general societal characteristics belong to ancient times.

In the next theme, we will see its characteristics and how its social structures work. As they
appeared in public at the beginning of the inevitable confrontation with the occupation
French military force, especially concerning the regulation and social institutions and the
continuity of the status of chaos which Ibn Khaldun had observed in his era.

It's worth to be mentioned again as a note, that all of what we received about that period was
from what the French write. They complained while writing what they were observing about:
"The almost complete disappearance of the necessary books and documents on what is to be
studied about that period, in other words, linking between what Arab authors write before the
Sixteenth Century, such as Ibn Khaldun, Al-Kairawani, and others. So It's worth noting that
by depending only on Ibn Khaldun the study of the Algerian indigenous society would be
very dereliction in understanding the nature of shifts that occurred during the parallel phase
of the emergence of capitalism in Europe, Except for what can be collected of information
from resources such as the book titled "Tarikh Al-Jazair Al-thakafi/ The cultural history of
Algeria" of "Abo Al-Qasim Saad-Allah has" or "Tarikh Al-Jazair fi Al-kadhem wa Al-Hadith
/ The ancient and modern history of Algeria" of Lmbarak Al-Mili, which were given a
general evaluation.
…
*The number of the Sultanate provinces in Arab countries reached 15 provinces.
*The Turks divided the country into nation's directly managed by leaders work under the
supervision of the Arab Agha who is supported by military force which is the togetherness
that consists of Turkish knights and indigenous people, helped by auxiliary military forces
(Sabahis) whom individuals belong to allied tribes (Al-Makhzen). And who keep living
between the population in the Douars and provided with lands for farming, seeds, horses and
weapons while in return they remain always recruited untill death in the base (Al-kaida) and
get exempted from the taxes. The lands' space depends on the extent of their commitment,
loyalty and their contribution in the different battles they are called for.
*- Check ; Abd Al-Salam Filali, Al-Jazair.. Al-Dawla wa Al-Mojtama (Algeria.. The state
and society.). 1979-1993, Al-Wissam Al-Arabi House, Algeria, 2016. Chapter three: The
development of the political field in Algeria, and the first theme: From breeds to country..
The Eyalat and building a political center, and the second theme: The idea of the Algerian
existence as a preface of the idea of homeland.
*-Abo Al-Qasim Saad-Allah, Lectures in the modren history of Algeria (The beginning of the
occupation), previous reference. Check specificlly Chapter nine under the title of "The
economic status" p. 149 and what follows.