LOGIC

Propositional Logic: Logical Equivalences

1. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true (truth value 1 or T) or false (truth value 0 or F).

2. The negation of a proposition is generally formed by introducing the word “not”. It can also be associated with
the phrases “It is not the case that” or “It is false that”. (¬𝑷)

3. A propositional connective is an operation that combines two propositions P and Q to yield a new proposition
whose truth value depends only on the truth values of the two original propositions.

4. Propositions built up by combining propositions using propositional connectives are called compound
propositions.

5. Propositional Connectives:
a. conjunction:  “and”
b. disjunction:  inclusive “or” (inclusive, meaning “and/or”)
c. exclusive or :  exclusive “or” (exclusive, meaning “either but not both”)
d. implication:  “if-then”
e. biconditional:  “if and only if”

6. Determining the Truth of Compound Propositions

a. conjunction: P  Q is true only when both P and Q are true.
b. disjunction: P  Q is false only when both P and Q are false.
c. exclusive or : P  Q is true when P and Q have different truth values.
d. implication: P  Q is false only when P is true and Q is false.
e. biconditional: P  Q is true when P and Q have the same truth values.

7. Truth Table for Compound Propositions

P Q PQ PQ P Q P Q P Q
1 1
1 0
0 1
0 0

8. Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse of an Implication P  Q

• The converse of this implication is 𝑸 ⇒ 𝑷.
• The contrapositive of this implication is ¬𝑸 ⇒ ¬𝑷.
• The inverse of this implication is ¬𝑷 ⇒ ¬𝑸.

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9. Precedence of Logical Operators
When more than one logical operator is applied in a proposition, we apply the following priorities:
1. Parenthesis, grouping symbols
2. Negation ¬
3. Conjunction ∧
4. Disjunction ∨ or ⊕
5. Implication ⇒
6. Biconditional ⇔

10. Bit Operations

• Computers represent information using bits. Bit is short for binary digit. A bit has two possible values, 0
and 1, that represent truth values.
• Computer bit operations are OR, AND and XOR, which correspond to the propositional connectives ∨ , ∧
or ⊕.
• The truth tables for the bit operations OR, AND and XOR are

OR 0 1 AND 0 1 XOR 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

• A bit string is a sequence of 0 or more bits. The length of this string is the number of bits in the string.
• The bitwise OR, bitwise AND and bitwise XOR of two strings of the same length are defined as the strings
that have as their bits the connectives OR, AND, and XOR of the corresponding bits in the two strings,
respectively.

11. Propositional Forms

• A tautology is a propositional form or compound proposition that is always true for all possible truth values
of its component propositions.
• A contradiction is a propositional form or compound proposition that is always false for all possible truth
values of its component propositions.
• A contingency is a propositional form or compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction.

12. The propositions P and Q are called logically equivalent if P ⇔ Q is a tautology. We use the notation P ⟺ Q in
denoting that P and Q are logically equivalent. A statement may be replaced by any statement that is logically
equivalent to it. This is called the rule of replacement.

13. Logical Equivalences Involving the Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse of an Implication P  Q
• An implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
• The inverse and converse of an implication are logically equivalent.

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14. Important Logical Equivalences or Laws of Equivalence

Law Logical Equivalence

Identity Laws (𝑃 ∧ 1) ⇔ 𝑃
(𝑃 ∨ 0) ⇔ 𝑃
Domination Laws (𝑃 ∨ 1) ⇔1
(𝑃 ∧ 0) ⇔0
Idempotent Laws (𝑃 ∨ 𝑃 ) ⇔ 𝑃
(𝑃 ∧ 𝑃 ) ⇔ 𝑃
Commutative Laws (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑃 )
(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑃 )
Associative Laws [(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∨ 𝑅] ⇔ [𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅)]
[(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∧ 𝑅] ⇔ [𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅)]
De Morgan’s Laws ¬(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ⇔ (¬𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄)
¬(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ⇔ (¬𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑄)
Distributive Laws [𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅)] ⇔ [(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅)]
[𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅)] ⇔ [(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∨ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑅)]
Involution or Double Negation Law 𝑃 ⇔ ¬¬𝑃

Rules of Inference and Fallacies

1. Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct
logical arguments to justify his process or hypothesis, to create both conceptual foundations and connections, in
order for him to be able to process available information.

2. Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning is the process of making general conclusions based on specific examples.
(specific to general)
• Deductive reasoning is the process of making specific conclusions based on general principles.
(general to specific)

3. Rules of inference determine how a proposition may be validly derived from other propositions. An argument
constructed using rules of inference is said to be valid. When all the propositions used in a valid argument are
true, it leads to a correct conclusion. Otherwise, it can lead to an incorrect conclusion.

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4. Rules of Inference

5. Fallacies are incorrect ways of reasoning resembling rules of inference but are based on contingencies rather than
tautologies.

6. Types of Fallacies

Fallacy Logical Equivalence

Fallacy of affirming the conclusion [(p ⇒ q) ∧ q] ⇒ p

Fallacy of denying the hypothesis [(p ⇒ q) ∧ ¬p] ⇒ ¬q

Begging the question or circular reasoning when one or more steps of a proof are based on the
truth of the statement being proved

7. Methods of Proof

• Vacuous proof. A proof that the implication p ⇒ q is true based on the fact that p is false.
• Trivial proof. A proof that the implication p ⇒ q is true based on the fact that q is true.
• Direct proof. A proof that the implication p ⇒ q is true by showing that q must be true if p is true.
• Indirect proof. A proof that the implication p ⇒ q is true by showing that p must be false when q is false.
• Proof by contradiction. A proof that the proposition p is true based on the truth of the implication
¬p ⇒ q where q is a contradiction.
• Proof by cases. A proof of an implication where the hypothesis is a disjunction of propositions showing
that each proposition separately implies the conclusion.
• Existence proof
• Non-existence proof
• Proof by mathematical induction
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