AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF RETAINING

STRUCTURES ALONG NATIONAL ROADS LEADING TO BAGUIO CITY

A Research Proposal Presented to

the Undergraduate Research Council
Saint Louis University

May 2016
 AUTHOR’S INFORMATION PAGE

Engr. Mary Carmelle Bautista, PhD

Faculty, School of Engineering and Architecture
Saint Louis University
mcvvbautista@yahoo.com

Agayao, John Clyde

johnclydeagayao@gmail.com
09091346915

Clabson, Meralkenth
sbob_69@yahoo.com
09098118330

Pimentel, Jimmy
m_borogold@gmail.com
09475274609

Hipol, Gorbie
hipogi@yahoo.com
09480749631

Juantala, Ace
acejohnstar07@gmail.com
09484776903

Sanchez, Elvin Rey

elvinrey_16@yahoo.com
09095504444

Wakit, Jayson
jaysonwakit000@gmail.com
09468182475
 ABSTRACT

1. Title: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF RETAINING STRUCTURES

ALONG NATIONAL ROAD LEADING TO BAGUIO CITY

a. Total No. of Pages:

b. Text No. of Pages:

2. Abstracts:

Rationale/Background

The objective of this study is to assess the efficiency of retaining structures along national
roads in Baguio city and to determine factors that cause it to fail. The government has been
spending millions of pesos in government funds to build retaining structures which should have
protected exposed slopes, but slope failures or landslides has been a common occurrence every
time a storm passes by the city. Not only are retaining structures prone to failure during
typhoons, but to the threat of earthquakes as well.

Summary

The main concern is that a slope failure or landslide poses a threat to motorists as well as
residents in these areas. The goal of the study is to assess the structural integrity of retaining
structures that will prevent these incidents. Thus, this study mostly focuses on retaining
structures damaged or destroyed by slope movements. To determine its mode of failure and to
account certain factors that caused the retaining structure to fail. Checking the slope stability
provides the factor of safety of soil slopes so as to be able to anticipate the occurrence of
landslides or slope failures. Factor of Safety also determines the need of a retaining structure.

The study aims to determine the causes of the failure of retaining structures. The construction
of a retaining wall requires large sum of public funds. Thus, a retaining wall failure would waste
millions of pesos of the government’s limited resources. Knowing its causes can mitigate these
failures and would save the government a lot of money.

The nature of this study is descriptive which includes the investigations and fact-finding
inquiries of different kind. Descriptive researches are those studies concerned in describing
characteristics of a particular specimen, in this case, the retaining structure and the slope it
retains. After gathering the data needed given by the said offices. Structural soil parameters will
be used to calculate the factor of safety against sliding of each slopes being targeted using the
Ordinary and Bishop’s Method of Slices and Culman’s Method for circular assumed failure
surfaces. For slopes with tensile cracks planar failure surfaces are assumed to be critical. plans
and soil parameters will be used to describe and evaluate each areas of concern.
Findings

The following are the major findings of the study

1. All slopes in the five areas of concern were found to be unstable

2. Toe and Shallow slope failures yields the lowest factor of safety
3. Water in the tensile cracks further reduces the factor of safety by 15%
4. Slope Stability Analysis enforced the site observations regarding the incurred damages of
the slope protection and its mode of failure.

Conclusions

In light of the findings of the study, the following are the conclusions:

1. Introduced slope protection projects in the areas of concern are not sufficient enough
since the slope was found to be unstable. Hence the introduction of Slope Stabilization
Methods.
2. The on-going construction of reinforced concrete retaining walls, despite its cost, is
deemed to be justifiable.
3. Slope Stability Analysis is an essential tool for predicting modes of slope failures
wherein communities can distinguish a slope whether it is stable or unstable. It is also a
great tool in locating critical slip surfaces.

Recommendations

In relation with the findings and conclusions of this research, the following are recommended:

1. The immediate introduction or incorporation of slope stabilization techniques in all of

five areas of concern.
2. Slope Stabilization Techniques should coincide with the nature of the slope it would be
introduced to.
3. Critical failure surfaces should be incorporated in the design of these slope stabilization
means. It is also best to reckon with the effects of the presence of water in the tensile
cracks and the presence of other static forces that weren’t introduced in this research
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank all individuals and offices who in anyway helped the researchers in the
completion of this research work.

To our research promoter Engr. Mary Carmelle Bautista who, regardless of her busy
schedule, accommodated us through the process of accomplishing of this research.

To the Department Head Engr. Renato Tandoc and Materials Testing Laboratory-OIC
Engr. Winston Abobo for allowing the use of survey equipment used in gathering and
establishing the slope profile of the areas of concern

To the City Buildings and Architecture Office and the Department of Public Works and
Highways-Baguio for responding to our letters and providing us the needed data particularly the
soil parameters of the areas of concern

Lastly to our family and friends who inspires and sustain us in our everyday life we, the
researchers, again we would like to express our sincerest appreciation to you all.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
AUTHOR’S INFORMATION PAGE……………………………………………..i
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………..ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………..v
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………vi
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………..vii
CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM
Background of the Study……………………………………………………1
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework……………………………………...…3
Statement of the Problem and Hypothesis……………………………...…..7
CHAPTER 2 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Research Design and Methodology…………………………………….……8
Population and Locale of the Study.……………………………...………....8
Data Gathering Tools…………………………………………………...…...8
Data Gathering Procedure……………………………………………...……9
Treatment of Data……………………………………………………...…...10
Chapter 3 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Data and Site Observations…………………………………………...….....12
Slope Stability Analysis……………………………………………...…..…13
Interpretations……………………………………………………….....…...18
CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions…………………………………………………………...…….19
Recommendations…………………………………………………...……...20
REFERENCES.……………………………………………………………………...….…..21
APPENDICES….…………………………………………………………………....……...22
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Table Title Page

1 Soil Parameters…………………………………12

2 Exposed Slope Observation……………………...........12

3 Slope Protection Observation………………………….12

4 Summary of Slope Stability Analysis……………………...18

 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Figure Title Page
1 K0252+231 Baguio-Bontoc Road…………………………2
2 K0242+666 Kennon Road……………………………..2
3 K0277+700 Ben Palispis Highway…………………………2
4 K0245+120 Loacan Road……………………………...3
5 K0304+000 Naguilian Road…………………………….3
 CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM
Background of the Study
Baguio City is located in the south central part of the province. Its rugged topography is
covered with tropical vegetation and the developed portion of the city corresponds to a plateau
that rises to an elevation of 1500 meters above sea level and most of it lies on the northern half of
the city. There are two great valleys found in the south and north part of the city and is centrally
located towards the north and the southern valley is composed of long and narrow valleys
surrounded by a network of hills (http://nap.psa.gov/rucar/fnf_baguio.htm,2012) which makes
retaining walls a vital structures in the city.
Through the recent years, the city has been hit by strong typhoons that caused landslides and
slope failures. An existing stable earth slope can experience significant movement due to
changes in its natural condition or man-induced changes. There are instances where the materials
in cut banks slipped down the roadways or carrying portion of the road. This pattern of failure is
common in fills or cut slopes of homogenous non-granular materials (Fajardo, 2000). There are
three major roads that has been providing access to travelers from lowlands going to the city of
Baguio these are Kennon Road, Naguilian Road and lastly the Ben Palispis Highway. Another
access road that connects the city and the northern part of Benguet Province which passes by La
Trinidad is known as the Baguio-Bontoc Road. During typhoons or storms roads may have the
tendency to be closed due to landslides and may remain closed for a long period of time. Three
major roads were closed back in 2009 due to about 40 landslides caused by typhoon ―Pepeng‖
(―Northern Luzon Towns Isolated‖, Philippine Star October 12, 2009 issue). Also, the road
closure at Kennon Road due to typhoon Egay on July 4, 2015 leaving it impassable (―Landslide
shut down Kennon Road‖, Philippine Star July 6, 2015 issue). Recently Typhoon ―Lando‖ was
one of the recent typhoons that struck the northern part of Luzon which led to the closure of a
major highways, Kennon Road, Halsema Highway and Marcos Highway on the night of October
17,2015 (―Major Highways in North Luzon Closed‖, Philippine Star October 18, 2015 issue).
The government has been spending millions of pesos in government funds to build retaining
structures which should have protected exposed slopes, but slope failures or landslides has been
a common occurrence every time storms passes by the city. Not only are retaining structures
prone to failure during typhoons, but to the threat of earthquakes as well. Strong seismic
activities also occur from time to time most notably was the 1990 earthquake.
The objective of this study is to assess the efficiency of retaining structures along national
roads in Baguio city and to determine factors that cause it to fail. To achieve this, certain areas
are being targeted in this study. These are K0242+666 Kennon Road, K0252+231 Baguio-
Bontoc Road, K0245+120 Loakan Road, K0277+700 Ben Palispis Highway, and at K0304+200
Naguilian Road. These roads are often closed because of landslides, road slips, and collapse of
rock slopes. Thus, different kinds of countermeasures have been done to prevent further slope
movements. Riprap, Reinforced Concrete, and Gabion and Mattress are the types of retaining
walls commonly used in the area. These types of walls are commonly constructed as gravity
walls that rely on its mass to resist lateral forces from the retained soil mass. Shotcrete is also
used on some exposed slopes. It is a form of slope stabilization as well as slope protection
measure where concrete is poured on the face of the exposed slope.
 In KM 3 (Figure 1 K0252+231
Baguio-Bontoc Road) near Bell Church,
several designs of retaining walls can be
found, these are plastered and
unplastered type of rip-rap walls
incorporated with diaphragms. These
retaining walls are ranging from
approximately 4 meters to 15 meters
high some covering the entire slope.
Damages were seen in these retaining
structures such as a damaged toe,
collapsed portion of the wall and slope failures. Houses that serves as surcharge loads on top of
the slope was observed. Weep Holes are incorporated on the retaining structure but it is doubtful
that it is of use since signs of water flow are not evident. Vegetation is seen growing on the slope
which comprises of bamboo, other types of grasses and trees.
At Camp 6 (Figure 2 K0242+666
Kennon Road), a massive landslide
caused the destruction of a retaining
structure and covered the road
leaving it impassable. At the time of
visit the road is already cleared of the
landslide that destroyed the road
pavement. The massive slide leaves
behind a steep exposed slope with
loose rocks that may fall anytime.
Near the site, vegetation which
composes of grass and small trees are seen growing on the mountain slope. No surcharge loading
such as houses is seen in the area of the slide.
In Badiwan (Figure 3 K0277+700
Ben Palispis Highway) the top of a
retaining structure is destroyed due to
debris which fell from the slope it is
protecting. Loose rocks on top of the
slope fell caused the damage seen on
the wall. The retaining structure has an
approximate height of 3m. Grasses are
seen growing on the site covering the
entire slope. The exposed slope is seen
to be comprised of loose rocks and soil.
The retaining structure has weep holes
located near the top of the structure
approximately spaced at 1.5m. The old
retaining structure was made of cemented piled rocks without reinforcing bars.
 Located along Camp 7
(Figure 4 K0245+120 Loacan
Road) a slope failure caused a
retaining structure to collapse
then damaged a house being
built beneath it. Based on the
debris that covered part of the
road, the type of retaining
structure is a riprap
incorporated with diaphragms.
A temporary protective
covering has been setup to
prevent rainfall coming in
contact with the exposed slope preventing further landslides. The retaining wall was constructed
with slight vegetation on the slope and residential houses above and beside the slope which
serves as surcharge loads on the retaining structure. The damaged retaining structure due to
landslide extended approximately three meters from its original position. The top portion of the
slope failure was rectangular in shape and gentle slope in the middle. It is observed that there is
an increase in pore water pressure due to rainfall, an increase of surcharge loads due to
construction of houses above the slope, and the wall has already cracked on some parts of it that
causes a structural decrease in strength.
At Irisan (Figure 5 K0304+000
Naguilian Road) a retaining wall is
being constructed to protect a cut
slope. The excavation of the cut slope
was done to make space for the
widening of the road. The
characteristic of the cut slope is seen to
be most likely composed of rocks. The
retaining wall is made of reinforced
concrete material and is incorporated
with weep holes near the bottom
spaced 1m apart. Minimal vegetation
is seen at the top of the slope and houses which serve as surcharge loading are also seen.
Theoretical Framework
Slope Stability Analysis
Methods of Slope Stability Analysis. Stability of slopes are evaluated based on factor of
safety, which is defined as the ratio of the average shear strength of the soil and the average
shear strength mobilized on the failure plane. The simplest case of slope stability is the infinite
slopes where the slope is infinitely long plane surface. Using this analysis, several conditions are
considered: dry sand, dry soil, soil with seepage and soil with unsaturated conditions. The factor
of safety corresponding to various soil conditions are compared and it has been noted that safety
factor under unsaturated condition is much higher than the other factors even though the water
tension is quite modest. With this result it was concluded that water content plays an important
role in slope stability. Other methods of stabilization are the chart methods developed by various
engineers including Taylor(1948), Spencer(1967), Janbu(1968), and Morgenstern(1963). Also
are the method of slices including ordinary method of slices, Bishop simplified method,
Generalized equilibrium method and critical failure circle.
Slope stabilization analysis can be achieved in many ways; however, the best method of
analysis must be used relating it to characteristics of soil in order to have a satisfying result.
When the soil is uniform and a circular failure is assumed, the problem is enough that the factor
of safety can be determined from the charts. Method of slices is applicable to layered soils and to
any water stress distribution. With these methods of stabilization uncertainty still exists. For
more satisfying results probabilistic approach is then introduced for more satisfying results
comparing it to the computed factor of safety using different methods. (Briaud, J., 2013)
To prevent slope failures, slope stability alone is not enough. In order to have a greater chance
of success slope protection and slope stabilization must go hand in hand. Analyze the whole
system of slope as externally stable and internally stable. (Aguilay, A., 2001)
Factor of Safety. In dealing with slope, we know that some factor or loading contributes on its
failure. Or simply when driving force overcomes the resisting force, slope failures occur. So
geotechnical engineers analyze the slope stability by determining the factors of safety. The factor
of safety can be calculated as: (Das, B., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering 7th Edition, 2010
pg. 514) In simpler terms, Factor of safety is the ratio of average shear strength of the soil and
the average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface.
f (1)
Fs 
d
In reference to equation 1, the shear strength of a soil consists of two components, cohesion
and friction, and can be calculated as:
(2)
Where: f  c' ' tan  '
c' = cohesion
' = angle of friction
 ' = normal stress on the potential failure surface
In a similar manner, the average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface can
be calculated as:
d  c' d   ' tan  ' d (3)

Where c' d and ' d are, respectively, the cohesion and the angle of friction develop along the
potential failure surface. When we substituting equation (2) and (3) into equation (1), we get
c' ' tan  '
Fs 
c' d   ' tan  ' d (4)
Now we can introduce some other aspects of the factor of safety ─ that is, the factor of safety
with respect to cohesion, Fc' and the factor of safety with respect to friction, F' .they are
defined as
c'
Fc'  (5)
And c' d
 tan  ' (6)
F' 
tan  ' d

When we compare Eqs. (4) through (6), we can see that when Fc' becomes equal to F' ; it
gives the factor of safety with respect to strength. Or, if
c' tan  '

c' d tan  ' d
then we can write

Fs  Fc'  F' (7)

When the calculated factor of safety using the formula above is less than 1, possibility of
slope failure may occur. If it is greater than 1, the slope is theoretically stable. Generally, a value
of 1.5 for the factor of safety with respect to strength is acceptable for the design of a stable
slope.
Retaining Structures
Retaining wall systems, consisting mainly of a retaining wall and backfill, are prevalent
structures used in our society like basement walls, highway walls, abutments and so on. The
engineering essence of a retaining wall is to keep the retained soil in certain shape and prevent it
from falling (stability), or to restrain the deformation of the wall and backfill to maintain its
service function (serviceability) (Day R., 1995).
Design of Retaining Structures. The retaining wall must be able to hold together as a unit in
order to function. That is, the wall must be stable with respect to both the external forces that
might cause it to fall and the internal forces that might cause it to lose its shape and/or deform.
The following design consideration should be observed, its internal and external stability.
Retaining walls may be grouped into four classifications: Gravity, Semigravity, Cantilever, and
Counterfort retaining walls. Gravity retaining walls are constructed with plan concrete or stone
masonry. They depend on their own weight and any soil resting on the masonry for stability.
This type of construction is not economical for high walls. In many cases, a small amount of
steel may be used for the construction of gravity walls, thereby minimizing the size of wall
sections. Such walls are generally referred to as semigravity retaining walls. Cantilever retaining
walls are made of reinforced concrete that consists of a thin stem and a base slab. This type of
wall is economical to a height of 8m. Counterfort retaining walls are similar to cantilever walls.
At regular intervals, however, they have thin vertical slabs known as counterforts that tie the wall
and the base slab together. The purpose of the counterforts is to reduce the shear and the bending
moments. (Das, B., 2007)
Internal stability refers to the ability of the individual parts of the wall to act as a single unit.
The wall must be designed so that the individual pieces of the wall do not pull-out, separate, or
slide apart. The internal stability consideration for walls and soil is the potential for sliding
between panels. External stability of retaining walls must be designed to be stable with respect to
four potential external failure modes: global stability, base sliding, overturning, and bearing
capacity. Global stability refers to the stability of the wall, the soil behind it, and the soil below
it. Base sliding refers to the outward movement of the bottom of the retaining wall as a result of
the lateral forces generated by earth pressure and, if present, water pressure. The force resisting
base sliding is the friction between the fill in the bottom layer of and the foundation soil beneath
the bottom layer. Overturning refers to the tipping over of the retaining wall as it rotates about
the toe of the structure. While bearing capacity refers to the ability of the foundation soil to
support the weight of the retaining wall placed upon it. Failures of retaining walls are also
attributed to several factors like poor drainage, sloppy workmanship, inappropriate design,
expansive backfill material etc. Thus, a carefully made and sustainable design is necessary in
constructing a retaining wall that would last for a long time. (Elman, M., 2002)
Retaining walls should be designed in accordance with the theories of soil mechanics. Every
slope has its own soil characteristics thus retaining structures should be carefully designed prior
to its construction. Slope stability study of the soil to be protected would provide important data
which can affect the design of the retaining structure. In dealing with retaining structures a
careful study of slope of earth retained is needed. Slope stability analysis is used to determine
whether a proposed slope meets the required safety and performance criteria during design.
Typically the following data are required for the study: soil profile, soil geometry, soil shear
strength, and pore water pressure. This type of analysis is utilized to determine stability
conditions of slopes and to evaluate the proposed remediation methods if required.
Stability of Retaining Structures. If a wall is stable, it means, of course, that the wall does not
move. Essentially, there are three means by which retaining wall can move-horizontally (by
sliding), vertically (by excessive settlement and/or bearing capacity failure of the foundation
soil) and by rotation (by overturning). Standard procedure is to check for stability with respect to
each of three means of movement to ensure that an adequate factor of safety is present in each
case. Checks for sliding and overturning hark back to the basic laws of static. Checks for
settlement and bearing capacity of foundation soil are done by settlement and bearing capacity
analyses. (Liu and Evett, 2001)
Theoretical Paradigm

INPUT THROUGHPUT OUTPUT

 Factors  Site Exploration and  Assessment of the

Contributing to Observation with Slope Efficiency of
Slope Failures Stability Analysis Retaining
 Types of - Structural Damages Structures along
Retaining - Stability of Protected National Roads in
Structures Slopes Baguio City
 Factors to - Soil Characteristics  Proposed Slope
Consider in - Surcharge Loads or Stabilization
Assessing Slope Human Activities Methods
Failures  Determination of Probable
Causes of Slope Failures
along National Roads in
Baguio City
Statement of the Problem and Hypothesis
The main concern is that a slope failure or landslide poses a threat to motorists as well as
residents in these areas. The goal of the study is to assess the efficiency of retaining structures
that will prevent these incidents. Thus, this study mostly focuses on retaining structures damaged
or destroyed by slope movements. Checking the slope stability provides the factor of safety of
soil slopes so as to be able to anticipate the occurrence of landslides or slope failures.
1. Is the slope protection sufficient enough to mitigate slope movements? Over the past years
several landslides has been a common reoccurrence. Several casualties and loss of property has
been reported during this type of disaster. Riprap walls are the most common type of retaining
wall seen in the area. Even today riprap walls are the mostly used type of slope protection in the
vicinity.
2. Who or What is affected during slope failures or landslides? In the cordillera, houses are
commonly located on mountainous terrains that put them at higher risk. Road closures affect the
livelihood of many Cordillerans for it prevents the transportation of goods that easily spoil. Also
when a catastrophe occurs, roads needs to remain open for the transportation of aide and relief
for affected communities.
3. How to assess the structural integrity of retaining structure? Slope Stability Analysis is an
essential tool to the construction of retaining structures. Once the stability of the slope is
determined the design and construction of retaining structures can begin. Also, certain factors
affect the overall assessment of a retaining structure and should be accounted for.
Significance of the Study
The study aims to determine the causes of the failure of retaining structures. The construction
of a retaining wall requires large sum of public funds. Thus, a retaining wall failure would waste
millions of pesos of the government’s limited resources. Knowing its causes can mitigate these
failures and would save the government a lot of money.
The study also gives students, especially in the civil engineering field, a peek on how to
design and construct retaining structures for future references. This study could serve as
reference material regarding retaining structures and possibly to inspire innovation in the design
of retaining structures.
Lastly, this study is for the people of Baguio. This research is aimed for the improvement of
government projects funded by taxes of the people. Also, this study could educate communities
regarding their surroundings which can help them in identifying unstable slopes before failure
occurs.
Scope and Delimitations
The study aims to assess the current condition of retaining structures along identified eroded
areas. These areas are located along national roads at K0242+666 Kennon Road, K0252+231
Baguio-Bontoc Road, K0245+120 Loakan Road, K0277+700 Ben Palispis Highway and at
K0304+200 Naguilian Road. From these five sites, observations will be recorded and data will
be collected regarding soil parameters and structural plans of slope protection (if applicable).
Factor of Safety for the slopes are then computed to determine its stability and assess the
efficiency of the slope protection provided.
 CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
This Chapter describes the different methods, instruments, and statistical tools used in this
study.
Research Design and Methodology
The nature of this study is descriptive which includes the investigations and fact-finding
inquiries of different kind. Descriptive research is those studies concerned in describing
characteristics of a particular specimen, in this case, the retaining structure and the slope it
retains. The main purpose is to identify the needed soil parameters and describe the protection or
stabilization method applied on the slope. If needed an experiment would be performed to gather
necessary data for this study. Data is then analysed to provide evaluations and initial outputs
regarding the subject.
Population and Locale
The research is to be conducted on national roads leading to or traversing Baguio City namely
Kennon Road, Ben Palispis Highway, Baguio-Bontoc Road, Naguilian Road and Loacan Road.
Due to the regions topography, roads needs to pass by mountainous terrains wherein slope cuts
needs to be done. Retaining Structures are used to provide protection for these slopes avoiding
landslides or slope failure that may damage or destroy the road. Also, a well paved road leading
to isolated communities is a big help in improving the way of life of the residents living here. A
slope failure or a landslide would greatly affect the livelihood of people living in these
communities. A road closure would prevent the transportation of perishable goods on where
many Cordillerans rely for income. This study gives importance to these factors.
Involved in these study are agencies namely the City Buildings and Architectural Office
which initiates, reviews and recommends changes in policies and objectives, plans and programs,
techniques, procedures, practices and guidelines on vertical infrastructure development and other
related public works for the city of Baguio and the Department of Public Works and Highways-
Cordillera which functions as the engineering and construction arm of the government tasked to
continuously develop its technology for the purpose of ensuring the safety of all infrastructure
facilities and securing for all public works and highways the highest efficiency and quality in
construction. Being located on mostly sloping terrains, soil testing is one requirement for
proposed buildings having 3 stories or higher. Thus a copy of soil reports are submitted to
CBAO before they issue building permits. Soil reports from buildings near the location of the
slope protection being studied are necessary to avoid experimentation. Also, structural plans of
the various retaining structures being studied is needed to conduct a proper assessment of these
retaining structures. DPWH is the agency concerned with government projects that covers the
construction retaining structures.
Data Gathering Tool
Soil reports and structural plans are to be provided by the City Buildings and Architectural
Office and Department of Public Works and Highways-Cordillera. If granted permission, these
records are to be copied and tabulated using Table 1 Soil Parameters. These data will be analysed
to come up with proper evaluations and assessments. The main method to gather data is
documentation. Site investigations are to be conducted on targeted areas recording every related
observation perceived. Several observations are to be made regarding the slope being protected
and the retaining structure introduced.
Presented below is a brief description of the surveying equipment to be used in this research.
This equipment is necessary for the proper profiling of the slope and retaining structures being
targeted in this study.
1. Transit - designed to measure the angle of rotation of the telescope about its horizontal
and vertical axes
2. Tape – are designed for most conventional measurements in surveying and engineering
works
3. Level Rod – used for measuring the vertical distance between the line of sight through a
levelling instrument and the point of elevation is either required or known
4. Tripod – serve as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it is setup
5. Plumb Bob – are used for projecting the tape ends to the ground when the tape must be
suspended above the measured line
Data Gathering Procedure
The first step prior to gathering data is the preparation of the needed documents. In this case,
letters are to be checked and signed by necessary persons for approval. These letters are to be
sent to various offices namely the City Buildings and Architectural Office at City Hall Dr.,
Baguio City and the Department of Public Works and Highways-Cordillera at Engineer’s Hill,
Baguio City. For the City Buildings and Architectural Office, the letter would be addressed to
Engr. Nazita Banez head of the City Buildings and Architecture Office and to Engr. Alexander
Castaneda regional district engineer of the Department of Public Works and Highways-Baguio.
If granted permission soil reports of target areas and the structural plans of slope protection used
in these areas would be collected, reviewed and tabulated.
Soil profiling of target areas is next to be accomplished. A letter would be addressed to Engr.
Renato Tandoc, head of the civil engineering department of SLU, regarding the borrowing of
surveying instruments to be used. Using these instruments, necessary information such as height
of retaining structure, angle of repose of the exposed slope, length of retaining structure would
be gathered, reviewed and tabulated.
If necessary, when soil parameters from a particular area are not found, soil samples will be
taken from the site. A 1 cubic meter area would be dug up from where samples will be taken.
These samples would consist of 4in x 4in soil blocks and 1kg of loose soil. The samples are then
taken to the laboratory for experimentation. Experimentations to be done are Unit Weight
determination and Direct Shear test. The following is a brief discussion of the experiments to be
made.
Treatment of Data
After gathering the data needed given by the said offices. Structural soil parameters will be
used to calculate the factor of safety against sliding of each slopes being targeted using the
Ordinary and Bishop’s Method of Slices and Culman’s Method for circular assumed failure
surfaces. For slopes with tensile cracks planar failure surfaces are assumed to be critical.

Stability analysis by using the method of slices can be explained with the use of the figure
above in which AC is an arc of a circle representing the trial failure surface. The soil above the
trial failure surface is divided into several vertical slices. The width of each slice need not be the
same. Considering a unit length perpendicular to the cross section shown, the forces that act on a
typical slice (nth slice) are shown in the figure. Wn is the weight of the slice. The forces Nr and
Tr, respectively, are the normal and tangential components of the reaction R. Pn and Pn+1 are the
normal forces that act on the sides of the slice. Similarly, the shearing forces that act on the sides
of the slice are Tn and Tn+1. For simplicity, the pore water pressure is assumed to be zero. The
forces Pn, Pn+1, Tn, and Tn+1are difficult to determine. However, we can make an approximate
assumption that the resultants of Pn and Tn are equal in magnitude to the resultants of Pn+1 and
Tn+1 and that their lines of action coincide.

For equilibrium consideration,

The resisting shear force can be expressed as

The normal stress, σ’, in the equation is equal to

For equilibrium of the trial wedge ABC, the moment of the driving force about O equals the
moment of the resisting force about O,

Note: ∆Ln is approximately equal to (bn)/(cos αn), where bn = the width of the nth slice.
Also that the value of αn may be either positive or negative. To find the minimum factor of
safety—that is, the factor of safety for the critical circle—one must make several trials by
changing the center of the trial circle. This method generally is referred to as the ordinary
method of slices.

In 1955, Bishop proposed a more refined solution to the ordinary method of slices. In this
method, the effect of forces on the sides of each slice is accounted for to some degree. Now, let
Pn - Pn+1 = ∆P and Tn – Tn+1=∆T. Also, we can write

Summing the forces in the vertical direction gives

Where,

For simplicity, if we let ∆T= 0, the factor of safety becomes

Note that the term Fs is present on both sides of the equation. Hence, we must adopt a trial-
and-error procedure to find the value of Fs. As in the method of ordinary slices, a number of
failure surfaces must be investigated so that we can find the critical surface that provides the
minimum factor of safety. Bishop’s simplified method is probably the most widely used.
 Chapter 3
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
This chapter is intended to present the values gathered throughout the research. Slope
stability analysis is the main tool used in the research, it can either prove or disprove the
hypothesis suggested on this study that the main cause of the retaining structures partial or total
collapse is the instability of the slope it intends to protect.
3.1 DATA AND OBSERVATIONS
Table 1. Soil Parameters
Area Unit Weight, KN/mᶾ Cohesion, KPa S F A
K0252+231
106 4 27
Baguio-Bontoc Road
K0242+666
344 22 30
Kennon Road
K0277+700
116 22 32
Ben Palispis Highway
K0245+120
134 22 30
Loacan Road
K0304+200
143 15 25
Naguilian Road
Table 2. Exposed Slope Observations
Area Ground Degree of Drainage Human Degree of
Cover Slope Condition Activities Soil erosion
K0252+231 Good Steep Well-drained Moderate Moderate-
Baguio-Bontoc Road severe erosion
K0242+666 Very Poor Undulating to Well-drained High Very severe
Kennon Road rolling erosion
K0277+700 Fair Steep Poorly drained Moderate Moderate
Ben Palispis Highway erosion
K0245+120 Very poor Steep Very poorly Moderate Severe erosion
Loacan Road drained
K0304+200 n/a Very steep Moderately High n/a
Naguilian Road drained
Table 3. Slope Protection Observation
Area Type of Slope Protection Damages Wall Height, m
K0252+231
Riprap blowout at toe 4m
Baguio-Bontoc Road
K0242+666
Riprap Totally destroyed n/a
Kennon Road
K0277+700
Riprap Minor damages 4m
Ben Palispis Highway
K0245+120
Riprap Totally destroyed n/a
Loacan Road
K0304+200
Reinforced Concrete(under construction) n/a n/a
Naguilian Road
3.2 SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Table 4. Summary of Slope Stability Analysis
FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR HAZARDOUS SLIP SURFACES
Naguillian Loacan Ben Palispis Baguio- Kennon
Road Road Road Bontoc Road Road
A. Shallow Slope Failure
Ordinary Method of Slices 1.09 1.30 0.53 0.89 0.98
Ordinary Method of Slices 1.27 1.37 0.63 0.96 1.03
B. Toe Failure
Ordinary Method of Slices
0.48 0.56 0.65 0.54 0.86
Bishops Simplified Method of
0.52 0.64 0.75 0.58 0.94
Slices
Plane Surfaces( Slopes with
0.42 0.60 0.70 0.50 0.86
water in the tensile cracks)
C. Slope Failure ( On the Face of the Retaining Wall)
Ordinary Method of Slices n/a n/a 0.53 0.49 n/a
Bishops Simplified Method of
n/a n/a 0.63 0.52 n/a
Slices
D. Base Failure
Ordinary Method of Slices 0.99 0.92 1.23 1.08 0.88
Bishops Simplified Method of
1.12 1.04 1.4 1.24 0.99
Slices
LOCATING CRITICAL SLIP SURFACES (FS≈1.5)
Naguillian Loacan Ben Palispis Baguio- Kennon
Road Road Road Bontoc Road Road
Circular Surface (Bishops
1.5 1.57 1.5 1.58 1.58
Method)
Radius of Slip Circle 23.21 m 20.84 m 18.51 m 17.25 m 80.17 m
Height of Slope 10 m 8m 8m 12 m 40 m
Vertical Offset ( centroid of
13.15 m 12.79 m 10.45 m 4.65 m 38.67 m
circle to edge of slope)
Horizontal Offset( centroid of
4.12 m 1.45 m 5.25 m 1.61 m 30.26 m
circle to edge of slope)
Planar Surface 1.51 1.56 1.56 1.50 1.52
Inclination of failure surface
18⁰ 22⁰ 24⁰ 19⁰ 21⁰
from horizontal axis, θ

3.3 INTERPRETATIONS
Slope Stability Analysis is done by assuming several failure surfaces and solving the
factor of safety using various methods. Each assumed failure plane is based on the damages
incurred by the retaining structure, highly damaging slope failures (e.g. if houses are on top of
slopes) and the probability of the failure. The method of slices in itself is a conservative way of
doing slope stability analysis and that soil parameters of each site are not of the exact location of
the slope which makes our solution more conservative. Considering the observations made on
the sites, there are factors which may affect the stability of the slope but is not included in the
slope stability analysis such as the ground cover, drainage condition and human activities being
done on the site which can decrease or increase the value of the Factor of Safety. Knowing the
likely presence of tensile cracks on top of the slope, a factor of safety is taken by assuming a
planar failure surface. The presence of tensile cracks further lessened the Factor of Safety
obtained from the Bishops Simplified Method of Slices. Introducing more failure surfaces either
circular or planar lead to the location of the critical slip failure surface where factor of safety is
equal to 1.5 which is the required value for long term stability. For construction or short term
stability a safety factor equal to 1 is necessary.
3.3.1 Naguilian Road
From slope stability analysis using the method of slices and bishop’s method of slices, a
factor of safety on assumed modes of failure is determined. From the three assumed failure
surfaces the most probable would be a toe slide with safety factor of 0.48 and 0.529 for ordinary
and bishop’s method of slices. This slope was cut to accommodate the widening of the road and
that more than 2 storey houses are constructed on top of the slope. The soil was seen to be
moderately drained and has a very steep cut slope. A safety factor of 0.42 was taken when tensile
cracks are incorporated on the slope.
To retain the soil, DPWH-Baguio implemented a project involving the construction of a
reinforced concrete wall on the face of this slope. A well designed reinforced concrete wall is a
good choice of retaining structure for it can protect as well as stabilize the soil without further
disturbing the current state of the slope. At this point finishing the retaining wall is very crucial
for when the rainy season comes continuous downpours can jeopardize the stability of this slope
causing massive damages below and on top of the slope.
3.3.2 Loacan Road
The type of slope protection used in this area is a riprap. It was totally destroyed and
severe soil erosion has occurred. The probable causes of failures are due to the following factors:
(a) The drainage condition is very poorly drained in which there is a buildup of hydrostatic
pressure that causes the soil to soften thus contributing to the failure of slope (b) the ground
cover is very poor; and (c) there is a surcharge load on top of the soil, mainly houses.
Considering the factor of safety of both methods, the slope of this site is theoretically
proven as unstable to any of the assumed slip circle failure basing from the factor of safety of
1.5. Toe slide failure is considered the most common failure to happen on this site base from its
factor of safety of 0.64. Regarding the overall stability of the site and considering the factor of
safety of each of the trial failure planes used the site is naturally prone to any of the failure. The
location of the critical failure plane is 15 m from the top of the slope.The soil was also observed
to be very poorly drained the presence of high pore water pressure on the soil would lead to soil
movements.
3.3.3 Ben Palispis Highway
Based from the slope stability analysis conducted on the site, the damages observed are partial
damages to the upper part of the riprap wall. This indicates that the exposed slope on top is unstable
proven by the slope stability analysis having a factor of safety equal to 0.63 for shallow slope failure.
Considering the steepness of the slope (rocky slope), fall is one factor of the damages observe in the
riprap. Fall is the detachment of soil and rock with the fragments that slide through the slope and when in
contact with the retaining wall damages/failure is observed. From observing the site the degree of slope is
very steep, poorly drained, moderate human activities, and moderate soil erosion. Poor drainage is one of
the main causes of the retaining wall failure. The minimal vegetation can help protect the slope from
minor erosions. The location of the critical slip circle is located 10 m from the top of the slope.

3.3.4 Baguio-Bontoc Road

Houses ranging from 1-4 stories high are situated on top of the slope. This stretch of
slope is so long that 4 types of design have been built to protect or stabilize it. Several slides
have happened in this area prompting the DPWH to put up retaining structures. It should also be
stated that sections of the most recent introduced retaining structure have incurred damages right
after it was completed.
The face of the slope is seen to be comprised of massive boulders it is uncertain of these
boulders goes deep inside the slope or is nearly exposed due to the steepness of the slope this
boulder may easily fall if it is embedded prior to the critical failure plane. Removing the large
amount of soil and massive boulders will require a lot of time to finish which will delay and
affect the people especially students and likewise with economy and transportation.
Based from calculations, the four assumed failure were all prone to sliding and collapse.
The most probable was the slope slide having a safety factor of 0.49 and 0.52 for Ordinary and
Bishops method of slices. All safety factors calculated were lesser than 1.5 which indicates that
slope protection alone is not enough to be used on the slope it also needs some kind of slope
stabilization. The location of the critical slip circle is located 15 m from the top of the slope.
3.3.5 Kennon Road
Kennon road is one of the major roads leading to Baguio city it is vital to keep it open to
motorists. Closure of Kennon road will affect the major traffic volume entering to the Central
Business District and the economic status of the city. It also endangers the lives of people living
nearby. Based on the computed factor of safety of the three probable failure planes, they are all
prone to slope failure in a sense that they all had a factor of safety less than 1.5 (Fs<1.5). Toe
circle is the type of slope failure has the least factor of safety (0.94) compared to the three
assumed failure plane. The failure plane is located 10 m from the top of the slope.
Prior to the slide a retaining structure was being built to protect the slope. DPWH-Baguio
was in charge of the project the original design was abandoned. DPWH-Baguio contracted R.S.
JARDIN & ASSOCIATES to do a geotechnical report; the factor of safety they derived is 0.875
for a circular slip failure and 0.21 for infinite slopes. A new design will be used consisting of
both slope protection and stabilization methods. It consists of layers of several slope protection
and stabilization means. From road level to the top of the slope, two levels of 7 m high
reinforced concrete retaining walls, a 5 meter crib wall and for the remaining exposed surface
erosion control nets and bio-engineering is to be introduced. For the exposed slope below the
road, series of gabion filled baskets are to be used as slope protection. Drainage canals were
placed behind the structure to avoid the formation of hydrostatic pressure.
 CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations of this research
Conclusions
All values of factor of safety derived from slope stability analysis have yielded values less
than 1.5. The value from Bishops Simplified Method of Slices ranges from as low as 0.53 to
1.37. This indicates the instability of the slope which is the likely cause of failure. Incorporating
the likely presence of tensile cracks the factor of safety was further reduced to about 15% from
the value derived from Bishops Simplified method of slices. The slope stability analysis yielded
results wherein the slopes were found to be unstable. Knowing this, it is concluded that slope
protection alone is not sufficient to be used in the areas of concern. Riprap walls are not
economical to be used as retaining wall based on the instability of the slope it is constructed only
to be used as slope protection. Ripraps may be preferred because it is much easier and cheaper to
construct than other types of retaining walls because of the lack of slope stabilization the slope is
likely to fail causing mass destruction to its surroundings. From the five sites studied three sites
are observed to have human settlements and all sites are located on major routes going in and out
of the city of Baguio, thus stabilizing these slopes are critical.
The value of slope stability analysis enforced the site observations specifically on the incurred
damages of the retaining wall and its mode of failure. For example it was observed that the
retaining wall in Ben Palispis highway incurred minor damages on top, from the slope stability it
was found out that factor of safety for shallow slope failures is 0.63 which the lowest of the four
assumed failure mode. Another example is the type of failure experienced by the retaining wall
at Loacan Road, from our observation it is seen that the retaining wall totally collapsed, the slope
stability analysis showed that toe failure has the lowest factor of safety from the three assumed
failure mode which is 0.64. Knowing this, the location of the critical slip surfaces of each slope
on the five areas of concern are tabulated in Table 4. Summary of Slope Stability Analysis
complete with the necessary details to be used as a reference for the design of slope stabilization
techniques.
Recommendations
From the earlier discussion, when the factor of safety is less than 1.5, there is an imminent
slope failure. From this, there is a need to stabilize the slope areas thus the need of the
introduction of slope stabilization techniques. These techniques should coincide with the site it
will be introduced to. Furthermore prior to construction it is vital to introduce temporary
supports to prevent soil movement during construction, slope stability analysis showed that
slides could occur during short-term or construction periods. It is also recommended that
construction works should begin as soon as possible before the monsoon season starts.
For sites with houses located on top of the slope, slope stabilization techniques that won’t
further alter the section of the slope such as the slopes located in Baguio-Bontoc Road, Loacan
Road and Naguilian Road are recommended. The use of reinforced concrete walls is likely for
these sites. The cost may be high but it ensures a stable and protected soil slope on which the
foundation of the houses rest. As of this moment the construction of Reinforced Concrete walls
are ongoing on these three sites.
For Ben Palispis Highway and Kennon Road, these two sites have the luxury of being
unobstructed. Several slope stability techniques may applied on this two sites such as soil
nailing, soil anchoring and slope modification. Soil nailing is an in situ reinforcement of the soil
using rebars as passive inclusions to prevent sliding or tilting of the soil mass. Soil nails are
small diameter inclusions that are placed most often by drilling and sometimes by driving.
Another technique is the use of prestress anchors and anchored walls. Although anchors can be
used without vertical wall, they do not require bearing pads to distribute their loads to the surface
of the slope. An easy way to stabilize these slopes is that, the slope can be made more stable by
excavation to reduce its height or make it less steep. For soil nailing and soil anchoring the
results showed in Table 4. Summary of Slope Stability Analysis may be found useful. It contains
the location of critical circular and planar failure surfaces. Flattening a slope or reducing its
height reduces the shear stresses along potential sliding surfaces and has the advantage that it
does not require slope movement before it imposes restraining forces that increases the factor of
safety. Modifying slopes can pose challenges for slopes with high altitudes for instance the slope
at Kennon Road which has a height of approximately 4m. Kennon Road has an ongoing project
that would introduce series of reinforced concrete walls, crib walls and bio-engineering on the
slope.
REFERENCES:
Book

Fajardo, M. B., Jr. (2000). Construction Industry-Management. Quezon City: 5138 Trading
Taylor, D. W. (1948). Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. Cambridge, Massachusetts U.S.A.: SN
Das, B. M. (2010). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Australia: Cengage Learning.
Das, B. M. (2007). Principles of Foundation Engineering. Australia: Thomson
Day, R. W. (1995). Forensic Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering. New York: McGraw-
Hill

Newspaper

Northern Luzon Towns Isolated‖, Philippine Star October 12, 2009 issue
(―Landslide shut down Kennon Road‖, Philippine Star July 6, 2015 issue).
(―Major Highways in North Luzon Closed‖, Philippine Star October 18, 2015 issue).

Journal References

Abramson, L., Boyce, G., Lee, T., and Sharma, S. (1994) Advanced Technology for Soil Slope
Stability, Volume 1: Slope Stability Manual, Publication No. FHWA-SA-94-005
Bautista, M. C. V. (2003). The Feasibility of Shotcreting as Slope Protection Method along
Itogon Road
Vergara-Balila, R. (2007). An Assessment of the Soil Erosion Condition Surrounding the
AUSAID Facility of Baguio Water District at Busol Watershed
APPENDICES:
A. Sample Computation of Ordinary and Bishop’s Method of Slices
Naguilian Shallow Slope Failure

B. Sample Computation of Slopes with Tensile Cracks

Naguilian Toe Failure with Tensile Cracks

H, m 10 z, m 0.329 B, m 5.062
Friction Angle 25 L, m 12.272 T KN/m 2898.825
Β 76 D, m 4.192 S KN/m 1230.820
θ 52 U1 KN/m 0.532 FS 0.425
c, Kpa 15 U2 KN/m 19.823
U W KN/mᶾ 143 W KN/m 3678.246