‫الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية‬

PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA

‫وزارة التعليم العالي و البحث العلمي‬
MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
‫تيارت‬-‫جامعة ابن خلدون‬
Ibn Khaldoun University, Tiaret

‫كلية اآلداب و اللغات‬

Faculty of Letters and Languages
‫قسم اآلداب و اللغات األجنبية‬
Department of Letters & Foreign Languages
‫فرع اللغة االنجليزية‬
Section of English

Research Methodology
First Year English Students
BMD
Semester 1

Dr. Abbar Ghalem

Maitre de Conference “B”

Academic Year: 2020-2021

 Research Methodology (Dr. Abbar Ghalem)

Table of Contents
Chapter 1- Introduction to research 1
1.1. Research definition 2
1.2. Experience and Reasoning in Research 3
1.3. Characteristics of research 4
1.4. Research Objectives 4
1.5. Motivation in Research 5
1.6. Importance of research 5
1.7. The difference between research methods and research methodology 6
1.8. Criteria for selecting a research topic 7
1.8.1. Relevance 7
1.8.2. Avoidance of duplication 7
1.8.3. Feasibility 7
1.8.4. Political acceptability 7
1.8.5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations 8
1.8.6. Data availability 8
1.8.7.Urgency 8
1.8.8. Resources Availability 8
1.8.9. Personal Inclination 8
1.8.10. Researcher Knowledge 8
1.8.11. Ethical acceptability 8
Chapter 2- Types of Scientific Research 9
2.1. Basic (Fundamental) research 10
2.2. Applied research 10
2.3. Quantitative research 11
2. 3. 1. Definition 11
2. 3. 2. Methods of quantitative research 11

2. 3. 3. The advantages of quantitative research methods 14

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2. 3. 4. The limitations of quantitative research methods 14

2. 4. Qualitative research 15
2.4. 1. Definition 15
2.4.2. Qualitative research methods 15
2.4.3. Advantages of qualitative research 15
2.4.4. Disadvantages of qualitative research 15
2.5. Mixed research 16
2. 6. Exploratory research 16
2.6.1. Definition 16
2.6.2. Exploratory Research Methods 16
2.6.2.1. Primary Research Methods 16
2.6.2.2. Secondary Research Methods 17
2.6.3. Advantages of Exploratory research 18
2.6.4. Disadvantages of Exploratory research 18
2.7. Descriptive research 19
2.7.1. Definition 19
2.7.2. Descriptive Research Methods 19
2.7.3. Advantages of descriptive research 20
2.7.4. Disadvantages of descriptive research 21

2.8. Explanatory (Causal) research 21

2.8.1. Definition 21
2.8.2. Explanatory Research Methods 21
2.8.3. Advantages of Explanatory research 23
2.8.4. Disadvantages of Explanatory research 23
2.9. Longitudinal Research 23
2.10. Cross-sectional Research 23
2.11. Action research 23

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Course Syllabus Distribution

Topics to be covered
Chapters List of topics No. of
weeks
1.1. Research definition 1
1.2. Experience and Reasoning in
Research
1.3. Characteristics of research 2
1.4. Research Objectives
1.5. Motivation in Research
1.6. Importance of research
1.7. The difference between research 3
methods and research methodology
Chapter 1- 1.8. Criteria for selecting a research topic
Introduction to 1.8.1. Relevance
research 1.8.2. Avoidance of duplication
1.8.3. Feasibility
1.8.4. Political acceptability 4
1.8.5. Applicability of possible results and
recommendations
1.8.6. Data availability
1.8.7.Urgency
1.8.8. Resources Availability 5
1.8.9. Personal Inclination
1.8.10. Researcher Knowledge
1.8.11. Ethical acceptability
Chapter Review 6
2.1. Basic (Fundamental) research
2.2. Applied research 7
2.3. Quantitative research
2. 3. 1. Definition
2. 3. 2. Methods of quantitative research 8
2. 3. 3. The advantages of quantitative
research methods
2. 3. 4. The limitations of quantitative
research methods

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2. 4. Qualitative research
2.4. 1. Definition
2.4.2. Qualitative research methods 9
2.4.3. Advantages of qualitative research
2.4.4. Disadvantages of qualitative
research
2.5. Mixed research
2. 6. Exploratory research
2.6.1. Definition 10
2.6.2. Exploratory Research Methods
2.6.2.1. Primary Research Methods
Chapter 2- Types of 2.6.2.2. Secondary Research Methods
2.6.3. Advantages of Exploratory research
Scientific Research 2.6.4. Disadvantages of Exploratory research
2.7. Descriptive research
2.7.1. Definition
2.7.2. Descriptive Research Methods 11
2.7.3. Advantages of descriptive research
2.7.4. Disadvantages of descriptive
research
2.8. Explanatory (Causal) research
2.8.1. Definition
2.8.2. Explanatory Research Methods
2.8.3. Advantages of Explanatory 12
research
2.8.4. Disadvantages of Explanatory
research
2.9. Longitudinal Research
2.10. Cross-sectional Research
2.11. Action research
Chapter Review 13

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Course description

This course is an introduction, presenting an overview of the research

methodology. It consists of two chapters, well arranged in a coherent manner.
Chapter one is an introduction, presenting an overview of the research
methodology. It intends to highlights six points: (i) characteristics of research;
(ii) research Objectives; (iii) motivation in Research; (iv) importance of
research; (v) the difference between research methods and research
methodology and (vi) criteria for selecting a research topic. Chapter two
introduces the major types of scientific research. Each type of research is clearly
defined for the learners.
Course Objectives

The present course has been written with two clear objectives, viz., (i) to
enable first year students, irrespective of their discipline, in understanding and
learning what research is all about.; and (ii) to make them familiar with the art of
using different research methods and techniques. It is hoped that the humble
effort made in the form of this course will assist in the accomplishment of
exploratory as well as result-oriented research studies.

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Chapter 1
Introduction to research

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1.1. Research definition

Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought.

Ackoff(1961):

“A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge”

Leedy (1989):

“Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find systematically, and with the support of
demonstrable fact, the answer to a question or the resolution of a problem”. (1989, p. 5)

Dominowski (1980):

“Research is a fact-finding activity”. (1980, p. 2)

Kerlinger (1970):

“the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions

about presumed relations among natural phenomena”. (1970, p. 8)

Clifford Woody:

“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis”

Earl Robert Babbie

“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon”.

Summary
Research e refers to a search for knowledge.

• It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

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• It is an art of scientific investigation.

• It is a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
• t is actually a voyage of discovery.
• It is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
• It is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
• It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
• In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research
1.2. Experience and Reasoning in Research
Research distinguishes itself from the two other basic and more ancient means, those of
experience and reasoning.
Experience
• Experience results in knowledge and understanding gained either individually, or
shared by experts or leaders, through day-to-day living.
• The most immediate form of experience is personal experience, the body of
knowledge gained individually through encountering situations and events in life.
• When solutions to problems are not to be found within the personal experience of an
individual, then he or she may turn to those who have wider or more specialist
experience for advice, for example a solicitor in legal matters.
• Learning from experience tends to be rather haphazard and uncontrolled.
• Conclusions are often quickly drawn and not exhaustively tested.
• Experience can be a valuable starting point for systematic research, and may provide a
wealth of questions to be investigated and ideas to be tested.
Reasoning
Reasoning is a method of coming to conclusions by the use of logical argument.

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1.3. Characteristics of research

Research refers to a search for knowledge.

• It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

• It is an art of scientific investigation.
• It is a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
• It is actually a voyage of discovery.
• It is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
• It is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
• It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
• In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research
1.4. Research Objectives
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet.

The research objectives fall into a number of following broad groupings:

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory

or formulative research studies);
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive research studies);
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (diagnostic research studies);
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing
research studies).

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1.5. Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research?

No person would like to do research unless there are some motivating factors. Some of the
motivations are the following:
• to get a research degree along with its benefits like better employment, promotion,
increment in salary, etc.
• to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or
become a scientist in a research institution
• to solve the unsolved and challenging problems
• to get joy of doing some creative work
• to acquire respectability
• to get recognition
• curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
• curiosity to find new things
• to serve the society by solving social problems.
1.6. Importance of research
Some important avenues of research are:
• A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community
or an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a
theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible
solution.
• Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications
of them.
• It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.
• Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs
helps a government to prepare a budget.
• It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to
improve the quality of products.
• Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in
them.

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• It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things,
new stars, etc.
• Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel
phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered
only through research.
• Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena
and seek solution to social problems.
1.7. The difference between research methods and research methodology

Research methods-Definition
Research methods are all the methods used by a researcher during a research study are
termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They
include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a
problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected
facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those
explanations which can be verified by experiments.

Research methodology-Definition

Methodology: Some definitions of methodology include:

1. "the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a

discipline". (Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language)
2. "the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a
discipline". (Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language)
3. "the study or description of methods" (Baskerville, 1991)

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how

research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their
work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It
is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the
work plan of research.

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1.8. Criteria for selecting a research topic

1.8.1. Relevance
Definition
❖ Something's relevance to a situation or person is its importance or significance in that
situation or to that person.
The topic you choose should be a priority problem: Questions to be asked include:
a- How large or widespread is the problem?
b-Who is affected?
c- How severe is the problem?
1.8.2. Avoidance of duplication
❖ Duplication definition: It is the practice of doing the same thing more than once,
or having more than one person or thing to do the same task, when this is
not necessary.
Investigate whether the topic has been researched. If the topic has been researched, the results
should be reviewed to explore whether major questions that deserve further investigation
remain unanswered. If not, another topic should be chosen.
1.8.3. Feasibility
❖ Definition: The possibility, capability, or likelihood of something being done or
accomplished
Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you will require to carry out the
study. Thought should be given first to personnel, time, equipment and money that are locally
available. In situations where the local resources necessary to carry out the project are not
sufficient, you might consider sources available at the national level.
1.8.4. Political acceptability
❖ Definition: Acceptability is all about making the best (or best available) acceptable
to the greatest number of people.
It is advisable to research a topic that has the interest and support of the authorities. This will
facilitate the smooth conduct of the research and increases the chance that the results of the
study will be implemented.

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1.8.5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations

❖ Definition of applicability: It is the extent to which an intervention process could
be implemented in another setting.
❖ It is applying the research findings in another setting.
This will depend not only on the blessing of the authorities but also on the availability of
resources for implementing the recommendations.
1.8.6. Data availability
If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be selected.
1.8.7. Urgency
Urgent problem must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
1.8.8. Resources Availability
During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If these resources like
money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection place, then the
selection of the problem is easy.
1.8.9. Personal Inclination
If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that problem for his research
work.
1.8.10. Researcher Knowledge
The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of the research problem.
The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well collection of the research
data.
1.8.11. Ethical acceptability
We should always consider the possibility that we may inflict harm on others while carrying
out research. Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed study.

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Chapter 2
Types of scientific research

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2.1. Basic (Fundamental) research

Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest
in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or
invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from
basic research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
The goal of basic science is to understand how things work—whether it is a
single cell, an organism made of trillions of cells, or a whole ecosystem. Scientists working
on basic science questions are simply looking to increase human knowledge of nature and the
world around us. The knowledge obtained through the study of the subspecialties of the life
sciences is mostly basic science.
Basic science is the source of most scientific theories. For example, a scientist that
tries to figure out how the body makes cholesterol, or what causes a particular disease, is
performing basic science. This is also known as basic research.
Additional examples of basic research would be investigating how glucose is turned
into cellular energy or determining how elevated blood glucose levels can be harmful. The
study of the cell (cell biology), the study of inheritance (genetics), the study of molecules
(molecular biology), the study of microorganisms and viruses (microbiology and virology),
the study of tissues and organs (physiology) are all types of basic research, and have all
generated lots of information that is applied to humans and human health.
2.2. Applied research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather
than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied
scientist is to improve the human condition. For example, applied researchers may investigate
ways to:
• improve agricultural crop production
• treat or cure a specific disease
• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation
Applied science is using scientific discoveries, such as those from basic research, to
solve practical problems. For example, medicine, and all that is known about how to treat
patients, is applied science based on basic research. A doctor administering a drug to lower a

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person's cholesterol is an example of applied science. Applied science also creates new
technologies based on basic science. For example, designing windmills to capture wind
energy is applied science. This technology relies, however, on basic science. Studies of wind
patterns and bird migration routes help determine the best placement for the windmills.

Summary

• Basic science, such as understanding how cells work, is research aimed at

understanding fundamental problems.
• Applied science, such as the medical field, is the application of basic scientific
knowledge to solve practical problems.
• Applied science uses and applies information obtained through basic science
2.3. Quantitative research
2. 3. 1. Definition
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
concerned with questions about how many? How often? To what extent? etc.
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount
of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient
satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a
doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such
questions.
2. 3. 2. Methods of quantitative research
Here are four quantitative research methods that you can use to collect data for a quantitative
research study:
i/ Questionnaires
This is the most common way to collect quantitative data. A questionnaire (also called
a survey) is a series of questions, usually written on paper or a digital form. Researchers give
the questionnaire to their sample, and each participant answers the questions. The questions
are designed to gather data that will help researchers answer their research questions.
Typically, a questionnaire has closed-ended questions — that is, the participant chooses an
answer from the given options.
A good questionnaire should have clear language, correct grammar and spelling, and a clear
objective.

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Advantages:
• Questionnaires are often less time consuming than interviews or other in-person
quantitative research methods.
• They’re a common, fairly simple way to collect data.
• They can be a cost-effective option for gathering data from a large sample.
Limitations:
• Responses may lack depth and provide limited information.
• Respondents may lose interest or quit if the questionnaire is long.
• Respondents may not understand all questions, which would lead to inaccurate
responses.
ii/ Interviews
An interview for quantitative research involves verbal communication between the
participant and researcher, whose goal is to gather numerical data. The interview can be
conducted face-to-face or over the phone, and it can be structured or unstructured.
In a structured interview, the researcher asks a fixed set of questions to every
participant. The questions and their order are pre-decided by the researcher. The interview
follows a formal pattern. Structured interviews are more cost efficient and can be less time
consuming.
In an unstructured interview, the researcher thinks of his/her questions as the interview
proceeds. This type of interview is conversational in nature and can last a few hours. This
type of interview allows the researcher to be flexible and ask questions depending on the
participant’s responses. This quantitative research method can provide more in-depth
information, since it allows researchers to delve deeper into a participant’s response.
Advantages:
• Interviews can provide more in-depth information.
• Interviews are more flexible than questionnaires, since interviewers can adapt their
questions to each participant or ask follow-up questions.
• Interviewers can clarify participants’ questions, which will help them get clearer, more
accurate data.
Limitations:
• Interviewing one person at a time can be time-consuming.
• Travel, interviewer salaries and other expenses can make interviews an expensive data
collection tool.

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• With unstructured interviews, it can be difficult to quantify some responses.

iii/ Observation
Observation is a systematic way to collect data by observing people in natural
situations or settings. Though it is mostly used for collecting qualitative data, observation can
also be used to collect quantitative data.
Observation can be simple or behavioral. Simple observations are usually numerical,
like how many students are asleep during a class. Behavioral observation, on the other hand,
observes and interprets people’s behavior, like how many cars are driving dangerously or how
engaging a lecturer is.
Simple observation can be a good way to collect numerical data. This can be done by
pre-defining clear numerical variables that can be collected during observation — for
example, what time employees leave the office. This data can be collected by observing
employees over a period of time and recording when each person leaves.
Advantages:
• Observation is often an inexpensive way to collect data.
• Since researchers are recording the data themselves (rather than participants reporting
the data), most of the collected data will generally be usable.
• Data collection can be stopped and started by researchers at any time, making it a
flexible data collection tool.

Limitations:
• Researchers need to be extensively trained to undertake observation and record data
correctly.
• Sometimes the environment or research may bias the data, like when participants
know they’re being observed.
• If the situation to be observed sometimes doesn’t happen, Records
iv/Records
Since quantitative research depends on numerical data, records (also known as
external data) can provide critical information to answer research questions. Records are
numbers and statistics that institutions use to track activities, like attendance in a school or the
number of patients admitted in a hospital.

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For example, the Government of India conducts the Census every 10 years, which is a
record of the country’s population. This data can be used by a researcher who is addressing a
population-related research problem.
Advantages:
• Records often include comprehensive data captured over a long period of time.
• Data collection time is minimal, since the data has already been collected and recorded
by someone else.
Limitations:
• Records often only provide numerical data, not the reason or cause behind the data.
• Cleaning badly structured or formatted records can take a long time.
• If a record is incomplete or inaccurate, there is often no way to fix it.
Summary
Quantitative research methods are one of the best tools to identify a problem or phenomenon,
how widespread it is, and how it is changing over time. After identifying a problem,
quantitative research can also be used to come up with a trustworthy solution, identified using
numerical data collected through standardized techniques.

2. 3. 3. The advantages of quantitative research methods

• Quantitative research methods provide a relatively conclusive answer to the research
questions.
• When the data is collected and analyzed, the results are usually trustworthy.
• With statistically significant sample sizes, the results can be generalized to an entire
target group.
2. 3. 4. The limitations of quantitative research methods
• Does not account for people’s thoughts or perceptions about what you’re evaluating.
• Does not explore the “why” and “how” behind a phenomenon.

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2. 4. Qualitative research
2.4. 1. Definition
Qualitative research deals with qualitative phenomenon.It are concerned with finding
the answers to questions which begin with: why? How? In what way?
It is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. For instance, motivation research (i.e., why people
think or do certain things), or Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.
2.4.2. Qualitative research methods
• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field
notes.
• Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or
video recordings, etc.

2.4.3. Advantages of qualitative research

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants
and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility: The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or
patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.
• Natural settings:Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
• Meaningful insights: Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and
perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.
• Generation of new ideas: Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover
novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

2.4.4. Disadvantages of qualitative research

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting
their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

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Unreliability: The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of
uncontrolled factors that affect the data.
Subjectivity: Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data,
qualitative research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what
is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
Limited generalizability: Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific
contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions
because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population.
Labor-intensive: Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text,
data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.
2.5. Mixed research
Mixed research mixes quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm
characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and images. In fact, the
purpose of using mixed research methods is not to apply one research instead of the other, but
to improve the strengths and reduce or minimize the weaknesses of both types of research in
one study
2. 6. Exploratory research
2.6.1. Definition
Exploration: The act of searching or traveling by land, sea, air or space for the purpose of
discovery of resources or information. (Wikipedia website 2020)
Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or
thoroughly investigated in the past. Exploratory type of research is usually conducted to have
a better understanding of the existing problem, but usually doesn't lead to a conclusive result.
Researchers use exploratory research when trying to gain familiarity with an existing
phenomenon and acquire new insight into it to form a more precise problem.
2.6.2. Exploratory Research Methods
2.6.2.1. Primary Research Methods
In primary research methods, data is collected directly from the subject of investigation. The
subject, in this case, may be a group of people or an individual.
Some of the primary research methods used in exploratory research include:
i/ Observations
The researcher does not come in close contact with the subject. Rather, the subject is being
watched from afar. Subject observation can be done in two ways.

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The first is that the subject is aware that he/she is being observed while the second way is that
the subject is not aware of it. The latter method is said to gather fairer data because the subject
may behave differently when he/she is aware that (s) he is being watched.
ii/ Surveys
Surveys are used to collect data from a predefined subject(s). It can be collected to study
trends, opinions, and behaviour of a group of people.
iii/ Interviews
Although more stressful and time-consuming than others, the interview technique is the best
in terms of collecting detailed and correct data. Interviews can be conducted in person, via
phone call or video call.
Interviews can also be recorded by the researcher in case he/she needs to go back to it and
confirm specific information.
iv/ Focus Groups
Focus group is often used by researchers when trying to collect data from a group of people
with similar characteristics. The research can be done using any of the three methods
explained above.
For example, a focus group of fresh graduates may be investigated on how they spend their
time.
2.6.2.2. Secondary Research Methods
Secondary research method uses existing resources on the subject under study. Existing
sources like newspapers, magazines, articles, papers, etc. are what researchers conduct for
exploratory research.
All the resources used must be cited in publications. Some of the secondary research methods
used in exploratory research include:
i/ Literature
Literature research is the process of conducting old resources like publications, textbooks,
articles, magazines, etc. All this information can be gathered in both sift copy and hard copy
documents.
For example, an undergraduate student conducting his/her final project research will need to
conduct textbooks, publications, papers, articles, etc.
ii/ Online Sources
With the advent of technology, this research has gained much popularity among millennials.
Online research sources are the cheapest and easiest method of research.

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With access to the internet and a personal computer or mobile phone, a researcher can browse
through as many resources as possible. They can also be downloaded for further use in the
future.
The setback of this method is the difficulty of combing through the many online resources to
find genuine information. Researchers face the possibility of ending up with incorrect data
because false information may be difficult to identify.
iii/ Case Study
A researcher might find relevant information on the problem under study by studying existing
cases. For example, a mathematician trying to formulate a model to solve the queuing
problem in an airport may conduct existing research in similar areas.
A case study could be research that solved the queuing problem in a shopping mall. This
research will be studied and modified to suit that of the airport queuing problem.
A researcher may decide to get more creative by using informal sources like email newsletter
subscription, RSS feeds, google alerts, google trends or even design a bot that combs through
the large repository of data online.
2.6.3. Advantages of Exploratory research
• The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research
progresses.
• It is usually low cost.
• It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
• It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the
time and resources and if it is worth pursuing.
• It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be
further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the
problem.
2.6.4. Disadvantages of Exploratory research
• Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is
usually inconclusive.
• The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data.
Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
• Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results
cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population.

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• Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a
chance of that data being old and is not updated.

2.7. Descriptive research

2.7.1. Definition
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics
of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of
the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a
demographic segment, without focusing on “why”…
2.7.2. Descriptive Research Methods
There are three methods of descriptive research
i/ Case study method
The case study method refers to the in-depth and detailed study of the subject, person
or case, which is to be studied. A case study involves a formal research method to carry out
the research. Using the outcomes obtained from the case study research hypothesis can be
established, which can be used to expand the horizons of research.
However, case study research is not suitable to determine the relationship between
cause and effect as it does not provide accurate results. Moreover, the outcome of the case
study method is relevant to that particular case and similar cases and can’t be generalized.
Case studies are focused on interesting and unusual cases that are complex and challenging
and provide additional information about a particular case.
For example, in a medical case study, researchers study a rare medical case to get
more knowledge about the medical case. Similarly, case study methods are used by scientists
ii/ Observational Method
Observational research is a type of non-experimental research. Observational research
can be defined as a type of research where the researcher observes the ongoing behaviors of
the subject being studied. Observational research is majorly used in the marketing and social
science fields. In observational research, the researcher finds the actions of subjects under
study in their natural setting.
Observational methods are different from experimental research methods because, in
experimental research methods, an artificial environment is created for the subjects under
study. An observational study can be of two types, naturalistic observation or participant

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observation. A naturalistic observation study means the study of subjects when they are at
their natural behavior.
In participant observation, people being observed in the research study are aware of
the observation. They are asked to take part in the observation study. Observational research
methods are suitable for studying the behavior of subjects under the study. However, this
research is incapable of providing information about the actual cause of the behaviours of
subjects under study.
iii/ Survey Research

Survey research is one of the most popular and easy forms of research to obtain
information or to collect data. A questionnaire is prepared to contain questions related to the
research problem either on paper or in any digital format. These questionnaires are distributed
among random people in the hope of getting their accurate opinion.
The survey research method is popularly used in University researches and business
researches. Survey research is also called primary research and can be used with other
research methods to obtain accurate outcomes.
Moreover, data collected from survey research can be used as secondary research data
by other researchers.

2.7.3. Advantages of descriptive research

• Data collected from descriptive research is helpful in important decision-making

because the data is obtained from a large population. Because using the descriptive
survey method, statistical information can be obtained, and analysis of that data can be
made to deduce desired results.
• A variety of data can be obtained using different descriptive research methods like
surveys, observation, and vase study. These three research methods provide different
type of data which can be used to analysis for a research problem. For example, using
the case study research method can be used to develop a hypothesis about a research
problem.
• One advantage of descriptive research over other research methods is that it is cheap
and quick to conduct descriptive research. You don’t require having a great place
dedicated only to research. Descriptive research like observation research can be held
in natural settings, and you can distribute surveys to people online or get them
answered by random people at your business place or other public places.
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• Descriptive research provides both quantitative and qualitative data. The variety of
data provides a holistic understanding of the research problem.
• Descriptive research can be conducted in natural settings. There is no need to have a
designated space to conduct research using any of the descriptive research methods.

2.7.4. Disadvantages of descriptive research

• Descriptive methods only provide the answers for “what” and do not answer the why
and how. Therefore, descriptive research methods are not suitable for determining
cause and effect relationships.
• Descriptive methods mainly depend on the responses of people. There are chances that
people might not act their true selves if they know they are being observed. In the case
of the survey method, there are chances that some people don’t answer the questions
honestly, which makes the output of the descriptive research study invalid. Because
the results derived from this type of data will not be accurate.
• Another problem associated with descriptive research is the halo effect. A researcher
might get partial if he knows the participant personally. The observations made in this
way would be considered invalid.
• In descriptive research methods, participants are picked randomly. The randomness of
the sample can’t represent the whole population accurately.

2.8. Explanatory (Causal) research

2.8.1. Definition
Explanatory research is an attempt to connect different ideas and to understand the
different reasons, causes, and effects. Mostly the research starts from exploratory research,
then descriptive research and then explanatory research. Explanatory research is an attempt to
find the question of why?
2.8.2. Explanatory Research Methods
i/ Depth Interview
Depth Interview focus is to start your research with one well-educated and the specialized
person who knows and talk better about your research topic.
Suppose you are interviewing with a team of Laptops manufacturing company, then the well-
educated and specialized person can be any one of the followings;
• Team Leader
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• Sales Manager
• Marketing Manager
• Product Manufacturing Officer etc.
Depth Interview: Example of famous Coronavirus 2020
ii/ Case Analysis
Researchers can understand and solve the problem by researching similar cases with other
cases. For example, if the sale of the HP laptops is decreasing, then we can research for Dell
laptops that why Dell laptops sale is increasing day by day. The competitor’s study plays a
very important role in understanding our research topic.
Case Analysis: Example of famous Coronavirus 2020
iii/Focus Groups in explanatory research design
Suppose you are researching why HP laptops sale is decreasing day by day. As a researcher,
you must gather accurate and reliable information about the customers of the HP laptops. You
must get the information from your focus groups of customers. Some of the examples of the
required information are mentioned below;
• What does the customer want?
• What is the customer needs?
• What are the customer fears?
The most effective method of obtaining this type of information is to meet directly with your
audience, discuss with them and find out what’s on their minds and what they need.
Focus Groups: Example of famous Coronavirus 2020
iv/Literature Search
Literature Search is the fastest, easiest and cheapest way to search the literature.
Some helpful resources in literature research are mentioned below;
• Hypothesis
• Internet
• Books and libraries.
• Magazines
• Journals
• Research Papers
• Conferences etc.
Literature Search: Example of famous Coronavirus 2020

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2.8.3. Advantages of Explanatory research

• Causal studies may play an instrumental role in terms of identifying reasons behind a
wide range of processes, as well as, assessing the impacts of changes on existing
norms, processes etc.
• Causal studies usually offer the advantages of replication if necessity arises
• This type of studies are associated with greater levels of internal validity due to
systematic selection of subjects.

2.8.4. Disadvantages of Explanatory research

• Coincidences in events may be perceived as cause-and-effect relationships. For

example, Punxatawney Phil was able to forecast the duration of winter for five
consecutive years, nevertheless, it is just a rodent without intellect and forecasting
powers, i.e. it was a coincidence.
• It can be difficult to reach appropriate conclusions on the basis of causal research
findings. This is due to the impact of a wide range of factors and variables in social
environment. In other words, while casualty can be inferred, it cannot be proved with a
high level of certainty.
• It certain cases, while correlation between two variables can be effectively established;
identifying which variable is a cause and which one is the impact can be a difficult
task to accomplish.
2.9. Longitudinal Research
The longitudinal study refers to a set of observational studies in which the case group
is studied over time.
2.10. Cross-sectional Research
A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study in which the variables, in
terms of prevalence or relevance, are studied only at a given time and in a given community.
2.11. Action research
Action research is a type of research conducted by people involved in socio-
educational situations whose purpose is to improve the reasoning, justice of their social
practices, and to increase their understanding of the situation.

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