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The Prediction of the Emissivity and

Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds
a b
SAMUEL SUMIN SIH & JOEL W. BARLOW
a
School of Engineering , College Place, Washington, USA
b
Department of Chemical Engineering , Austin, Texas, USA
Published online: 09 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: SAMUEL SUMIN SIH & JOEL W. BARLOW (2004) The Prediction of the Emissivity and
Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds, Particulate Science and Technology: An International Journal,
22:3, 291-304, DOI: 10.1080/02726350490501682a

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 Particulate Science and Technology, 22: 291–304, 2004
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 0272-6351 print/1548-0046 online
DOI: 10.1080/02726350490501682

The Prediction of the Emissivity and Thermal

Conductivity of Powder Beds

SAMUEL SUMIN SIH

School of Engineering
Walla Walla College
College Place, Washington, USA
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JOEL W. BARLOW
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas, USA

A simple model for estimating the emissivity of the surface of a powder bed by
knowing only the bed porosity and its solid emissivity is presented. Estimates by the
model are compared with experimental measurements for powder beds of alumina,
silicon carbide, and iron. Agreement within the uncertainty of the measurements of

10% is obtained. A view factor that adopts the predicted emissivity of the powder
beds into its term is suggested for the calculation of the conductivity by radiation.
For the prediction of the thermal conductivity of the powder beds, the authors
compared the existing models in literature. They rederived the Zehner-Schlunder
equation (1970) and made some modifications to it. Comparison of predictions by
this equation with 424 measured values shows the predictions to be accurate to
within a
30% relative error.

Keywords: emissivity, thermal conductivity, porosity

Introduction
The emissivity and the thermal conductivity of powder beds are important variables
in many processes in industry, including for example, selective laser sintering and
other processes of solid free-form fabrication. The emissivity of the powder beds is
needed in order to calculate the energy density of the laser beam for predicting the
sintering depth of the powder bed to be sintered in the selective laser sintering
process (Nelson et al., 1993, 1995). Power received by the powder bed surface, P0 , is
related to the beam power, P, that is used by the following equation:

P0 ¼ aP  esðT4S  T4A Þ ð1Þ

To know P0 , the emissivity, e, and absorptivity, a, of the powder bed, as well as the
surface and ambient temperatures, TS and TA, must be known.

Address correspondence to Samuel Sumin Sih, School of Engineering, Walla Walla College,
College Place, WA 99 324, USA.

291
 292 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow

The emissivity of powder beds also influences the view factor in radiation heat
transfer, which in turn influences the thermal conductivity of the powder bed. There
are a finite difference program and a finite element method program for the pre-
diction of the bed density of the powder to be sintered (Nelson, 1993), which need
the knowledge of the thermal conductivity of the powder bed beforehand. Prediction
of the emissivity and thermal conductivity of the powder bed helps in solving such
problems.

The Predictive Model for the Emissivity of Powder Beds

We begin with the usual assumption that most bodies are considered to be ‘‘gray’’
and with no transmission of radiation. This leads to the assumption that a ¼ e. The
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emission of radiation to ambient from a hot porous surface, such as the powder bed,
can be assumed to be caused by emission from the heated particles and emission
from the cavities in the powder bed, all at the same temperature. Although the walls
of the cavities are made of the same particles, the emissivity of the hole is a function
of its geometry, particularly the fraction, f, of total cavity surface that is cut away by
the emitting hole (Bird et al., 1960; DeWitt & Nutter, 1988) and is approximately
expressed as:

eS
eH  ð2Þ
eS þ fð1  eS Þ

where eS is the emissivity of the solid particle and eH is that of the hole. Equation (2)
suggests that the hole emissivity is always higher than that of the material comprising
the cavity and may even approach 1.0, the emissivity of a black body radiator, as f
becomes small. Consequently, we expect the emissivity of the powder to be some-
what higher than that of the solid, and to follow the expression

e ¼ AH eH þ ð1  AH ÞeS ð3Þ

where AH is the area fraction of the surface that is occupied by the radiation-emitting
holes. This expectation is experimentally met; see below.
The general problem remains to describe the parameters AH and f in Equations
(2) and (3) for a powder bed. German (1969a) provides a relationship that describes
the mean pore diameter, d, as a function of the particle size, D, and the fractional
packing density, r (note: this is volume fraction, and not density), for a powder bed
comprised of randomly packed, single-size spheres:

2 Dð1  rÞ
d¼ or
3 r
2 Dj
d¼ ð4Þ
31  j

where j is the fractional porosity of the bed, and j ¼ 1r. German (1989b) also
estimates that there are approximately 2.92 pores per sphere in the randomly packed
bed. The surface of the randomly packed bed should have (2.93)2=3 or 2.043 pores
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 293

per sphere in the plane. The area fraction, AH, occupied by the pores is then

2
2:043 pd
4
AH ¼ 2 2
ð5Þ
2:043 pd pD
4 þ 4

Substitution of Equation (4) into Equation (5) yields

0:908j2
AH ¼ ð6Þ
1:908j2  2j þ 1

For simplicity, we estimate f by considering each pore to be a cylinder of length, L,

so that
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2
p d4 1
f¼ ¼ ð7Þ
2 þ 4L
2
2p d þ pdL
4 d

The length, L, can be determined from the definition of porosity, j,

p
2:92 d2 L
j¼ 4 ð8Þ
p 2 1
2:92 d L þ pD2
4 6

and by transposing and substituting Equation (5) to yield

1j
L ¼ 0:514D ð9Þ
j

Substitution of Equations (9) and (4) into Equation (7) yields

2

j
1j
f¼
2 ð10Þ
j
2 þ 3:082
1j

and substitution of Equation (10) into Equation (2) leads to

"
2 #
1j
eS 2 þ 3:082
j
eH ¼ "
2 # ð11Þ
1j
eS 1 þ 3:082 þ1
j

Equation (11) suggests that the emissivity of the hole is independent of particle
diameter and a function only of solid emissivity and the bed porosity. As shown in
Figure 1, the calculated emissivity of the hole decreases slightly as the bed porosity
increases and also increases as the emissivity of the solid increases. The first trend
occurs because f increases with increasing porosity (see Equation (10)), causing the
 294 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow
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Figure 1. Calculated hole emissivity.

hold to become a less perfect radiator. The second trend simply notes the importance
of solid emissivity in determining the emissivity of the powder bed.
The emissivity of the powder bed may be obtained by the substitution of
Equations (6) and (11) into Equation (3).

Comparison with Experimental Measurements

Experimental emissivities were obtained for three refractory powders, 15 mm mean
particle size alumina (Norton), 7 mm silicon carbide (Norton=Lanxide), 4.6 mm sili-
con carbide (Norton=Lanxide), and <45 mm iron (Hoeganaes). These materials have
measured bulk densities of 1.94, 1.54, 1.06, and 3.44 g=cm3, respectively, with cor-
responding fractional porosities of 0.512, 0.521, 0.670, and 0.563. The properties of
these powders are tabulated in Table 1. Emissivities were also measured for some
other materials not mentioned in this article.
The experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 2. The powder is contained in a
thermally guarded tube that heats the bed to the desired experimental temperature.
The powder is then irradiated by CO2 laser radiation at its top surface. A thermo-
couple is mounted 1 cm below the surface to record the temperature.
Per experimental bed temperature, the temperature rise is limited to less than
10 C to permit thermal analysis that is based on constant thermal properties. Surface
absorptivity, a, assumed to be equal to surface emissivity, e, is measured by noting
differences in the thermal rise behavior of the powder bed between exposure, at the

Table 1
Material table for emissivity measurements

Mean Solid density, Bulk density,

Material Porosity particle size, mm kg=m3 kg=m3

Alumina 0.5118 15 mm 3970 1938

Iron 0.563 <45 mm 7870 3438
SiC 0.52153 7.0 3217 1539.25
SiC 0.6704 4.6 3217 1060.4
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 295
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Figure 2. Schematic of apparatus.

same laser power, of the natural surface and the same surface covered with a thin
layer of carbon black powder, assumed to have eR ¼ aR ¼ 1.0. For approximation,
the thermal rise rate is measured in the linear region of the thermal rise curve in both
measurements, and the bed heat capacity is assumed constant because the carbon
black powder is but a very thin layer. Consequently, the governing equation is

ðdT=dtÞ
e ¼ eR ð12Þ
ðdT=dtÞR

Errors in this method are primarily those associated with determining the rise rates.
We estimate relative errors in the range of 8 10%.
The measured emissivities of the powder beds are given in Tables 2–5. Com-
parison between the bed emissivities calculated by Equation (3) and resulting from
experiment is shown in Figures 3–6 for the materials tested. Generally, agreement lies
within the experimental error band for all cases studied. The model depends strongly
on the emissivity of the solid, and generally this is a function of temperature that
 296 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow

Table 2
The measured emissivity of powder beds: Alumina powder,
porosity of 0.5118
T(K) Emissivity

325 0.900
373 0.884
554 0.76
Laser wavelength ¼ 10.6 mm.

Table 3
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Measured emissivity of powder beds: Iron powder, porosity

of 0.563

T(K) Emissivity

329.15 0.778
376.75 0.780
473.15 0.800
565.15 0.813
679.15 0.842
751.15 0.857
Laser wavelength ¼ 10.6 mm.

Table 4
Measured emissivity of powder beds: Silicon carbide powder,
porosity of 0.52; mean particle size of 7.0 mm
T(K) Emissivity

327 0.917
377 0.911
468 0.909
586 0.895
659 0.875

Table 5
Measured emissivity of powder beds: Silicon carbide powder,
porosity of 0.67; mean particle size of 4.6 mm
T(K) Emissivity

326 0.900
376 0.895
473 0.891
568 0.885
663 0.870
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 297

Figure 3. Comparison of predicted and measured emissivity for 15 mm alumina.

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Figure 4. Comparison of predicted and measured emissivity for 4.6 mm silicon carbide.

Figure 5. Comparison of predicted and measured emissivity for 7 mm silicon carbide.

Figure 6. Comparison of predicted and measured emissivity for iron powder.

 298 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow

must be selected with some care from other sources. The references to solid emis-
sivities employed in this study are Rohsenow et al. (1985) for alumina and silicon
carbide and Raünjeviü (1976) for iron (wrought).

The Predictive Model for the Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds

There are some equations in the literature for the prediction of the thermal con-
ductivity of powder beds. Besides Yagi-Kunii’s equation (Yagi & Kunii, 1957),
Zehner-Schlünder’s equation (Zehner & Schlünder, 1970) has been noted to be a
comparatively good one (Hahne et al., 1991). The present authors also noted the
comparative superiority of Zehner-Schlünder’s equation over the other equations
(Xue & Barlow, 1991). Schotte’s equation (1960) was adopted by Zehner and
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Schlünder in their equation for consideration of the radiation effect. In the deriva-
tion of Zehner-Schlünder’s equation, the present authors found some mistakes in the
original article (Zehner & Schlünder, 1970). (For example, Equation (8) of their
article does not give Equation (9) in their article by integration.) We rederived the
equation (Sih, 1996), changed the radiation term for the free fluid part a little, and
used the direct addition of the DamkAöhler term to consider the radiation in core
heat transfer. Convection is not considered here. We added the term f to consider
the contact between the particles. The final equation may be called a variant of
Zehner-Schlünder’s equation. It reads as
!
k  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi jkR
¼ 1 1j 1þ þ
kg kg
Free fluid
( " ! ! # )
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 B kg ks B þ 1 B  1 kR kcontact
þ 1  j ð1  fÞ   1 ln   þ þf
1
Bkg Bkg 2 ks Bkg 2 Bk
1 g kg kg
ks 1 ks ks

(Complete
Core heat transfer
solid contact)
ð13Þ
In the above equation,
k ¼ effective thermal conductivity of the powder bed, W=m-K
kg ¼ thermal conductivity of the continuous gas phase, W=m-K
ks ¼ thermal conductivity of the skeletal solid, W=m-K
j ¼ porosity of the powder bed
kR ¼ thermal conductivity part of the powder bed owing to radiation, denoted
by DamkAöhler’s equation below, W=m-K
f ¼ flattened surface fraction of particle in contact with another particle (it is equal
to the flattened surface area divided by the cross-sectional area of the particle); f ¼ 0
when there is no contact for the particles; f ¼ 1 when there is complete particle contact
B ¼ deformation parameter of the particle; B ¼ 1 when the particle surface is that
of a sphere; B < 1 when it is a prolonged needle; 4 > B > 1 when it is a barrel-like
body; B may be approximately calculated from the porosity j of the powder bed
(Zehner & Schlünder, 1970):

10
1j 9
B  1:25
j
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 299

kcontact ¼ 18 fks, for f < 3H104; kcontact is near to ks in value only when f is
greater than 0.01, according to Wakao and Kaguei (1982).
DamkAöhler’s equation is as follows:

kR ¼ 4FsT3 xR ð14Þ

where kR ¼ conductivity by thermal radiation, W=m-K; F ¼ view factor;

s ¼ 5.67H108 Wm2 K4; T ¼ mean absolute temperature of the powder bed, in K;
and xR ¼ effective length for radiation between particles, or the particle diameter of
the powder in m.
The view factor, F, has been estimated by several investigators to be a function
of powder bed emissivity, e. See Table 6.
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In substituting Wakao-Kato’s expression into DamkAöhler’s equation, one obtains

4esT3 xR
kR ¼ ð15Þ
1  0:132e

We found that when the emissivity of the powder bed, e, is known, the kR
expressed in the above equation gives better approximation to the experimental
results than Equation (14) with F ¼ 1=3 according to DamkAöhler.
Bauer developed Zehner-Schlünder’s model and arrived at Zehner-Bauer’s
equation (Bauer & Schlünder, 1978; Schlünder, 1986). In the following comparison,
we found that the predicted values for the thermal conductivity of the powder bed by
Equations (13), (3), and (15) are nearer to the measured values than by both Zehner-
Bauer’s equation and Yagi-Kunii’s equation (see Figure 7).
For the measurement of the thermal conductivities of the powder beds under the
temperature of 100 C, the authors used the two-water-bath method (Naumann &
Seydel, 1983; Xue & Barlow, 1990). For the measurement of the thermal con-
ductivities of the powder beds up to 500 C, the same equipment for the measurement
of the emissivities of powder beds shown in Figure 2 was used. The method used is a
transient state one. This is preferred over steady-state experiments because the latter
ordinarily use high temperature differences with long baking time to reach the steady
state, which will cause deformation of the powder surface somewhat. The powder

Table 6
Various forms of the view factor from DamkAöhler’s equation

Year Reference F
A
1937 Damk öhler (1937) 1=3
1952 Bosworth (1952) 1=3 (for black particles)
1953 Argo & Smith (1953) e=(2e)
1960 Schotte (1960) e
1969 Wakao & Kato (1969); 2=(2=e0.264)
Wakao & Kaguei (1982)
1993 Helte (1993) 4e=[3(1r)]a
a
e is the total hemispherical emissivity, and r is the total hemispherical reflectivity.
 300 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow
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Figure 7. The thermal conductivity of alumina powder (porosity ¼ 0.71) by measurements

(Landolt-Börnstein), compared with the values predicted by Equations (13), (3), and (15),
Zehner-Bauer’s equation, and Yagi-Kunii’s equation.

surface is hit by the laser beam from the top. The thermocouple from the center of
the tube, which is packed with the powder sample, leads to a data acquisition system.
For this 1-D conduction, supposed to be a semi-infinite bed, the sketch for the
symbols is shown in Figure 8.
The solution for this heat transfer problem is given as follows (Carslaw & Jaeger,
1959)


2eP pffiffiffiffiffi z
DTðz; tÞ ¼ atierfc pffiffiffiffiffi ð16Þ
k 2 at

The data acquisition system records the change of temperature according to time
at the position of the thermocouple. The change of temperature (DT1 ¼ T1T0)
at time 1 (t1) and the change of temperature (DT2 ¼ T2T0) at time 2 (t2 ¼ 2t1) are
read out.

 pffiffiffi

pffiffiffi L 1
2 2ierfc pffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 ierfc p ffiffi
ffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DTðL; 2t1 Þ T2  T0 2 at2 2 2 Fo1
R¼ ¼ ¼
 ¼
 ð17Þ
DTðL; t1 Þ T1  T0 L 1
2ierfc pffiffiffiffiffiffi ierfc pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 at1 2 Fo1

In the above equation, the Fourier number at t1, Fo1 ¼ at1=L2, L is the depth of the
point beneath the surface at which the thermocouple is placed, and a is the thermal
diffusivity of the powder bed. The authors wrote a Fortran program for the above
relationship and derived a table (Sih, 1996) to find out the value of Fo1 for every
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 301

Figure 8. The 1-D conduction in a semi-infinite bed.

definite temperature rise ratio R value in Equation (17). (The R value may be easily
obtained from the temperature rise versus time graph.) From the Fo1, one may
obtain the thermal diffusivity of the powder bed, a. The thermal conductivity of the
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powder bed may be obtained by the multiplication of the a by the bulk density r and
the heat capacity Cp of the sample powder.
The data of the thermal conductivities of powder beds obtained by the authors
are listed below (see Table 4), compared with the thermal conductivities of the
powder beds calculated by the use of Equations (13) and (15) when the emissivity
data are available, or Equations (13) and (14) (F is supposed to be 0.5) when no
emissivity data are available. The reason for the choice of F as 0.5 is because the
emissivities of powder beds are generally larger than 0.5. By Wakao and Kato’s
equation for the view factor, F should be larger than 0.5. So F ¼ 0.5 is preferred
rather than DamkAöhler’s 1=3.
For the comparison with the calculations by Equations (13) and (14), the present
authors also included the data on the thermal conductivities of powder beds pro-
vided by Landolt-BAörnstein’s Data Collection (Landolt-BAörnstein), Kannuluik
and Martin (1933), Kling (1938), Schumann and Voss (1934), Waddems (1944),
Hatta and Maeda (1948, 1949), Okada and Tamyabe (1953–54), Preston (1957),
Kimura (1957), Deissler and Boegli (1958). Crane and Vachon (1977) did not include
the value of the particle sizes of the powder beds in their tables; we did not include
their data for the testing with the calculations by the equations, as particle size must
be known for Equation (14) to be used. In our calculations, the deformation para-
meter of the particles is assumed to be 1 (i.e., the particles are spherical in shape), and
it is assumed that there is no flattening of contact surfaces (fp ¼ 0). The comparison
of the calculated results by Equations (13) and (15) or Equations (13) and (14) (with
F ¼ 0.5) with 424 data points by experiments is shown in Figure 9. The comparison
showed the results to be within an error range of þ30% to 30%.

Conclusions
The simple model for calculating the emissivity of a powder bed, presented here,
seems to do an adequate job for predicting the effects of the emissivity of the solid
and of the bed porosity, although the collection of more data on the emissivities
of powder beds for testing the equations presented by the authors seems to be
necessary.
Wakao-Kato’s expression for the view factor of the radiation term proved to be
more consistent with the measured values than DamkAöhler’s value of view factor.
The equations used by the authors for the prediction of the thermal conductivity of
powder beds consider conduction and radiation, but not convection. They have been
 302 S. S. Sih and J. W. Barlow
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Figure 9. Normalized data of the thermal conductivity of powder beds (k=kg) compared to the
normalized predicted thermal conductivity values according to Equation (13).

compared with 424 sets of data from literature and measurements of the authors.
The comparison showed the results to be within an error range of þ30 to 30%.

Nomenclature

AH area fraction of surface occupied by the pores or holes

B deformation parameter
D particle size
d mean pore diameter
F view factor
f fraction of total internal cavity area that is cut away by the hole
k thermal conductivity
kcontact thermal conductivity of powder particle at the contact surface
keq. thermal conductivity calculated by equations
kg thermal conductivity of the continuous gas phase
kR conductivity by thermal radiation
ks thermal conductivity of the skeletal solid
L length
P beam power
P0 radiant power taken in by the powder bed surface
R ratio
T temperature
 Emissivity and Thermal Conductivity of Powder Beds 303

TA ambient temperature
TS surface temperature
t time
xR diameter of powder particle
Greek Letters
a (1) absorptivity; (2) thermal diffusivity
aR absorptivity of carbon black
e emissivity
eH emissivity of the hole
eR emissivity of carbon black
eS emissivity of the solid
r (1) fractional packing density (volume fraction); (2) total hemispherical
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reflectivity
s Stefan-Boltzmann constant ¼ 5.67H108 Wm2 K4
j porosity of the powder bed
f flattened surface area of a powder particle divided by the cross-sectional
area of the particle

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