Ali Demirci, Rafael de Miguel Gonz

International Perspectives on Geographical Education
Ali Demirci · Rafael de Miguel González

Sarah Witham Bednarz Editors
Geography
Education
for Global
Understanding
International Perspectives on Geographical
Education
Series editors
Clare Brooks, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
J. A. van der Schee, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences (FALW), Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Ali Demirci Rafael de Miguel González
•
Sarah Witham Bednarz

Editors
Geography Education
for Global Understanding
123
Editors
Ali Demirci Sarah Witham Bednarz
IGU-Commission Department of Geography
on Geographical Education Texas A&M University
Büyükçekmece, Istanbul College Station, TX
Turkey USA
Rafael de Miguel González

Faculty of Education
University of Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Spain
ISSN 2367-2773 ISSN 2367-2781 (electronic)

International Perspectives on Geographical Education
ISBN 978-3-319-77215-8 ISBN 978-3-319-77216-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5
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Foreword
Globalization is transforming—even revolutionizing—the geographical conditions

of everyday life for every person on the planet. Consequently, long-established
worldviews that have guided our actions and served us well in the past are now out
of whack and no longer match what we experience on an everyday basis.
Geographical education has a key role to play when it comes to assessing these
currently held geographical worldviews, their origins, and past applications as well
as questioning their suitability to deal with present-day challenges, which include,
for example, international migration, global social inequalities, and climate change.
Such issues demand geographers across the board, including researchers and
teachers, to confront and reflect upon their own geographical worldviews (or
geographical imaginations) as these underpin and guide theoretical as well as
practical endeavors. Geographical educators, as those contributing to this book, are
rising to this challenge and are demonstrating, each in their own way, that, and how
their respective individual research and larger fields of expertise are uniquely
positioned to enquire into the value, as well as discontents, of their scholarly
discipline and applied teaching practices.
Starting from the premise that there are few things more important for our daily
life than basic geographical information, knowledge about our own place on planet
Earth, and other places of significance to us in respect of our own contexts of
action, we can first of all better understand why so many people experience pro-
cesses of globalization as disturbing and challenging. Second, from this vantage
point, we are also able to identify the reasons why geographical education is so
fundamental for mastering the challenges that go along with the digital revolution.
Most of the responses that have so far been developed to cope with the perceived
perturbations of everyday life through globalization are less than satisfactory, on
both a political and academic levels.
Responses to globalization in the political sphere worldwide tend to invoke
backward “solution” strategies rather than future-oriented approaches. Nationalist
discourses favor a return to the “correct”, “natural”, and fixed society-space nexus.
These discourses share similar ways to construct and maintain that which counts as
“reality” as the well-established geographical education, (re-)producing the national
v
vi Foreword
unity as a spatially shaped entity, based on the unity of natural and cultural realities,
or at least on a territorially regulated unity of culture, society, and economy, the
nation as country, now exposed to the threat of globalization. In addition, the
geography of the national is a geography constituted on the basis of specific
(cultural, social, and economic) conditions by our actions.
Geographers need to prepare present and future generations for the consequences
of the changes making globalization possible, with both good and problematic
implications. Certainly, one of geography’s most important and most noble duties is
to prepare the citizens of this planet for the new geographical conditions of their
life, and to not only come to terms with but also to actively shape new geographical
realities without falling into the traps of backward-orientated expectations. The
understanding of one’s own life in a global context is a fundamental prerequisite, a
new conditio humana, to successfully meeting the challenges of new forms and
intensities of globalization. This is also what the International Year of Global
Understanding is about, and what could and perhaps should be a core programmatic
topic of geographical education for present and future generations.
We are all experiencing every day the breathtaking speed at which the spatial
conditions of our actions and living contexts are changing. Information and com-
munication technologies are evolving at an ever-faster pace. For many of us, it is
already difficult to follow the rhythm of technological innovation cycles, and it
seems unlikely that we are able to envisage fully the implications and consequences
of these changes, neither regarding the course of our personal lives nor regarding
social realities in general.
The acceleration of our lives through the digital revolution on the way to a
digital age encompasses first and foremost the realm of communication, particularly
as interactions over distance in real time are concerned. These are among the key
indicators of globalization. We can already guess that with these changes global-
ization is bringing about a new world order. It requires us to question long-held and
well-established views concerning the nexus of society and space and even more so,
well-established culture– and economy–space relations. That’s why the
International Year of Global Understanding (IYGU) addresses the ways we live in
an increasingly globalized and globalizing world and the transformation of nature
from the perspective of global sustainability—the objective the IYGU wishes to
achieve for the sake of future generations.
The IYGU program—jointly declared by the international councils of the natural
sciences (ICSU), the social sciences (ISSC), and the humanities (CIPSH) on the
basis of a UNESCO resolution—recognizes that dealing successfully with global
social, cultural, economic, and, of course, also climatic changes requires a global
level of understanding, the global embeddedness of local everyday action in
sociocultural as well as in biophysical contexts. The IYGU program aims to bridge
the gap in awareness between local actions and global effects and will develop a
flexible matrix for a new geographical view of a radically changing world.
The idea of global understanding rests on the premise that social and cultural
factors shape the way we understand ourselves in relation to our nonhuman envi-
ronment and hence, how we appropriate and transform this environment.
Foreword vii
The notion of global understanding focuses on the opportunities and challenges that
we are faced with in an increasingly globalized and globalizing world. In doing so,
the IYGU program specifically addresses the consequences current environment-
transforming practices have for global sustainability and how these practices might
be altered so as to yield the best possible outcome from a sustainability perspective.
In the field of education, the IYGU program seeks to equip students with the
competencies to identify key challenges, comprehensively assess their context, and
develop solutions in accordance with the overarching goal of global sustainability.
The principal method to achieve these goals is to work toward a new geo-
graphical imagination of the world. In the sense of an imaginative cartography, this
will literally “put on the map” the many forms of interdependence and conflict in
the new geographical realities of the digital age. In the sense of an intellectual
program of research and discussion, this will lay the conceptual foundations for an
understanding of the new geography of globalization and its political implications.
For this endeavor, the IYGU suggests a practice-centered perspective on the current
globalized and globalizing geographical living conditions. All this implies and
makes necessary a specific program for geographical education.
In the most general sense, the educational guidelines derived from the IYGU
program for the reform of geography curricula around the globe suggest to
specifically address three focal interfaces. The first one is pointing to the
local/global nexus of human activities as well as natural, or rather, biophysical,
processes. The correlating teaching contents could concentrate on making under-
standable how local actions impact the global. To help put this into practice,
geographical visualization tools and methods promise to be very helpful. The
second interface addresses the sociocultural/natural interface. In this respect, the
impact of a culture’s core, the practices and lifestyles with their social and regional
differentiation, could be the focal point of reference. From that point onward,
culturally embedded and adapted, socially and ecologically, and sustainable ways
of doing things could be projected in a playful way. Ideally, the outcomes could be
incorporated in ways of living sustainably, as new joyful lifestyles situated in
cultural and regional differentiation designed for the age of sustainability. The third
interface is that of everyday/science and is maybe the didactically most challenging
task. However, geographical education could be the place where pupils and stu-
dents learn to integrate scientific knowledge and everyday practices. This would
include learning to process scientific stocks of knowledge for (more) sustainable
action patterns and technologies in everyday local use. In line with the IYGU
program, future geographical teaching will therefore put forward three
bridge-building processes for a better geographical understanding of a globalizing
world: bridging (1) the local and the global (global understanding), (2) the multi-
plicity of sociocultural worlds and the natural world (integration), and (3) everyday
life and scientific knowledge (transdisciplinary perspective). Overall, teaching in
this perspective seeks to integrate the knowledge of the social and natural sciences
and the humanities to gain an understanding of the global impacts and pathways to
the transformation of everyday local activities.
viii Foreword
To accomplish these tasks, a shift from a space-centered to a practice-centered

geographical perspective is required. With such a shift, we can adopt a position of
observation, representation, and explanation of the world that enables us to dis-
mantle nationalist discourses. At the same time, this change in perspective can help
us to gain a better understanding of the forces that shape globalized living condi-
tions and the processes of geography-making itself. As it is widely acknowledged
today that humanity’s grand challenges are global in scale, a geographical education
that adopts such a vantage point is certainly of highest relevance. And since peo-
ple’s everyday activities on a local level are now intricately entwined and
embedded in global processes—both sociocultural and biophysical—understanding
the ways in which the local is bound to the global is a prerequisite for effective
sustainability policies.
Now as ever, few things are more important than an appropriate understanding
of our living conditions on this planet. In this day and age, a global kind of
understanding is of utmost relevance. This understanding will hopefully lead to the
insight that the most challenging problems of the present are those that are global
scale and yet can be traced back to the cumulative effect of a large number of local,
seemingly small, and trivial actions. For global scale problems, we need globally
oriented solution strategies. For the solution of these problems, territorial conflicts
are simply not an option. All in all, global understanding shall help people to
become aware of their own globalized living conditions, independent of whether
they are directly or indirectly affected by globalization processes. A geographical
education that enables us to understand the global embeddedness of our local
actions and the ensuing responsibility as global citizen is of utmost relevance for
making this possible.
Benno Werlen
Executive Director and Initiator
International Year of Global Understanding
Contents
Part I The Framework for Global Understanding

1 Why Geography Education Matters for Global
Understanding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Rafael de Miguel González, Sarah Witham Bednarz and Ali Demirci
2 Geography Education Responding to Global Forces:
Redefining the Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Margaret E. Robertson
3 Why the World Needs Geography Knowledge in Global
Understanding: An Evaluation from a Climate Change
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chew-Hung Chang and Andy Wi
4 Spatially Informed Citizenship Education as an Approach
for Global Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Inga Gryl and Thomas Jekel
Part II Geography Education for Global Understanding

5 The Role of Geography Education for Global
Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Michael Solem and Zhou Weiguo
6 Geography Education and Global Understanding: Exploring
Some Ideas and Trends in a Fast-Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Joop van der Schee and Tine Béneker
7 How Geography Curricula Tackle Global Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
David Lambert and Nicola Walshe
ix
x Contents
8 From Classroom Practices to Global Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Caroline Leininger-Frezal and Sophie Gaujal
9 Geography Education, Transculturalism and Global
Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Niranjan Casinader and Gillian Kidman
Part III Global Understanding in Geography Education

Around the World
10 Perspectives on Global Understanding in Ibero-American
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fabián Araya Palacios, Xosé Manuel Souto González
and Sérgio Claudino
11 Geography Education for Global Understanding in China . . . . . . . 143
Yushan Duan, Fengtao Guo, Lianfei Jiang, Xiaowei Xuan
and Xin Miao
12 Global Education for Global Understanding:
The Case of Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Sirpa Tani, Outi Houtsonen and Elina Särkelä
13 Global Understanding and Geography Education in Japan . . . . . . 165
Minori Yuda
14 Global Understanding in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Christo P. van der Westhuizen and Aubrey Golightly
15 Spain: Geography Education for Global Understanding . . . . . . . . . 183
Rafael de Miguel González and Maria Luisa de Lázaro Torres
16 Geography, Global Citizenship and Global Learning
in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
John Hopkin and Rebecca Kitchen
17 Preparing Global Citizens in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Osvaldo Muñiz Solari
18 India: Global Understanding in Geography Education . . . . . . . . . . 215
Aparna Pandey
19 The Study of Global Issues and Geographic Education
in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Alexander Lobzhanidze
Contents xi
20 Perspectives on Global Understanding in Geography

Education in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Lynn Moorman and Kendra Garbutt
Part IV Conclusion
21 A Road Map to Empower Geography Education for Global
Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Sarah Witham Bednarz, Rafael de Miguel González and Ali Demirci
Part I
The Framework for Global
Understanding
Chapter 1
Why Geography Education Matters
for Global Understanding?
Rafael de Miguel González, Sarah Witham Bednarz and Ali Demirci
1.1 Geography Education in a Changing World
Globalization is one of the most widely discussed topics in geography and other social
sciences. It refers to intensified geographical movements across national borders of com-
modities, people seeking employment, money and capital investment, knowledge, cultural
values, and environmental pollutants. It also refers to the increased interdependence among
nation-states and supranational institutions and to increased connectivity among people’s
movements for a more democratic and humane society. Globalization has economic,
political, cultural, spatial, and environmental aspects. (Das and Bridi 2013)
Geography is a scientific discipline that deals with the teaching and learning of the
processes of spatial organization of human societies. Thus, the most evident phe-
nomenon that has characterized the evolution of contemporary civilization has been
the increasing interconnection among the different areas of the world. Whether as a
consequence of the technological revolution or the processes of internationalization
and opening up of national economies or consumption habits in urban societies,
whether as a consequence of the new international political order, it is indisputable
that these first two decades of the twenty-first century are experiencing changes faster
than ever before. The fact that the world is changing is a main challenge for geog-
raphy education, as expressed in key publications (see Lidstone and Williams 2006;
Muñiz et al. 2015) or in the titles of presentations at major geography conferences.
R. de Miguel González (&)

University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
e-mail: rafaelmg@unizar.es
S. W. Bednarz
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
e-mail: s-bednarz@geos.tamu.edu
A. Demirci
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 3

A. Demirci et al. (eds.), Geography Education for Global Understanding,
International Perspectives on Geographical Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_1
4 R. de Miguel González et al.
The world, in general, and individual countries, in particular, are experiencing

social, economic, and environmental problems with many direct and indirect effects
on societies. More than a third of the population across the world lives in poverty,
in need of basic essentials such as food, sanitation, shelter, and education.
Environmental degradation may already have exceeded the threshold beyond which
Earth will lose its ability to sustain its most precious and valuable resources for
humankind. Changes in regional and global climate patterns have already impacted
many countries with severe weather events, droughts, and floods. Social and cul-
tural problems resulting from globalization, mass migration, refugees, inequality in
income distribution, xenophobia, and racial, linguistic, and religious discrimination
are endangering peace and coexistence in nearly all countries. Political and military
conflicts and terrorist activities have disrupted the social order in and between
countries throughout the world. Urban migration and the growth of megacities are
causing severe challenges for their inhabitants in terms of subsistence (housing,
transportation, and supplies). With their global consequences, these and many other
social, economic, and environmental problems have consumed our energy and
resources, and our abilities to live in peace together in the world.
Global problems can only be solved with global approaches, affordances, and
resources. Instead, we have a world retreating from global approaches and moving
to adopt nationalistic, local-scale policies, even in the most advanced countries as
recently seen in the United Kingdom’s Brexit or U.S. President Trump’s decision to
withdraw from the Paris Agreement on climate change. There have been tremen-
dous efforts to understand global issues and work to find solutions in recent years.
Many different international, regional, and national initiatives have addressed and
tried to tackle global problems by raising awareness that global understanding is a
key issue. We need a global community consisting of individuals with the necessary
understanding of Earth’s large-scale problems, their underlying causes, and with the
essential attitudes and behaviors to become active members of a community to
address these problems.
Education, supported by strong curricular standards, pedagogic approaches,
research methodologies, and instructional resources, is essential to create such a
community. Exploring the interactions of the world’s human and environmental
systems at local, regional, and global scales is embedded in the nature of the
discipline of geography. Geography, better than any other discipline, can explore
the spatial relationships of social and physical phenomena at diverse scales and
suggest solutions to significant and persistent problems. Therefore, geography
education in primary and secondary schools has a tremendous potential to provide
the next generation with the understanding, attitudes, and behaviors required to
work for solutions to global problems.
Global Citizenship Education, UNESCO’s flagship initiative, aims to empower
learners to assume active roles to face and resolve global challenges and to become
proactive contributors to a more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, and secure world.
Such goals have also been developed through several national initiatives for global
education, later described in respective chapters of this book. One way or another,
there are several topics related to global education and global citizenship education
1 Why Geography Education Matters for Global Understanding? 5
such as human rights, global governance, sustainability, peace, identity and cultural
diversity, etc., that are typical topics in national curriculum or standards for
geography education. Learning spatial challenges at a global scale can only be
achieved if children and young students are able to perceive them at both a local
and national scale. International migrations, rapid urbanization, offshoring, and
landscape alterations caused by increasing temperatures are, among others, good
examples for case studies in local contexts to understand present social and spatial
changes in the world.
The world in the global age is changing and thus teaching the world, teaching
about Earth—teaching geography—at least should evolve in parallel, both in
content, that is, what new geographical issues to teach, and in pedagogy, that is,
how to teach them. This book focuses on the International Year for Global
Understanding (IYGU) challenge: Changing geographies—the global reach of
local actions, what is by itself an educational challenge in at least six aspects:
eating, housing, moving, interacting, preserving, and entertaining. In fact, this book
could also be entitled Changing education for changing geographies since as
geography educators we still have to teach mountains, rivers, and borders, but we
have to move forward and raise awareness of everyone’s and everyday life, local
actions, and community decisions and their impact on human transformations of
natural realities, economic globalization, global climate change, and changes in
social and cultural practices, that is to say, changes in the spatial conditions of
human life.
1.2 Global Understanding: A Key Issue

for the Commission on Geographical Education
The year 2016 was declared International Year of Global Understanding. This
initiative has already matured into a network of many different action centers
around the world, each organizing different activities to raise awareness of global
approaches to problems, and to educate individuals to think globally and act locally
in order to have a more sustainable, prosperous, and peaceful world. In 2016, the
33rd International Geographical Conference was held in Beijing with the theme
“Shaping our harmonious world”, where the International Geographical Union
offered consistent support for the IYGU initiative. For its part, the Commission on
Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union (IGU-CGE) has
emphasized the role of geography education in preparing twenty-first-century cit-
izens to acquire essential global understandings through its new International
Charter on Geographical Education (2016). UNESCO’s concept of international
understanding was the founding principle for this Commission during the second
half of the last century (Graves and Stoltman 2015), but the new context of the
present world makes the concept of global understanding even more appropriate.
Previous to the 33rd International Geographical Conference in Beijing, other

IGU events have underlined the importance of global understanding. The IGU
Krakow Regional Conference in 2014, “Changes, Challenges, Responsibilities” and
the IGU Moscow Regional Conference in 2015, “Geography, Culture and Society
for Our Future Earth” both highlighted global understanding as a key issue through
keynote speeches and presentation tracks. In a special way, IGU-CGE Symposia—
at least since Brisbane in 2006, “Geographical Education in a Changing World”—
have included several presentations related to global understanding. The 2017
IGU-CGE Symposium “Integrating Knowledge and Understanding in Geography
Education” serves an important milestone for disseminating research on global
understanding education.
Second, publications linked to IGU-CGE have featured global understanding as
a topic. As aforementioned, the International Charter on Geographical Education
(2016) affirms that geographical perspectives help deepen global “understanding of
many contemporary challenges such as climate change, food security, energy
choices, overexploitation of natural resources and urbanization. Teaching geogra-
phy serves several vital educational goals.” As geography is the discipline where
knowledge about locations and regions has its base, the appreciation of unique
contexts and circumstances in an interconnected and global world helps deepen our
understanding of human diversity. Moreover, the flagship journal of international
geography education, sponsored by IGU-CGE, International Research in
Geographical and Environmental Education, has already published several articles
about geographical understanding on global issues, mainly on global climate
change and intercultural communication (Uhlenwinkel 2016; Boyes and
Stanisstreet 2010).
IGU-CGE also promoted during 2016—International Year of Global
Understanding—a StoryMap competition, supported by EUROGEO and ESRI. In
this competition, young people (high school-aged and university undergraduates)
from around the world have raised awareness of the global implications of local,
everyday actions. Participants had to share their perspectives and research on topics
associated with global understanding by creating story maps that examine and
address the ways in which we inhabit our increasingly globalized world by the
means of one (or more) of their six themes for the year, aforementioned.1
Last, but not least, we propose this book, as the third of the IGU-CGE Springer
Series International perspectives on geographical education. After Learning pro-
gressions (Muñiz et al. 2016) and Geographical thinking (Brooks et al. 2017),
Global understanding is the third highlighted issue of IGU-CGE to be researched
and published with an international scope. Research on geographical education
needs to be promoted (Bednarz et al. 2013) and so this book focuses particularly on
the ways primary and secondary (K-12) geography education can promote and
develop global understanding. The objective of this book is to inform teachers,
researchers, and policy-makers about global understanding and the role of
1
Winning storymaps are available at http://storymaps.esri.com/stories/2017/global-understanding/.
geography education in achieving it in various countries around the world. We

intend the book to address three essential questions: (1) How can geographic
knowledge and skills prepare us to understand and take positive action about global
issues?; (2) How can the practices of geography empower members of societies and
better equip them with necessary global understanding?; and (3) What are the
similarities and dissimilarities between the different countries and regions of the
world in terms of the implementation of global understanding through curriculum
and best practices in geography education?
1.3 What Kind of Geography Content for Education

at the Global Context?
This book has four sections. The first part of the book addresses the theoretical
framework and the relationships among geographical knowledge, disciplinary con-
tents, and global understanding. Despite critical approaches on global education
(Stanish 2012), three chapters tackle the new challenges of geography education
responding to global forces in order to promote the acquisition of a global
citizenship. Margaret Robertson in Chap. 2 underlines the importance of geography
education in playing a key role in the quest for global understanding in today’s digital,
interconnected, and complex world. Geography is, today more than ever, a school
subject essential to understand the world in which we live, clearly explained by the
speed of social changes, spearheaded by technology developments, but also by pop-
ulation mobility and migration across borders that brings cultural diversity to desti-
nation nations. Understanding the vulnerability of all people, regardless of age,
location, and wealth, is paramount for the survival of our civilization. Besides social
and cultural trends, or environmental ones, the world must be understood in eco-
nomical terms: international transactions, emerging powers, highly competitive global
market for trade, labor conditions, and strengthening alliances between political and
economic power. Robertson accepts that there are positive and negative elements to
consider in the global context of now, and poses as a final question how geographers
and geographical education can make a difference. She claims that we have the
capacity to empower learners to understand global processes through concepts,
real-world situations, and local data gathering as important pedagogical resources.
Understanding the connections between local actions and global issues, and so,
transforming knowledge about global issues into action is the argument used by
Chew-Hung Chang and Andy Wi in Chap. 3 to explain that there are issues in
students’ everyday action requiring powerful knowledge of geography and edu-
cation for global understanding. Based on the main topic of climate change, the
authors contrast between media (end even political) recognition of the problem, and
the fact that the issue is neither a top concern or of personal relevance to most
students. Climate change has always been seen as a problem of “others” and thus,
does not affect individual’s personal way of life. But climate change is everybody’s
responsibility so that we all perform climate-conscious behavior like recycling,

conserving energy, and purchasing climate-friendly products. A key factor to
encourage individuals to do something about climate change is through education
and understanding in terms of learning “everyday geographies”.
Inga Gryl and Thomas Jekel in Chap. 4 underline the importance of geospatial
technologies to raise awareness on global issues and to increase citizenship edu-
cation. Spatial citizenship education is a key factor in enabling students to practice
local actions to understand global challenges. Spatial citizenship depends on a
conceptualization of the “actualized citizen” that explains how today, citizens can
participate in society using multilateral communication tools available through Web
2.0 technologies, to question unidimensional communication from traditional
top-down information channels. Spatial citizenship relies upon anyone being able to
use geomedia and geolocated information tools to produce maps that communicate
spatial visions—“spatialities”, which support systemic thinking and activism on
global issues. If geography is going to contribute to global understanding and to
citizenship education, it should take into account current society–space relations
and the communication tools involved, but also core concepts from geography in
respect to the central category of space, to empower students to become reflective
and, at the same time, spatially informed citizens.
1.4 Global Understanding and the Renewal of Geography

Education
Global understanding presents an opportunity to contribute to the renewal of

geography education: geospatial technologies and problem-based classroom prac-
tices are concrete ways to innovate geography teaching (De Miguel and Donert
2014) and to make it a more attractive and motivating subject for students. This is
the theme of the second section of the book. Chapter 5, authored by Michael Solem
and Zhou Weiguo, focuses the debate on developing the capabilities of young
people to think in specialized and distinctive ways about the world’s diverse cul-
tures and environments. This includes thinking in moral terms and appreciating the
ethical dimensions of social and environmental problems. The Geocapabilities
Project described in this chapter provides examples of powerful disciplinary
knowledge on global issues such as climate change and greenhouse gas emissions
and compares how the geographic concept of global sustainability is addressed in
American and Chinese geography curriculum standards and textbooks.
Past co-chair of IGU-CGE, Joop van der Schee, along with Tine Béneker, draw
attention in Chap. 6 to the fact that a precise definition of global understanding is
missing, despite the key statements published on the website of the International
Year of Global Understanding. Global understanding seems necessary for manag-
ing change from the bottom-up and solving sustainable global problems. It links
local, everyday actions to global issues and is based on research outcomes.
Nevertheless, global understanding is not a very clear concept and more informa-
tion and discussion about how to apply it in education seems necessary. This
chapter discusses the results of a survey sent to geography educators to measure
their conceptions of global understanding and why it is important for education.
Cultural diversity, sustainability, and globalization emerge as the main issues
identified by respondents, evidence of the interdisciplinary nature of global
understanding for geographers since our discipline combines physical, cultural,
economic, and social interactions.
Several parts of this book make reference to the role of the curriculum in the
implementation of global understanding education, but Chap. 7, written by David
Lambert and Nicole Walshe, addresses in a specific way how geography curricula
can tackle global issues and how geography’s powerful knowledge lets students be
able to think geographically. First, they find that there is a lack of consistency about
how ‘the global’ appears within formal curricula in several countries. Later, the
authors describe a typology of geography’s powerful knowledge to help teachers
and geography educators conceptualize the global to interpret and develop cur-
riculum specifications.
Educators need to develop curriculum specifications to shape a framework in
which to develop classroom practices. In Chap. 8, Caroline Leininger-Frezal and
Sophie Gaujal illustrate how mobility is a daily experience of students that can be
used as a teaching resource, using as an example a simulated trip from France to
Las Vegas. This kind of experiential geography is considered a lever for global
understanding education, moving students from concrete and active experimenta-
tion in space, to reflective and abstract conceptualizations of spatial relations in a
global context.
In the last chapter (Chap. 9) of the second part of the book, Niranjan Casinader
and Gillian Kidman discuss transculturalism and argue that geographical emphasis
on place, prediction, and transformation as part of the inquiry process enables a
more cohesive and holistic student comprehension of global understanding. To be
transcultural is to see a change in attitude toward cultural difference, and not just in
behavior, as part of which cultural diversity is accepted. Transculturalism
acknowledges the existence of varying cultures but focuses on the points of con-
nection between them rather than their points of difference. The chapter concludes
with a case study on transcultural global understanding that illustrates how a
renewed, inquiry-based pedagogy can make global understanding possible.
1.5 A Global Reading from International Perspectives
We wanted this book to represent a diversity of opinions and views, and to reflect a
wide range of local contexts to clearly illustrate how global understanding is being
implemented through national curricula, instructional resources, best practices, and
learning assessments. We thought that a book on global understanding would be
unfinished without a section that reflected the same cultural diversity of geography
education practices that the concept of global understanding itself encompasses.

Thus, we made a special effort to include perspectives from around the world, from
different languages, and from a range of cultural backgrounds. We understand that
our collection is incomplete, however, and urges geography educators to provide
additional accounts from other places for us all to learn from.
The first contribution to this third section of the book is from South America.
Due to the wide field of analysis, Chap. 10 presents a general overview of geog-
raphy education in the main countries, including Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and
Chile. The authors, Fabian Araya, Xosé Manuel Souto, and Sergio Claudino, then
focus on the creation of collaborative networks among these countries to build
capacity for geography educators speaking Spanish and Portuguese in order to share
knowledge about geography teaching, particularly about global understanding
issues.
China, as the most populated country in the world, and indisputably major
contributor to global processes and challenges, had to be a part of this book. Yushan
Duan, and his students Fengtao Guo, Lianfei Jiang, Xiaowei Xuan, and Xin Miao,
in Chap. 11 analyzed geography standards and the teaching status of global
understanding by coding the curricular content standards and surveying geography
teachers. The authors conclude that the topic of global understanding is clearly
presented in the geography standards, but slightly different in middle school and
high school. However, existing geography curriculum resources and good teaching
practices for global understanding are not sufficient in the authors’ opinion to effect
real change in students.
Sirpa Tani, Outi Houtsonen, and Elina Särkelä describe the status of geography
in secondary education in Finland. Chapter 12 thus explains both the theoretical
framework and the practices of an innovative initiative focused on global education,
Education for Global Responsibility. This program consisted of five domains:
development education, human rights education, education for sustainable devel-
opment, education for peace and conflict prevention, and intercultural education.
The chapter concludes by examining Finnish educators’ perspectives in global
understanding education.
Minori Yuda in Chap. 13 analyses global understanding issues at the different
levels of school education in Japan: primary, junior high school, and senior high
school. Geography education in this nation has been playing an important role in
nurturing awareness of global citizenship. She reports on the new National
Curriculum Standards which reinforce the significant role of geography education
in developing the fundamental qualities and abilities of citizens to form a peaceful
and democratic nation and society living in a global community.
Christo van der Westhuizen and Aubrey Golightly describe in Chap. 14 the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for Geography in South
Africa. They carefully underline the main global issues included in it. To conclude,
the authors analyze how GIS practice and a problem-based learning approach can
contribute to global understanding education in the context of a nation with
tremendous development inequities.
Rafael de Miguel and Maria Luisa de Lázaro, in Chap. 15, describe the different
aspects of K-12 geography and history curriculum and teaching experiences in
Spain from a global understanding perspective. They also analyze other geo-
graphical education topics as they influence Spain, as a European Union country,
including the role of Spanish-spoken culture and social values to understand dif-
ferent cultures in Latin America. They examine other aspects of the current global
educational context and how geography education can contribute to understanding
local (and multicultural) spaces.
Since 2012, the United Kingdom, or more accurately England and Wales, has
had an initiative related to education on global issues. John Hopkin and Rebecca
Kitchen write in Chap. 16 about the Global Learning Programme to promote
global citizenship. Its goal has been to provide children and young people with the
knowledge and understanding required to live in a globally interdependent world
and to explore ways by which young people can create a fairer and more sustainable
society. The authors detail the role of geography at the heart of global learning and
analyze the presence of global issues in the curriculum, despite the complex nature
of UK education system.
In Chap. 17, Osvaldo Muñiz explains how school students are prepared as
global citizens in the United States. After a general overview of the status of
geography education, state by state, Muñiz classifies the contents of the national
standards in the U.S., Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, into
three categories according to global issues. This chapter concludes with a per-
spective for the future of geography education following three converging global
trends.
Global issues such as climate change, global warming, sustainable development,
freshwater scarcity, conservation of resources, natural hazards and disasters,
renewable sources of energy, national and international migration, slums, urban-
ization, human development index, and child labor are covered in India’s geogra-
phy curriculum and provide many opportunities to develop a global understanding
through debate and discussion, as Aparna Pandey suggests in Chap. 18.
Nevertheless, the author complains that geospatial technologies, a key tool of
analysis, are not very well implemented in Indian schools and most teachers are not
formally trained in GIS or remote sensing which could improve geographical
information treatment methods since teachers use textbooks as the main teaching
resource. This diminishes the capacity to learn about global understanding issues
such as cultural and environmental diversity.
Alexander Lobjanidze reflects in Chap. 19 global education priorities before
describing the main goals of geography education in Russian secondary schools
which include acquiring geographical knowledge about the diverse and rapidly
changing world through combining global, national, and local approaches to
describe natural, social, economic, and cultural processes and phenomena.
Nevertheless, the author expresses the opinion that today’s schools teach knowl-
edge, but not values. The development of a global mindset in future generations in
the geographical education system is only possible through the implementation of a
number of approaches to learning: cultural, axiological, ecological, and so forth.
After a description of Canadian geography education and global understanding

issues inside the curriculum, including differences among provinces, Lynn
Moorman and Kendra Garbutt detail the Centre for Global Education initiative.
Chapter 20 ends describing several prospects for the future and by making rec-
ommendations for geographical contexts, teacher education, professional devel-
opment, and the assessment of global issues learning.
All these valuable contributions, either thematic or national cases, provide a high
level and volume of information responding to two questions: How is global
understanding implemented in geography education? Which are the trends to follow
in order to improve global understanding? The fourth and final sections of the book
explore these questions in Chap. 21. It defines a pathway forward to empower
geography education to promote global understanding in future citizens, today’s
school students.
References
Bednarz, S., Heffron, S., & Huynh, N. (Eds.). (2013). A road map for 21st century geography
education. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers.
Boyes, E., & Stanisstreet, M. (2010). Threats to the global atmospheric environment: The extent of
pupil understanding. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education,
5(3), 186–195.
Brooks, C., Butt, G., & Fargher, M. (Eds.). (2017). The power of geographical thinking. Berlin:
Springer.
Das, R., & Bridi, R. (2013). Globalization. In Barney Warf (Ed.), Oxford bibliographies in
geography. New York: Oxford University Press.
De Miguel, R., & Donert, K. (Eds.). (2014). Innovative learning geography in Europe: new
challenges for the 21st century. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholar Publishing.
Graves, N., & Stoltman, J. (2015). The Commission on Geographical Education of the
International Geographical Union 1952–2012. Draft unpublished available at http://www.igu-
cge.org.
Lidstone, J., & Williams, M. (Eds.). (2006). Geographical education in a changing world: Past
experience, current trends and future challenges. Dordrecht: Springer.
Muñiz, O., Demirci, A., & Van der Schee, J. (Eds.). (2015). Geospatial technologies and
geography education in a changing world. Tokyo: Springer.
Muñiz, O., Solem, M., & Boehm, R. (Eds.). (2016). Learning progressions in geography
education. Berlin: Springer.
Stanish, A. (2012). The false promise of global learning: Why education needs boundaries.
London: Continuum.
Uhlenwinkel, A. (2016). Enabling educators to teach and understand intercultural communication:
The example of “young people on the global stage: their education and influence”.
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 26(1), 3–16.
Chapter 2
Geography Education Responding
to Global Forces: Redefining
the Territory
Margaret E. Robertson
2.1 Introduction
Regardless of context or topic, ‘understanding’ demands a degree of effort on the

part of the person seeking to ‘understand’. Whether the challenge is to comprehend
changes within our personal lives at home, school and work, or, for instance we
grapple to comprehend the latest technologies, old assumptions are constantly
tested and responses may need to be modified. The theme of this book is seeking
‘Global Understanding’ through Geographical Education. Associated with the
International Year of Global Understanding initiative of the International
Geographical Union1, the purposes of this introductory chapter to the book project
are twofold. What do we mean by global understanding and how can geographical
education contribute to the process? Neither is simple to explain as the arguments
pursued in this chapter set out to explore. On one level within the global com-
munities of professional and academic geographers, there is consensus. Hence, it
would seem that the easiest strategy might be to rely on published handbooks,
charters and public policies from relevant professional bodies. The shared institu-
tional rhetoric is unquestionably the outcome of significant effort to understand the
nature of the discipline and what it can contribute to global understanding. Done
deal? Too easy! Reality does not fit so neatly into bounded narratives regardless of
historical effort to produce the underlying visions, write the narrative, translate and
distribute the content. Rejecting the ‘easy’ approach is of course fraught with
danger. Then again I am reminded of the nerve that it takes to challenge traditions,
take risks and make discoveries of new and unexplored territories. Perhaps we can
agree that to explore is fundamental to being a geographer; so disturbing the dust on
1
See www.global-understanding.info.
M. E. Robertson (&)
La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: m.robertson@latrobe.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_2
14 M. E. Robertson
traditions should be worth the fall out––in the pursuit of understanding and the
future of geographical education.
Nothing is fixed in scholarly endeavours, and with current and constantly
improving e-tools, new ideas can be shared almost as quickly as they form. The
Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine to Machine (M2M) domains of millennial
technologies offer infinite opportunities for transactions and communications. For
everyday living, social media are the enabling tools which bypass the bookshelves
of libraries to stream an infinite source of information available to the world’s
communities on their command. Factual or not, the readily available content can
almost instantly satisfy wants and bypass conventional wisdom or mainstream
media. Do we ignore this chatter or accept the fact that the current generation of
young people live their lives in this mediated online-connected world and are less
likely to accept new knowledge in old formats, including, I am sad to say, print
media.? Books and the aroma of newsprint (often associated with good coffee
houses), just off the press are artefacts of the past—unless online. Whichever way
this new reality is approached, discipline experts, including geography educators,
are living and operating in a fluid zone of ‘always becoming’. Certainties are fewer
and the biggest mistake taken is to carry on with the old ways and limit knowledge
to that which is already in the peer-reviewed journals and expert written textbooks!
It is not a question of rejection of all of the knowledge extant but acceptance of the
instant added value via the 24/7 streamed flow of new information.
The vibrancy, colour, movement and continual streaming of new inputs flashing
on screens—mobile phones, iPads and similar portable devices such as smart-
watches, and health monitors—all peak the imagination of users and draw their
attention away from their surroundings. A walk through any university campus will
verify this observation and at the same time cause lament for how little the students
seem to be listening to the sounds of nature and enjoying the outdoors. Provided
there is a connection in their devices the world seems to be settled and their
personal health assured. Silent mode adds to the integrity of personal devices—like
having an added part of self. As a lecturer and teacher, I must say that this mode has
been a blessing. No longer loud rings in the class and even louder one-sided talk.
Texting solves that problem too. Instead of students disrupting classes with their
cross-table chatter all can be achieved silently via their mobile devices. Is this
healthy? Should we as educators worry about this subversive behaviour and stop
the practices? Pragmatics suggest not. In fact, we should embrace the always-on,
connected culture and find ways to align our pedagogies with this whole new world.
It offers a ‘space’ waiting to be discovered and understood, and one in which
geography education fits! No grief is needed for the old methods. The new tech-
nologies including innovative geospatial techniques associated with Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) offer exciting new arrangements of ‘space’. Using their
conceptual frameworks, the discipline of geography and geography education are in
the unique position of having ready-made options for investigating ‘digital space’.
Designing research studies to capture data on the skills that students are acquiring
within their connected worlds recognises emerging space/place interactions with
potential outcomes that can influence education curriculums in primary, secondary
2 Geography Education Responding to Global Forces … 15
and higher education. Hence, the first step to understanding the relationship
between twenty-first-century learners and trends for geographical education is the
need to take a step back and review what we already know against what David
Harvey calls The Ways of the World (2016).
The following sections consider possible connections between the discipline
field of knowledge which geographers and geography educators claim to own, as
well as potential attributes (mainly skills) which the discipline may offer in the
pursuit of global understanding. However, first, some further observations on the
world of now.
2.2 The World in Which We Live Now
On multiple fronts, the geopolitical complexity of the millennial landscape is

confronting. For science, economics and politics the issues are tracking in ways not
previously witnessed. The speed of change spearheaded by technology develop-
ments makes it difficult for new directions to embed into structures that can be
relied upon for predictability and a reasonable degree of certainty. Harvey (2016)
warns: ‘The danger for social theory as well as for popular understandings is to see
one of the spheres as dominant…..We are, in fact, surrounded with dangerously
over–simplistic mono-causal explanations.’ (p. 316).
Added to the confusion there is also population mobility focussed on more and
bigger cities, as well as migration across borders into new and often very different
cultural contexts. Transport affordability, both legal and illegal, is a major driver of
population migration. The demographics of these increasingly long-distant move-
ments in the twenty-first century are noteworthy. The World Population Reference
Bureau2 summarises the decadal changes:
The most significant recent change in international migration patterns is rising South-North
migration. Between 1990 and 2010, the share of all international migrants in industrialized
countries rose from 53 to 59%. The largest South-North migration corridor is
Mexico-United States: Over 13 million Mexicans have moved to the United States since
1990. Large South-South migration corridors include Bangladesh to India (over 3 million
migrants) and India to the United Arab Emirates (nearly 3 million migrants).3
The analysis also notes: ‘Almost half of the world’s migrants are women, 15% of
migrants are under 20, and less than 7% of all international migrants are refugees.’4
The evidence provided by these statistics might appear to run contrary to
2
See http://www.prb.org/Publications/Reports/2013/global-migration.aspx. Retrieved on 25 March
2017.
3
See http://www.prb.org/Multimedia/Infographics/2014/infographic-global-migration.aspx Retrieved
on March 22, 2017.
4
See http://www.prb.org/Publications/Reports/2013/global-migration.aspx Retrieved on 22 March
2017.
16 M. E. Robertson
contemporary media reports on European land and sea refugee movements and
perhaps some scepticism is justified. Geographers seeking to understand population
distribution might want to understand these patterns and consider potential changes
to societal values for the migrant population, their futures and their destination
countries. Again referring to Harvey (2016), there is a need to be reminded that ‘the
geography of the world is not fixed’ (p. 7). At the same time: ‘Geography is
expressive of the unity of culture and nature.’ (p. 6), and migrants bring cultural
diversity to nations that require recognition and inclusion in the destination nation.
In brief, movements to wealthier nations bring about positive outcomes for many
people of the world that help contribute to global sharing of values and ideas; enrich
local cultures, and create conditions for improved understandings of ‘others’. The
eclectic response for promoting global understanding ought to be a celebration of
shared wealth infused with innovative new ways of going about daily life.
Fusion and assimilation of cultures have shaped the whole of human history and
for geographers, the study of this phenomenon is part of what Livingstone (1992)
identifies as the ‘Geographic Tradition’. ‘Everything in its place’ (p. 357) he notes,
but not in the static ways in which twentieth-century theories of, for instance, urban
morphology might suggest. A shift has been happening with many cultural geog-
raphers looking to the theorising of sociologists, like Anthony Giddens. In his
analysis of self, identity and the modern age, Giddens (1991) argued: ‘Modernity is
a risk culture’ (p. 3) and ‘Doubt, a pervasive feature of modern critical reason,
permeates into everyday life as well as philosophical consciousness, and forms a
general existential dimension of the contemporary social world’ (p. 3). Also
recognising this shift Livingstone (1992) concluded: ‘The never-ending flow of
agent-structure intercourse provides the engine power of social transformation’
(p. 357). Amongst the many geographers to pursue these ideas in relation to new
understandings of space and identity are Doreen Massey (2005) and Nigel Thrift
(2008). Both have pushed the barriers of understanding to consider spatialities of
self beyond known boundaries. The spatial turn in their writings marked a new
wave of thinking for geographers. More recent contributions that add to this lit-
erature include John Urry’s (2007) writings on mobility. The lid on traditional
geography has been lifted, thus enabling imaginative thinking about these newly
emerging global patterns and interactions. Illustrative is how to reconceptualise the
modern global city (Massey 2007).
However, not all movements are worthy of celebration. Nor can developed
nations assume the high moral ground in their space–place interactions. For
instance, the opportunistic transfer of toxic wastes including e-waste from rich
consumer-driven economies finding locations in pristine landscapes of poor and
developing economies. Added to this commodity transfer are human trafficking and
abusive labour conditions akin to modern-day slavery. All are shameful acts that
form part of this parallel world of ‘now’. Is this the most unsettled period in human
history? Historical events provide ample evidence of ill-gotten outcomes for
humanity when zealotry, territorial invasion and intolerance towards the beliefs of
others are given priority. Nevertheless, the script from events past will not solve
today’s problems and challenges. As Lowenthal (2015) writes ‘the past is a foreign
country’ and the most history can offer is to suggest patterns and alert us to danger
signs. Problems of the present cast shadows over future Earth that can seem
insurmountable for human endeavour. This may seem overly pessimistic.
Nevertheless, it does not seem unreasonable to make the claim for urgent
re-educating of ourselves, our teachers, and our learners. Reviewing the basic
parameters of our discipline knowledge is part of this process.
2.3 Now in Our World—What Needs to Be Understood?
Work is different in the twenty-first century. Transactions are different. The politics
of economics and social interactions cross previously inaccessible borders.
Furthermore, the politics of power and dominance have shifted east as emerging
superpowers of China and India become competitive players with traditional
superpowers located in Western cultures. Movement in power structures and
flows of capital are contributors to changing expectations, values and identities.
International tourism adds to the mix. For instance, the rising wealth of China, the
world’s most populous nation, is creating a highly competitive global market for
trade, including luxury goods, accommodation and property. As Eastern cultures
gain momentum over traditional centres of power held by Western cultures, such as
Western Europe and North America, exchanges in lifestyle practices, sharing of
networks and interactions are all adding to the fluidity of our times. The shifting
narrative to the east in post-colonial Asia (Bhabha 1996) reinforces its arrival from
being a minor voice on the world stage in the early twentieth century to global
authority in the twenty-first century.
In a review of the historical transitions in territory, power and authority, Sassen
(2006) refers to this process as the ‘politics of places on cross-border circuits’
(p. 338). Like Beck (2005) Sassen is mostly concerned with the politics of power
and finance. The ideas of both have merit as starting points for understanding
contemporary student activism, social and financial exchanges occurring within and
between families and informal communities. The relationships between actual
terrain and digital affordances are part of this exploration. Beck summarises the
patterns of contemporary power as a paradigm change from modernity to
post-modernity and ‘methodological pluralism’ (2005, p. 48). The latter is variously
characterised by ‘dissolution of boundaries’, global culture’, ‘decoupling of space
and politics’ and a ‘post-political global view’. Bringing this back to the reality of
everyday lived lives, Beck proposes:
…there is a need for the basic concepts of ‘modern society’ – household, family, class,
democracy, domination, state, economy, the public sphere, politics and so on – to be
released from the fixation of methodological nationalism and redefined and reconceptu-
alised in the context of methodological cosmopolitanism. (p. 50)
Into this mix, Sassen (2006) concludes that the digital age offers ‘expanded
decentralisation and simultaneous integration’ (p. 375). Whether public or private
18 M. E. Robertson
the technical aspects are similar. The element which needs interpretation and
understanding is the usage of these networks. Both Beck and Sassen recognise the
emergence of normative behaviours in the digital spaces. However, whilst these
actions may appear to operate in parallel with traditional and national networks,
they caution against simplistic answers. Analysing complexity and the fluid
dimension of these relationships poses arguments that favour an ongoing tussle for
territorial rights over transactions. The theory is complex and beyond the scope of
this essay. Nevertheless, civil society is part of this process and education con-
tributes to the preparation of the population who are actors in this multilevel stage.
‘Assembling mixed spatial and temporal orders’ (Sassen 2006, p. 379) suggests
that, ‘Although these new global assemblages are partial, albeit often strategic,
neither can the national encompass the fullness of social life as it might once have’
(p. 379).
Bringing the discussion back to the theme of global understanding and local
communities either by customary law or more formal regulatory frameworks of
government, arguably one dimension we can agree on is that there has always been
a need for communities to face ‘others’ or ‘strangers’ and learn ways to share
resources. Ironically, humans are both the creators of better lives and the perpe-
trators of planet Earth’s significant illnesses. Both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ transformations
are testament to the powers of human civilisation. The big question is whether the
global communities have the strength to regroup and neutralise the destructive
elements which seem to dominate contemporary global politics. Whilst the future
narratives may not seem clear from our respective locations globally, one element
we might agree on is that responsible leadership is critical for steering human
behaviour towards tolerance and harmony between and within communities and
across all natural and built barriers. Accepting lifestyle habits and public policy
decisions that can openly celebrate diversity, as well as promote inclusion and
coexistence of alternate ideologies and faiths, would seem to be fundamental for
human understanding. Technology can help this process. Its affordances enable
initiatives that enrich all lives; nurture harmonious futures, and promote physical
and spiritual well-being.
Taking risks for future generations has always been part of human existence.
Knowing what exists beyond our frontiers of lived experience has driven explorers
to all corners of the Earth’s surface. Geographers are among the most enduring
contributors. Consider the achievement of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859).
Alongside his influence and of more contemporary controversy, in my mind, is
Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594), the cartographer and geographer to whom we
attribute the Mercator map projection (see Crane 2002). Still widely used in the
twenty-first century this projection is widely criticised for its distortion of land areas
such that the south looks to be much smaller than its actual land area. Living in ‘the
south’, as I do, my view is that this projection has historical interest but no place in
contemporary mapping and global representations used in geography textbooks and
references. However, herein lies another digression perhaps worth leaving as a
comment.
You might say there is nothing new to discover. So why are climbing the highest
mountains and reaching the North and South Poles still personal challenges in the
twenty-first century? The answer seems to lie within the forces of human nature.
Whilst the journeys could be taken by modern sea and sea transport and/or viewed
via satellite imagery, such tests of personal strength and courage affirm the tena-
cious element of humans to push personal barriers to be faster, fitter and ‘better’.
Previous achievers or ‘champions’ of such physical feats, including Olympic events
and scientific discoveries, are international benchmarks. Whether the recognition is
by gold, silver and bronze medals, or Nobel Prize for scientific, literary and
humanitarian contributions to civilization, at some level such accolades serve to
demonstrate how the world’s people find mutuality and a level platform upon which
to agree. Positive spaces that celebrate achievements and help improve human
existence are part of building optimism for better futures. One question for edu-
cation leaders might be—do we adequately celebrate human achievements?
As political events have demonstrated in currently troubled parts of the world,
young people have the physical strength and intellectual acuity to be leaders in
decisions and actions on all societal levels. One wonders, then, why so much of the
youth rhetoric seems so gloomy, negative and in extreme cases, coupled with
violence against fellow citizens. The World Health Organisation5 (2016) reports
that around ‘1in 6 persons in the world is an adolescent’ and that after childbirth or
early pregnancy, and HIV, ‘Depression is the top cause of illness and disability
among adolescents and suicide is the third cause of death’. These figures are
alarming. The statistics report trouble in our societal structures that need to be
recognised, actively confronted, better understood and adjusted. The reasons why
such negativity has arisen are possibly embedded in such big picture arguments
previously outlined. As capital and financial structures have matured, an accom-
panying shift from the rural village economies to big cities has altered the social
order. From living arrangements well supported by community elders and extended
family, suburban living offers loosely connected neighbourhoods often with limited
infrastructure for bringing people together. Globalisation mutes the local voice and
makes local economies difficult to maintain. Sociologist and analyst Ekersley’s
(1997) theoretical ‘portraits of youth’ which distinguish post-modernism from
transformational change helps to explain this process. The transition from adoles-
cence to adulthood is not so simple as in the past. An emphasis on materialism and
loss of connectivity with social norms of real time and place are contributing
factors. He concludes, ‘when people feel pessimistic, they can become quickly
disappointed with governments; politics becomes more volatile’ (Ekersley 2011a).
On the well-being and health of young people Ekersley (2011b) writes:
… a cultural focus on the external trappings of ‘the good life’ increases the pressures to
meet high, even unrealistic, expectations, and so heightens the risks of failure and disap-
pointment. It leads to an unrelenting need to make the most of one’s life, to fashion identity
5
See http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs345/en/ Retrieved on 22 March 2017.
20 M. E. Robertson
and meaning increasingly from personal achievements and possessions and less from
shared cultural traditions and beliefs
Somewhere in this commentary are wise words for educators concerned with
teaching the next generation. Young people need to believe in their personal
capabilities to live worthwhile and productive lives. However, unless their cogni-
tive, physical and psychological skills are nurtured and developed by educators and
leaders, potential ill-guided actions can have a catastrophic impact on communities.
Drugs, wars, unemployment, human trafficking and manipulation of behaviours via
social media, and advertising campaigns, are all major problems of our times and
cause for concern and pessimism about the future. At the same time, to counter the
negative, there is evidence of outstanding contributions of young people con-
tributing to just and socially inclusive societies around the world. Intervention
programs that are evidence-based and begin with young people can affirm the value
of bottom-up decision-making for capacity building and provide evidence-based
research to support our pedagogic assumptions. The next generation has to be part
of societal transformation. A cultural shift back to better harmony with nature and
all that sustains our physical and psychological well-being will be of their doing.
Understanding the vulnerability of all people, regardless of age, location and
wealth, is paramount for the survival of this civilisation. Risk taking is part of this
process. Consider, finding life on Mars as an indicator of the extraordinary intel-
lectual preparedness to invest in risky high-cost science to better understand our
universe. The question is do we have the will and preparedness to invest in cleaning
up the messes that already exist? The human cost may already be too high and our
planet too damaged to recover from our excesses. Fortunately, the global networks
and flows of information that so readily enable what might be called the illnesses of
our time are also available for governments, professional agencies, non-government
organisations and learned societies, such as geography, to initiate and implement
changes. Common sense, it would seem, suggests that one Earth and many people
make the willingness to share and compromise a fundamental virtue for the
Anthropocene’s survival. Increasing abuses of the biosphere, hegemonic struggles
for supremacy of one set of beliefs over another, together with appalling breaches of
human rights, already noted, are all indicators of the potential implosion of our
current civilisation. Neither rich nor poor nations are excluded.
It may sound like preaching but to fully understand we must embrace the
challenges and create pathways towards positive outcomes for our planet and for
humanity. The need for open and informed dialogue is palpably clear. For this to
take effect, strong action within the learned societies, including geography, can be
considered to be morally obligatory. Geography and its professional interpretations
through curriculums associated with geographical education can make a significant
contribution. A glass half-full approach helps secure an optimistic outlook, and for
this to be maintained geographers are well equipped to apply their recognised
strengths to bring about educated change.
In the following section, the place of geography and geography education are
considered from the perspectives of curiosity, adventure, and finally, their scientific
emergence within the academy.
2.4 Where and How Can Geography Fit in? Whimsy,

Myths and Practicalities
The fact that we can label a field of knowledge as ‘geography’ suggests some
element of consensus on what it is that geographers do. Although the discipline
debates are never too far away from the conversations conducted between geogra-
phers and teachers of the discipline, geographers have always been travellers—
myths and beliefs of ancient cultures still practised in the form of annual rituals and
ceremonies are evidence of the powers of human speculation along with confusion
about what may or may not exist beyond our borders. The affordances of the mind
and skills available have added to this repertoire of explanations through oral his-
tories of tribal communities; poetry and fiction tales of writers, canvases of artists,
and romantic adventures. Consider the ambitions of novelist Jules Verne’s quest to
explore the Earth and the universe through a series of writings labelled Voyages
extraordinaires. Perhaps his most famous novel in the English speaking world is
Around the world in 80 days. Aboard a hot air balloon wealthy Londoner, Phileas
Fogg and his French valet, Passepartout, embark on this journey as part of a wager
and in the process recount their tales of adventure with foreign places and people.
The vivid imagery remains a favourite for filmmakers. The stories link fiction to
reality and describe people and places as they are. Just as Shakespeare’s plays have
maintained their potency for 500 years with connections to everyday life, rich
descriptive text can capture our imagination. Ordinary things and events, but with a
love of adventure and dreams beyond personal boundaries, can be magical points of
engagement for geography education. Perhaps somewhat romantic and surreal,
nevertheless, the writer’s pen can be a powerful motivator for disinterested learners.
Thus, cognitive development stages provide age-related affordance for learning.
For instance, from another perspective, child development theory underpins the
ways in which young children are recognised as responding to polar opposite
relationships. Heroes and villains, good and bad behaviours abound in the tales of
explorers and adventurers who have discovered the Earth’s riches. Kipling’s poems
and stories of British colonial life in India, for instance are acknowledged examples
of enduring interest for children’s literature. They provide insights to politics, life
and agency during the nineteenth century which can stimulate contemporary
debates, and provide points of entry, to understanding human interactions now.
Laden with values from this bygone era, the political history captured in such
writings, can help engage young learners to grasp ethical issues, such as those
associated with colonisation and development theory. Equally, the imagination can
be captured from actual recorded explorations of risk-taking sailors from classical
22 M. E. Robertson
Greek times, to Columbus, to settlement of the ‘new world’—all with increasingly

sophisticated tools—to modern times where circling the earth by satellite connec-
tion information brings us into same time contact with anyone anywhere. Myths,
whimsy and real events in time and place can be modern-day strategies for
engaging learners in the more serious discipline content. They are pedagogic tools
to excite learners in the learning process; imaginative hooks that tap into their
emotional development as well as their cognitive readiness.
For an overview of the power of geography, The American Association of
Geographers provides a set of easy steps to follow. A quotation from Professor
Emeritus of Geography, Peirce Lewis seems to marry the imaginaries of our sub-
jectivities with the promise of an outcome or knowledge.
Geography is the only subject that asks you to look at the world and try to make sense of it.
The field never stops being exciting because that’s what geography is all about—trying to
make sense of the world. (Emeritus Professor Lewis)
So, understanding complexity is simple for geographers:

You want to understand the world. Why not start with a river, a city, a mountain, a village,
a road, and follow it to the ends of the earth? Geography asks the big questions — Where?
How? Why? What if? — and gives you the perspective to answer them with advanced
technology and a solid knowledge of the world in which we all live.6
Linking the questions with key problems and issues of the times can be
enjoyable, as well as practical and constructive for local, national and global
communities. Arguably, all societal change takes effect locally! This is not a new
revelation. Particularly in the context of culture and landscape, Sauer’s (1925)
paper The Morphology of Landscape helped to frame the argument about what we
understand by geographical knowledge. Like John Dewey’s views on learning by
experience (1916), we continue to acknowledge their wisdom a century on in time.
Why? Sauer, the geographer, and Dewey the philosopher and educator, may belong
to different traditions of scholarship, but both embrace the idea of learning ‘on the
ground’. Anti-positivism might be a way of marrying the dual perspectives. Sauer’s
concern for describing areal relationships, as they are, contributed to the growth of
cultural geography. Dewey’s concern for lived experiences of learners remains
central to holistic pedagogy. By focusing on the local phenomenon, we can grasp an
understanding of how a community interacts with its landscape surroundings.
Without delving further into the particularities of their beliefs and arguments, it
seems reasonable to assert that Geography education today has benefitted from their
respective contributions to meaning making about human interactions with both
physical and built spaces.
We might conclude that geography as a learning discipline is an active contrib-
utor to change theory. As described by Livingstone (1992), the discipline reveals
how we might acknowledge powerful forces of influence and simultaneously also
seek to disrupt them. As part of this disruption, a twentieth-century order associated
6
See http://www.aag.org/cs/about_aag/about_geography_2/ Retrieved on March 22, 2017.
with landscape theories that were strong features of geography courses of the period
may need to be contested. For instance, theories of urban morphology, emanating
from the Chicago School of geographers, including Burgess’s theory of concentric
circles of growth; Christaller’s Central Place Theory, Von Thunen’s rural landuse
model,7 followed by Hagget’s (1972) locational analysis or systems theory—all
considered empirically based solutions to interpreting landscapes—are targets for
review. Students studying geography until now are probably familiar with these
explanations about order in the landscape. Now, under the microscope, geographers
are considering how ecological transformation is changing the connections between
people and place. Traditional economic pull and push factors between urban centres
and rural peripheries are juxtaposed with transformative social ecologies. Lewis
Mumford’s (1961) seminal work on the The City in History retains merit for
understanding the relationship between human endeavour and land use changes
associated with the processes of urbanisation. However, the political forces at work
now are juxtaposing new rules. Illustrative is the growth of large cities in China with
little or no local regional connection with their immediate hinterlands. In the context
of time and space shifts in China, Dijst (2013) notes the challenge facing ‘Chinese
scholars is to develop theories from a space-time behaviour perspective that are able
to understand Chinese transformation process’ (p. 1060).
As early as 1985, Gilbert White predicted such changes in his article
Geographers in a perilously changing world. White maintained, that the need to
align the big three—policy, research and teaching—is essential for the world’s
communities to come together for sustainable futures. Myopic views that remain in
the local context can fail to recognise that people are socially united in one big
world. Affordances change everyday lived experiences for young people—‘old’
constructs or knowledge as given are not necessarily valid and reliable now.
Is this the undoing of the geography tradition? Perhaps not. But, the challenge
for curriculum decision makers today is to legitimise the steps and processes which
are located in the enduring heartland of geographers, that is, fieldwork, discovery
and understanding. The groundwork of geographers past and present evolves. The
past can guide learners to better understand our world, our planet in ways that retain
systematic accounts, including traditions. My point here is that geography educators
need to reflect on the cognitive hooks that engage learners; embrace changes on the
ground and in new spaces, and not feel compelled to retreat to the past for safety.
2.5 Geography Education Does Make a Difference
If we accept there are positive and negative elements to consider in the global
context of now, then the next question is how geographers and geographical edu-
cation can make a difference. The millennial context offers a huge array of
7
For details of each of these theories, readers are directed to geography textbooks.
24 M. E. Robertson
knowledge topics for geographical education. In no particular order, they include

the following:
• Big cities and changing urban morphology
• Sustainability, biosecurity and environmental management
• Climate change and oceanography
• Population demographics including migration patterns
• Intergenerational differences—‘new geographies’, ‘counter geographies’
• Work and finance
• Local economies—rural and regional
• Development theory
• Global economics and transnational corporations
• Connectivity, flows and networks, including geospatial technologies
• Mobility
• Moral values, virtues, hybridity, fragmentation, complexity, pluralism
• Arts, culture and media
It seems a reasonable assertion to make that prioritising topics will generally be
within the province of centralised state and national curriculum bodies. Each will
have their preferred list of topics and content knowledge including some
accountability guarantees via mandated assessment. Whilst these government
agencies may appear to dictate the knowledge parameters for teaching and learning,
it is worthwhile reminding ourselves that the relationship developed between tea-
cher and learner is unique. ‘How’ the content is taught generally remains flexible.
Teachers create courses. They bridge the knowledge gap between the learner’s prior
knowledge and experience. As such there ought to be ample ‘room’ to manoeuvre
and find ways to tap into the imaginative triggers for memorable learning experi-
ences that match expectations of superiors and create lively interactive learning.
Illustrating the importance of process are cross-cultural views and visions of
classes of geography students located in different countries around the world
(Robertson and Tani 2013). Asked for their views students identified their concerns
and presented them graphically. The exercise was empowering for learners.
Interestingly, the one shared concern was environmental issues including climate
change. For their teachers, this fact must have provided confidence to pursue their
interest with curriculum topics related to physical geography. Consider the reverse
approach of starting from the textbook and introducing topics, such as climate, with
no reference to local and world events. Chances are that for many learners this will
limit their learning for understanding and perhaps accentuate rote memorisation for
the assessment tasks. If we posit that knowledge is neither factual nor infallible then
there is capacity for misrepresenting actual events, processes and places through
static views of what constitutes knowledge, and along with this, the role each
geography educator has to limit inaccuracies.
Helping this process, two initial questions are worth asking as starting points in
course design.
1. How is this topic relevant? And, associated with this question two
sub-questions.
1:1 How is this topic relevant for my students? In other words for authentic
learning the topic has to connect with learner’s field of experience and
knowing.
1:2 What use can be made of geospatial technologies?
2. What fieldwork activity can be linked with the topic? Or, is there an action
learning local project that can be utilised as fieldwork for developing under-
standing of particular topics. Creating a field of enquiry for local data gathering
can introduce students to topics that may link in to big data sets for analysis.
2.6 Finally, Geography Education and Global

Understanding
In order to maintain pace with events now, two human qualities seem to be needed.
Resilience and an associated willingness to admit ‘we got it wrong’. Harvey (2016)
reminds us that: ‘The choice of values lies within us and not in nature’ (p. 174). It
follows that disharmony in nature is of our own doing. If we hold the view that the
Anthropocene is headed for failure both environmentally through climate change
and unsustainable social ecologies, then we should ask do we have sufficient social
glue within the global community to cohere for remedial action. Is there sufficient
knowledge and resilience within the human population to reframe our existence and
live sustainably? This vexed question will have different answers according to
context and circumstances, and whilst lone events will not change a great deal they
can offer hope. Illustrative is the 2014 Ebola health crisis in Sierra Leone. Local
communities have shown how citizens have been able to sustain their inner sense of
purpose regardless of the crisis that appeared to come from nowhere. Their resi-
lience and pragmatic responses to the terrible loss of life are both humbling and
inspirational. Partly, this is due to millennial technologies. Kamara (2016) describes
how social media using solar power technology (see Fig. 2.1) helped communities
remain in contact throughout this sad period.
Strength, she maintains, comes from the core values passed down to younger
generations by the elders of the villages and towns. Now 2 years after the event,
local people are sharing the grief associated with personal losses and helping the
vulnerable, especially orphaned children. Perhaps through the collection and
sharing of stories, such as that of the Sierra Leone tragedy, there is a plan for
positive action that can help frame the actions of this vulnerable generation as well
as global communities in directions that survive and flourish.
Bringing it all together, the rhetoric in this chapter has deliberately tried to shift
thinking from positions of conservative complacency to vigilance around choices of
content and pedagogy. As suggested, contemporary education debates encourage us
26 M. E. Robertson
Fig. 2.1 Solar power for lighting and communication devices
to take a step back; consider ways to reframe the curriculum argument as well as
find the courage to think and operate in a constantly changing space. The millennial
change issues face all disciplines. In a review of cognitive and development theory
relative to curriculum theory, Sandoval et al. (2016) provide wide-ranging evidence
of many disciplines reviewing how they are promoting thinking and epistemolog-
ical discipline knowledge. There is a sense that epistemological positions are being
reaffirmed and asserted in current educational discourse.
Fortunately for geography educators, there are resources available that can
support this process. The Commission on Geographical Education of the
International Geographical Union has three important charters that set out agreed
principles. They are as follows:
• The International Declaration on Geographical Education for Cultural Diversity
was proclaimed at the 29th Geographical Congress held in Seoul, South Korea
in August 2000.
• The Lucerne Declaration on Geography Education for Sustainable Development
was proclaimed at the IGU-CGE Regional Symposium in Lucerne Switzerland
in July 2007.
• The International Declaration on Research in Geography Education was pro-
claimed at the IGU Regional Conference held in Moscow, Russia in August
2015.8
8
See http://www.igu-cge.org/ Retrieved on 31 March 2017.
Professional associations and networks help support these overarching docu-

ments and provide multiple opportunities for professional development of teachers.
Importantly, for teachers or learners associated with the discipline of geography
starting points need not be daunting. Help is never too far from the place of
learning.
Being mindful of how this summary may seem too little, a final word from
Harvey seems appropriate. In the process of learning for global understanding and
discipline knowledge now Harvey states, ‘each and every one of us is situated in an
“environment” and all of us therefore have some sense of what an environment
issue is’. (p. 160). The social contract can best start locally by building on what
learners already know. In the context of Hong Kong, this is well illustrated in the
research of Schwanen and Wang (2014) who show how closely well-being is
subjectively associated with everyday activities and social contacts. In brief, rela-
tionships matter. Core values infuse our knowing and remain with us wherever we
find ourselves located—both real and virtual time and space.
2.7 Conclusion
With more and more connection to opposing voices, ideas and belief systems in our
daily lives learning how to manage complexity requires new and emerging skills as
well as a readiness to accept different and often conflicting sets of values. We can
agree that the past can assist us to explain the present and prepare for the future.
However, the subjectivity of the knowledge garnered and the skills applied in the
process can drive infinite wedges between people’s personalised views of their
worlds and a more generous and holistic attempt at understanding diversity. Hence,
the importance of this book along, with any attempt to open up conversations
between colleagues across the globe. Bridging the distance between the ground
traversed in our daily lives and the fragmentary stability of virtual time and space
connectivity calls for boldness and epistemological certainty for the discipline.
Thus, as Walford so aptly concluded (2007) it is ‘hardly surprising that geography,
as a subject dealing with contemporary real-world situations….since an apprecia-
tion of processes and models is at the very heart of a highly dynamic environment.’
(p. 3)
References
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Education for Cultural Diversity. Accessed http://www.igu-cge.org/ March 31, 2017.
Commission on Geographical Education. (2007). Lucerne Declaration on Geography Education
for Sustainable Development. Accessed http://www.igu-cge.org/ March 31, 2017.
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Commission on Geographical Education. (2015). International Declaration on Research in

Geography Education. Accessed http://www.igu-cge.org/ March 31, 2017.
Crane, N. (2002). Mercator: The man who mapped the planet. London: Phoenix.
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Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Haggett, P. (1972). Geography: A modern synthesis. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Harvey, D. (2016). The ways of the world. London: Profile Books Ltd.
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ACER Press.
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American Geographers, 75(1), 10–16.
Chapter 3
Why the World Needs Geography
Knowledge in Global Understanding:
An Evaluation from a Climate Change
Perspective
Chew-Hung Chang and Andy Wi
3.1 Introduction—–Geography and the Glocal Citizen
“Geography is concerned with both the local and the global and the interconnec-
tions between these scales of human experience” (CGE 2016, p. 10). Globalization
and the emergence of a “global” citizen mean accepting a worldwide community as
equal people in terms of having a sense of connectedness, empathy and global
responsibility (Carvalho 2007). Nevertheless, the terms global and local are not
locations but processes in that globalisation and localisation produce different
spatial contexts that are “hybrids” or “glocal sites of both differentiation and
integration” (Herod 2003, p. 224). Because of this, everyone is directly or indirectly
part of a globalized geographic reality yet differentiated by one’s own local
experiences—hence everyone is a glocal citizen in this context. This brings us to
the aims of the IYGU, which connects culturally different local actions and global
challenges to create global sustainability (IYGU 2016b). This means that people
need to understand what their daily actions mean for the world as a whole to
overcome global challenges.
The world is facing a range of global issues such as uneven access to education,
social conditions that arise out of economic disparity across regions and unprece-
dented environmental changes. Each of these issues can be understood through
geographical knowledge. Indeed one of the IYGU challenges is to “enhance our
C.-H. Chang (&) A. Wi

National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: chewhung.chang@nie.edu.sg
A. Wi
e-mail: andy.wi@nie.edu.sg

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_3
30 C.-H. Chang and A. Wi
understanding of both Earth systems processes and socio-cultural contexts of

human action” through knowledge (IYGU 2016a). The authors argue that geo-
graphical knowledge provides this understanding. Take migrant workforce as an
example, people move from one geographic location to another for various reasons
such as social, economic, political and environmental factors (Hagen-Zanker 2008).
Migration occurs as a result of geographical differences in the supply and demand
of labour, availability of resources and the peoples’ perceived opportunity cost.
Mabogunje’s (1970) explains migration as a dynamic spatial process, in which
migration flows are affected by various factors (social & economic conditions,
government policies, transport & communications infrastructure etc.). On the one
hand, globalization has provided people with access to new job opportunities,
however, the local geographies of resource depletion and aging demographic
characteristics contribute to such movements as well. This is where geographical
knowledge helps us understand the connection between the local and global con-
texts. In addition, technological advances connects people who are physically and
geographically distanced from each other, adding yet another layer of complexity to
the interaction between the local and global context in understanding issues of
migrant workforce in any society.
Although climate change is a key theme in the IYGU discourse, global under-
standing is not only about environmental challenges but it includes issues in the
social, political and cultural milieu, as exemplified in the issue of migration above.
However, the authors will limit the scope of discussion and examine how geog-
raphy knowledge will empower individual actions based on the empirical findings
of their research on climate change education in the last five years, with a view to
engage the notion of global understanding within the context of geographical
education. Therefore, this chapter seeks to provide a view on how glocal issues
such as social, environmental and economics can be understood with geographic
knowledge.
Many people recognise climate change as a very serious problem, but the issue is
neither among their top concern nor of personal relevance (Adger et al. 2009;
Leiserowitz 2005; Patchen 2006). Climate change has always been seen as an
“others” problem and thus, does not affect their personal way of life. In some cases,
they fail to link climate-related events to extreme weather phenomenon (Whitmarsh
et al. 2012), for example. Literature on psychology shows that most people react to
situations they consider personally relevant or when these events directly affect
their own livelihood (Moser and Dilling 2004). Therefore, people are unlikely to
support climate change initiatives unless they feel these are serious social or eco-
logical problems that affect them personally (Lorenzoni and Pidgeon 2006).
As a global issue, extensive media coverage on climate change has left indi-
viduals wondering what they can or cannot do and whether it is the state’s
responsibility to manage climate change. Given peoples’ dependence on media to
understand the problem, this barrage of information from multiple sources.
Together with apparent denial and business-as-usual behaviour, has left individuals
feeling neither guilt nor obligation to take action for climate change (Carvalho
2007; Chang 2014).
3 Why the World Needs Geography Knowledge … 31
Amidst the politically generated debates on whether human beings are respon-
sible for climate change, the authors argue that there is a moral imperative that
requires people to manage their interaction with environment responsibly (Chang
2014). Indeed, there is little reason why people should not do anything to use
environmental resources sustainably. Climate change is happening whether or not
we can come to an agreement that we can blame it on humans. Since climate change
is “extremely likely” to be caused by people (IPCC 2014), perhaps the solution
would be to examine what humans can do to mitigate the effects of climate change.
There is growing concern about the role of individuals in contributing to and
bearing responsibility for climate change (Stern 2000). At the personal discourse
level, these debates and knowledge about the climate change issue must be made
sense of and this will possibly inform individuals to take action for a global phe-
nomenon like climate change (Chang 2014) within their own local experiences.
3.2 Understanding the Connection Between Local Action

and Global Issues
Using climate change as an example of an issue to connects local action with a

global phenomenon, governments have always believed that they can limit the
amount of emissions through top-down governmental policies (Stern 2009).
However, effective climate change policies would require governments to move
from short-term goals to political far-sightedness (Carvalho 2007). It is not a simple
“one-shot” deal; but an iterative, continuous learning process in developing climate
change policies that will work. It will be complimentary and mutually beneficial for
all levels of governments and community to be involved in climate change man-
agement to benefit from the economies of scale (Deangelo and Harvey 1998) rather
than just relying on state-driven imperatives. While, the government can come up
with strategies and policies to manage climate change, there is only so much the
government can do in terms of putting in place structures and processes. But to get
people to take action and ownership in climate change mitigation out of their own
free will, policies alone will not cut ice. It is important that we figure out how we
can help people take ownership of climate change mitigation.
Climate change involves global problems that require social, technological and
political relations to be successful (Räthzel and Uzzell 2009). Climate change
management cannot be done without the collaborative efforts of the international
community, the state, the local community, and the participation of residents at the
local level (Adger 2003; Ghai and Vivian 2014). The environmental impact of any
individual’s personal behaviour, however small, makes a significant impact on
climate change when many people independently do the same thing (Stern 2000).
However, studies in the literature have shown that increased awareness does not
necessarily lead to action (Chang 2014; Collins et al. 2003).
This is where geography knowledge is important. It requires the understanding

of people and culture across scales, from local, national to global. There is no
“one-size-fits-all” solution to climate change as different countries have different
demographics and environmental differences; especially for countries with states,
regions, provinces and even zones. For example, a common misconception is that
all the places around the earth will have higher amounts of precipitation due to
global warming. People fail to understand that increased precipitation due to cli-
mate change will result in less rainfall in some areas, while other areas will suffer
from severe floods (Chang and Pascua 2016). Therefore, different countries will
require different approaches to climate change management. The context for global
understanding in this case is built on the geographical concept of spatial variation
and scale. Moreover, an action or strategy that is successful in one country may not
be applicable to another. For example, small and coastal countries might lean
towards adaptation and build resilience as urgent responses rather than focus their
resources on mitigation. In some areas, communities might come together to take
action on climate change, while others might require governmental intervention to
generate action. Climate change strategies can be implemented at any scale (e.g.,
local, national and international) and any role (e.g., international and national
policy, individual and collective action). The lack of global understanding can be
exemplified by what Doreen Massey calls “inadequate geographies”. In an example
of how countries often refer to their per capita carbon emissions without regarding
the emissions produced outside their country through the importation of manu-
factured goods. Massey (2007) argues that geographical thinking allows us to ask
questions that connect the local and the global. Therefore, the need to understand
geography knowledge in terms of scale and space is an issue relevant at local,
national and international levels (Adger et al. 2005).
Our collective future is neither dependent on only how effective a state’s policy
is on climate change nor an individual’s solitary efforts, but on restoring and
preserving the quality of the environment by living climate conscious lifestyle that
could well be a product of both approaches. It is everybody’s responsibility to
perform climate conscious behaviour like recycling, conserving energy and pur-
chasing climate friendly products. Past studies have also shown that while there is
awareness among the people, they are still relatively indifferent with respect to
climate conscious behaviour (Abrahamse et al. 2007; De Young 1988). A key
factor to encourage individuals to do something about climate change is through
education and understanding in terms of learning geography.
The International Charter on Geographical Education suggests that “geograph-
ical education is indispensable to the development of responsible and active citizens
in the present and future world” (CGE 2016, p. 1). While misconceptions and
inadequate geographies have been described as key threats to meaningful under-
standing of the climate change issue, and consequently to develop global under-
standing, the authors argue for the importance of a well-designed school geography
curriculum. Indeed, geography is “a vital subject and resource for 21st century
citizens living in a tightly interconnected world. It enables us to face questions of
what it means to live sustainably in this world” (CGE 2016, p. 5).
3.3 Global Understanding and the School Curriculum
In today’s knowledge-based society, the school curriculum plays a vital role in

providing solutions to the world’s pressing problems, such as climate change,
environmental, socio-economics and sustainable development. Werlen (2016)
argues that people need to take responsibility for their actions and to consider the
challenges of global social events and climate change by taking sustainability into
account when making decisions. So how do we educate global citizens in global
responsibility? It is imperative that we bring researchers, educators, students, policy
makers, government and non-government agencies to cooperate and communicate
about climate change education, especially when designing the curriculum for
learning about climate change.
UNESCO defines curriculum as “a systematic and intended packaging of
competencies (i.e. knowledge, skills and attitudes that are underpinned by values)
that learners should acquire through organised learning experiences both in formal
and non-formal settings” (UNESCO 2016).
In Eisner’s (1985) theory on curriculum, the explicit curriculum (formal setting
—classes that are offered by a school) does not exist independently of the implicit
curriculum (unspoken decisions that contribute to the functioning of the school) and
the null curriculum (non-formal setting—knowledge that is not taught in school). In
addition, Young et al. (2014) proposed that a future-ready curriculum should be one
in which a child engages the information they encounter within the contextual
understanding of school knowledge and asks critical questions that will develop
deeper understanding of the issue at hand. Also termed an F3 curriculum, Young’s
idea is that unlike the F1 curriculum where the boundaries of knowledge are fixed,
or an F2 curriculum where the boundaries of knowledge do not exist, a student in an
F3 curriculum will be asking critical questions, guided by the subject disciplinary
knowledge of their teachers. This in turn feeds back into the professional work of
teachers that are linked back to the epistemic communities. Teachers who do not
have strong disciplinary knowledge may not be able to create a learning activity that
will help students engage the topic critically. For example, some countries are
consuming more of the planet’s resources (The World Bank 2012), thus con-
tributing to the climate change phenomenon more than others by emitting more
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The irony is that the countries con-
suming more resources are not necessarily the same countries feeling the impact
and effects of climate change. While India and China are also facing the effects of
climate change, they are highlighted for their large carbon emission due to their
growing economy and industries. But these reports have missed one important fact
and that is, countries importing the goods do not take into account the carbon
emission during manufacturing which takes place in another country (Massey
2007). In both these ways of describing the curriculum, whether Eisner’s or
Young’s perspective, the place of the subject discipline, and in this case, Geography
cannot be understated. It is important to forge life-long learning and competencies
grounded in strong disciplinary knowledge. Schools help learners acquire relevant
knowledge and develop thinking skills, and in the case of school geography avoids
the issues of inadequate geographies.
Individuals acquire information through different forms of experiences and
learning (Mezirow 1997). This helps the individual to shape expectations, per-
ceptions and cognition, thus rejecting ideas that are incorrect. This theory of
transformative learning is defined as “the process of using prior knowledge to
construct a new or revised meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future
action” (Cranton 1996; Mezirow 1997). Transformative learning can be viewed
across “an individual’s lifespan, reflecting continuous, incremental, and progres-
sive growth” (Taylor 2008). It is not just the changes in behavioural or quantity of
knowledge but also the epistemological change (how we construct meaning).
A learner has to transform information into knowledge to fully understand the
experience (Mezirow 1997). However, such a transformation requires students to
have access to correct information and information that is helpful for them to
construct meaning. Furthermore, Lambert and Hopkin (2014) suggest that the
curriculum is a result of an interaction between the social purposes of education, the
way the subject is taught, and the child. The subject disciplinary knowledge will
help teachers determine how best to teach the subject, based on “the best of what we
know and inducting students into the processes and procedures of how we have
come to know it” (Lambert and Hopkin 2014, p. 65). The teacher plays a crucial
role in what Lambert and Hopkin (2014) calls the curriculum making process. This
requires the teacher to consider what learning activity to select and the corre-
sponding the key concepts and how they can help students think geographically to
take them beyond what they already know. Consequently, misconceptions and
inadequate geographies that geography teachers have are not helpful in this
endeavour. Therefore, it is critical for teachers to have deep disciplinary knowledge
to select resources for their lessons.
3.4 Geography as Powerful Knowledge
The study of geography is unique because it comes alive when children learn the
knowledge, feels for the environment and takes pride in being a part of the envi-
ronment. We argue that geography disciplinary knowledge is powerful knowledge
because it provides more reliable explanations and new ways of thinking about the
world. Powerful knowledge can help learners acquire a language for engaging in
political, moral, and other kinds of debates. (Young 2008, p. 14). Geography is an
important subject because it helps the child learn that which is yet known. Maude
(2015) argues that geography disciplinary knowledge is powerful knowledge because
it “provides students with powerful ways of analysing, explaining and understanding”
and “gives students some power over their own geographical knowledge” (p. 21).
“Geography is concerned with human-environment interactions in the context of
specific places and locations and with issues that have a strong geographical dimension
like natural hazards, climate change, energy supplies, migration, land use, urbanization,
poverty and identity” (CGE 2016, p. 10). In other words, the subject-matter knowledge
about climate change itself has to be first understood as a key feature of the human–
environment interaction before the child can understand the topic well.
The authors suggest that geography as a subject knowledge empowers the teacher
to engage the implicit and null curriculum and the develop active, concerned and
critical learners in an F3 curriculum. The teacher’s agency, pedagogical skills,
knowledge, subject training and the students’ experiences influence the curriculum
making process (Lambert and Morgan 2010). This implies that teachers have to go
beyond just textbook knowledge and purposefully and thoughtfully select resources
such as newspaper articles, journals, videos and technology to help students make
sense of what they are learning. It is tempting, for instance, to find a video of an
incineration plant with a focus on the red hot fiery flames in the furnace as a way to
teach about the need to reduce waste as a mitigating strategy for climate change.
However, the heat generated from burning rubbish (incineration) ONLY contributes
in a very small part to global warming. It is the greenhouse gases, which are released
during the incineration of the rubbish that contributes to the warming (Chang and
Pascua 2016). In this respect, schools are favourable environments whereby geog-
raphy knowledge and environmental action such as recycling activities can be used
to promote positive attitudes and behaviours toward climate change (Chang 2014).
However, the curriculum making process should be clearly guided by the powerful
disciplinary knowledge of the teachers, lest their own misconceptions result in the
acquisition of incomplete, incoherent and in accurate understanding of the issue.
Even though there is high awareness among learners about the topic (Ambusaidi
et al. 2012), concepts of climate change, global warming and the greenhouse effects
are misunderstood at many levels. There is often no distinction between learning
about the science of climate change and how to mitigate the impact of climate
change. This is the result of treating geography as a separate, disjoint subject that is
specific to certain place and time.
Misconceptions about climate change remain largely made of inaccurate and
incomplete conceptualizations (Chang and Pascua 2016; Wang 2004) in which a
great disconnect is observed between “actual climate science knowledge and per-
ceived knowledge” (McCaffrey and Buhr 2008). As Bord et al. (2000) stated that
misconceptions prevent individuals from intelligently responding to the challenges
posed by climate change. Even though students have been exposed to classroom
discussions on the topic, they still have major gaps in their understanding. While
students have been especially pessimistic about a future that they do not quite
understand (Jonsson et al. 2012; Ozdem et al. 2014), it is very likely that the
students are unaware of the misconceptions in their understanding of climate
change (Chang and Pascua 2016). For example, students perceive industrial and
nuclear activities as heat generators in addition to being a greenhouse gas and
pollutant emitters, which is clearly wrong. The tendency of climate change to be
misunderstood by learners is well documented in the literature as well as in pre-
vious researches by the authors (Chang and Pascua 2015). To correct persistent
misconceptions, Chi (2008) and Chi and Roscoe (2002) suggested that students
must be made aware of the flaws in their mental models through multiple revisions.
Therefore, educating the new generation of critical thinkers about climate change
rests not just on an ideal curriculum (Kagawa and Selby 2012), but also with
pedagogical readiness and awareness of educators on the complexities involved in
the understanding of the climate change phenomenon (Chang and Pascua 2015).
For example, students are often confused between the natural and enhanced
greenhouse effect. McCaffrey and Buhr (2008) highlighted that in the absence of
proper understanding of climate change, introducing policies targeted at changing
attitudes and behaviour is futile and even counterproductive in the long run. There
is a need to build accurate understanding about climate change. Therefore, edu-
cators in both Geography and the Sciences must be cognizant of deeply embedded
errors in a mental model as barriers to learning (Chang and Pascua 2016).
While a multi-disciplinary approach that compasses both social and natural
sciences appears to be the solution to develop climate literate people, geography
disciplinary knowledge may by itself be powerful knowledge that “enables young
people to follow and participate in debates on significant local, national and global
issues” (Maude 2015, p. 21).
“Geography enables the study of human activities and their interrelationships
and interactions with environments from local to global scales” (CGE 2016, p. 4).
Tan and Chang (2008) defines geography as a subject that can educate students and
people on how to respond to and take action for climate change. While geography
prepares students to engage in the global issues of our time, it is necessary to ensure
that teachers are equipped with adequate knowledge and skills on climate change in
terms of places, space, time and scale (Chang 2012). It is important that students
understand the effects of what is accomplished in the local scale can affect the
national, international and global scale. For example, if every individual on earth
can reduce 1 kg of their carbon consumption, we would effectively save 7.5 billion
kilograms of carbon per year (1 kg per person on Earth). This understanding will
help individuals realise that regardless of how small their efforts may seem, it will
have a significant collective impact on mitigating climate change.
Geography offers an individual the ability to think beyond the local and
appreciate the context of the global through powerful knowledge. However,
Geography does not need to only benefit learners in school or in institutes of higher
education. The lessons learnt in geography education can also be applied to the
context of public education. The challenge is how do we employ powerful
knowledge within the context of public education where the public education
curriculum is no necessarily designed by a geographer?
3.5 Public Education Programmes and Everyday

Geographies
Lambert (2014) argues that “what we plan to teach takes children beyond their
experience and introduces them to ways of thinking about the world that they are
unlikely to encounter unless they go to school” (Slater et al. 2016, p. 189).
However, this does not mean that what people learn in their daily experience is
irrelevant. Indeed, geography can be learnt through people’s everyday lives and the
two ways of acquiring knowledge (both powerful and everyday knowledge) interact
with each other and are complementary (Slater et al. 2016, p. 189).
Unfortunately, public education programmes employed by the government with
regard to climate change will provide individuals with as much information as
possible, with the goal of raising awareness in mind. This is not effective and it
seldom results in any attainment of knowledge or action for climate change on the
part of the citizen. Such programmes need to support citizens by providing both
mental and physical encouragement and even the skills (Smith 2000) to emphasize
that every single action matters. One of the key messages in IYGU is that
“Everyday actions matter for global climate change”. It is important to examine
how to change individual and social practices in respect of sustainability as well as
redesigning environmental policies through sound science (Werlen 2015).
The curriculum for any public education programme would not be a course of
study, but rather as a construct that defines what needs to be learned, who is
learning it, how it is to be learned and how the learning is to be measured, following
the key components of a curriculum design cycle (Tyler 2013). In a study con-
ducted by the authors, residents in a housing estate in Singapore, who attended a
specially developed public education curriculum, were able to change their elec-
tricity consumption behaviour and save approximately 25.6 kWh per household
during the one month that the programme was run. Based on the data from the
DoSS (2016), there are 1,263,600 households in Singapore. If the programme was
to be implemented country wide, the country could effectively be saving 32.4 GWh
of energy per month. What was unique about this public education programme was
that in addition to providing information about energy saving tips, there were
specific efforts made in explaining why certain types of behavioural change were
needed. For instance, the rationale to keep the thermostat of the air conditioner at
25 °C was explained rather than just being put down as an energy saving
tip. Furthermore, people were encouraged to think about why they have made such
savings on their electricity use. This education programme together with a support
structure is needed for individual to practice, to check and to verify what they have
learned. In the study by Poortinga et al. (2003), it was found that energy saving
measures were more acceptable if an individual understood that it benefited both the
environment and the individual in terms of financial savings. Thus, creating
awareness in the individual by learning about climate change and action, giving
them an opportunity to mimic and practice the new knowledge, checking on their
progress are important ingredients to influence behaviour positively.
All everyday actions have the same potential of transformation. With inquiry,
everyday knowledge is used by people to make sense of their environmental
decisions. The actions with the most important resource consumption are the ones
with the highest impact on our natural living conditions (Werlen 2015). To get
individuals to take action for climate change, they must first “consume information”
then “transform this information into knowledge” and with sufficient understanding
and motivation adopt climate conscious behaviour. Through the experience, people
acquire skills and knowledge that lead to an increase in climate change concern
which increases the likelihood that people participate in other climate change
activities and adopt climate conscious behaviour (De Young 2000; Geller 2002;
Kals et al. 1999).
While there is action taken based on knowledge, that there is no explicit
subject-based curriculum for public education. This approach to helping people
make sense of their everyday actions is very different from both Lambert’s (2014)
powerful knowledge and Eisner’s (1985) theory on the curriculum. Nonetheless, as
suggested by Tyler (2013), public education is essential and there is a need to go
through this cycle to educate people on climate change.
3.6 Conclusion—Moving Beyond Knowledge

to Taking Action
IYGU aims to bridge the gap in the awareness between local actions and global
effects. However, one cannot appreciate the global without first understanding the
local. Climate change literacy alone does not provide a sufficient condition to
galvanise the younger generation to take action (Collins et al. 2003), and having
awareness about climate change is in itself is not enough (Chang 2014). Even when
people have increased awareness, they might experience uncertainty about the new
knowledge and do not perform any action due to the feeling of inconvenience
(Aarts et al. 1997). It is plausible that people will not take action for climate change
if they have inadequate geographies (Massey 2007) or persistent misconceptions
(Chang 2014).
The notion of powerful knowledge helps us understand that deep geography
disciplinary knowledge allows teachers to support students’ learning by dispelling
misconceptions of inaccurate, incomplete or incoherent understandings. Teachers’
agency in the curriculum making process is supported by the meaningful selection
of content and material, design of activities and even ways of assessing learning.
While the earlier part of this chapter argued for geography disciplinary knowledge
to be the key subject for global understanding, the discussion of how everyday
geographies can help in public education does not contradict the suggestion.
Indeed, the core element to connect the local and global scale is through the
everyday knowledge, daily habits practices and the way the natural conditions are
transformed to satisfy people’s needs (Werlen 2016). What teachers and curriculum
designers should consider is that while everyday experiences provide the context
for the inquiry, powerful knowledge provides the person “ways of analysing,
explaining and understanding” about the phenomenon. In fact, what has not been
said up to this point is that the curriculum designed for the public education pro-
gramme was undertaken by the authors, who are both trained geographers.
Geography plays a vital role in providing solutions to the world’s pressing
problems, such as climate change and sustainable development. The question then
is whether a curriculum designed from geography powerful knowledge is rigorous

enough to enable learners to acquire the competencies to face the challenges in the
future. For the authors, the test is in the pudding. A successful curriculum must
provide opportunities for learners to develop skills and knowledge that lead to an
increase in climate change concern which increases the likelihood that people
participate in other climate change activities (De Young 2000; Geller 2002; Kals
et al. 1999).
There is a need for learners who are able to understand the people’s perspectives,
social processes, human-environment interaction and to connect the local and
global geographical concepts such as space, place, scale, physical and human
processes, environmental and cultural diversity and interdependence. With good
subject mastery we can then refute and correct the misconceptions, which might
surface in the learner’s understanding of geography. Therefore, educating the new
generation of critical thinkers about climate change rests on both a good curriculum
(Kagawa and Selby 2012) and the pedagogical readiness and awareness of edu-
cators (Chang and Pascua 2015).
Only if we understand, can we care. Only if we care, we will help. Only if we help, we shall
be saved.—Jane Goodall (Lindsey and Goodall 1999)
To quote Jane Goodall, it is imperative that learners should first have a good
understanding of the subject matter before we can even influence their attitude and
encourage them to take action. We come back to the two questions raised earlier.
How do we transform knowledge about global issues into action and how do we
unpack our understanding of the connections between local action and global
issues? To reiterate one of the key messages in IYGU is that “Everyday actions
matter for global climate change”. Therefore, it is important to find solutions in a
common effort and in a way that everyone can contribute with their own means,
since everyday actions are fundamental for all changes and where the local and
global become one (Werlen 2015). Geography disciplinary knowledge provides a
bridge to help us connect location actions with global issues. Clearly, the world
needs geography knowledge in global understanding.
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Wang, J. R. (2004). Development and validation of a two-tier instrument to examine
understanding of internal transport in plants and the human circulatory system. International
Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 2(2), 131–157.
Werlen, B. (2015). International year of global understanding. An interview with Benno Werlen.
Journal of Research and Didactics in Geography, 2(4).
Werlen, B. (2016). Bridging the gap between local acts and global effects. The importance of
global understanding for sustainable living by Benno Werlen. Retrieved on January 5, 2017
from http://www.esri.com/esri-news/arcnews/spring16articles/bridging-the-gap-between-local-
acts-and-global-effects.
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Behaviour change and communication. New York: Routledge.
Young, M. (2008). From constructivism to realism in the sociology of the curriculum. Review of
Research in Education, 32(1), 1–28.
Young, M., Lambert, D., Roberts, C., & Roberts, M. (2014). Knowledge and the future school:
Curriculum and social justice. London: Bloomsbury.
Chapter 4
Spatially Informed Citizenship
Education as an Approach for Global
Understanding
Inga Gryl and Thomas Jekel
4.1 Introduction
When the new US administration was set to take office in early 2017, hectic activity
took place in a variety of research institutions. Scientists, hackers, and
whistle-blowers tried to “preserve” climate data from an administration that openly
disregarded years of research, of data acquisition and modeling and felt it was time
for “alternative facts” (Temple 2017). What was the cause for this hectic activity?
There was a widespread fear in academia and NGOs that relevant data on climate
change would be made unavailable by the new administration.
This anecdote shows a few things that are central to our understanding of links
between (spatial) citizenship and global understanding.
(1) The new administration was deemed in a position to alter a scientific version of
a (mainly) physical view of the world by simply destroying or hiding data: data
that was inherently spatial and included both physical as well as social sce-
narios that would change the world as we know it today; hiding away specific
scenarios that seemed detrimental to the administration’s political aims, and
that would, at the same time, allow people to trace ways of adaption to new
situations, organizing their lives in times of physical and economical change.
(2) At the same time, a variety of informed and engaged citizens were in a position
to at least partly avert this “burning of books” by saving large amounts of data
from government agencies. They were doing so based on their technical pro-
ficiencies and political visions that included a wider view of the world than that
I. Gryl (&)
University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
e-mail: inga.gryl@uni-due.de
T. Jekel
Paris-Lodron-University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
e-mail: thomas.jekel@sbg.ac.at

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_4
44 I. Gryl and T. Jekel
of profit that included ideas of caring for this globe, ideas of sustainability, of
welcoming diversity. And they were doing so collaboratively, i.e., based on a
variety of qualifications.
As a result of this activism, the administration stepped back temporarily from
removing climate change data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
website (Bravender and Hess 2017).
The new US administration seems an easy target, but a variety of political
developments in Central Europe, Turkey, and other places clearly show that civic
engagement will be needed in high measure in coming years. This chapter explores
the qualities needed for engaged citizenship and global understanding as outlined
by Werlen (2017) based on science, technology, and the humanities. It also
examines the specific contributions the discipline of geography may provide in
schools through highlighting multiple spatial perspectives and the analysis of the
links between the global and the local. To accomplish these goals, Sect. 2 will
outline technological and societal changes that influence people’s everyday actions
in spatially related contexts and topics. Section 3 will briefly outline one prelimi-
nary approach that was devised to develop Spatially Informed Citizenship, called
Spatial Citizenship, and discuss its limitations and opportunities. Based on the
necessities of global citizenship, Sect. 4 suggests new realism as an additional
approach because it includes the involvement of materiality and relationships with
facts. Section 5 outlines the core dimensions of Spatially Informed Citizenship.
4.2 Today’s Societies and Their Spatial Implications
Our world and societies face serious world problems such as a lack of sustainability,
environmental and human crises, and wars (Ferdowsi 2007). As described above,
totalitarian and populist political tendencies in many countries often form barriers to
attempts to handle or at least ease these problems. (Besides, these policies are
occasionally one of the causes of those situations.) On the other hand, there are
technical innovations that radically change life or at least have the potential to do
so. Data has become the powerful currency to understand the world, make meaning
of it, and influence people’s thoughts and action (Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier
2013), as described in the example above. Data can help to work on world prob-
lems, while a lack of data, and particularly the construction of “alternative facts”,
can cause problems to be neglected or even hidden. Data can also be used to
exercise control over people as the influence of big data analysis shows. Therefore,
the mature utilization of data by every citizen carries a potential for activist,
society-changing citizenship.
Geoinformation and geomedia, i.e. all data and representations linked to
geographical location potentially change the socially constructed meaning of these
locations. Media that transmit this data are called geomedia (Gryl and Jekel 2012);
its applications are fostered by current technologies such as geolocation services
4 Spatially Informed Citizenship Education as an Approach … 45
(e.g., GPS, GMS), mobile devices, and the mobile Internet (Strobl 2014).
Altogether, these innovations influence the ways of making sense of everyday local,
distant, and global spaces. New layers of meaning are linked to the everyday
perception of the world, which form a kind of augmented reality (Milgram et al.
1994).
Despite the “shrinking world” of transportation and communication technolo-
gies, geotechnologies lead to a “Renaissance of place” (Schroll et al. 2007). Due to
new forms of the production and representation of geographic data that are open to
laypersons in the field, a democratization of the production of meaning of spaces
arises (c.f. Turner 2006). At this, conflicting meanings are probably and may result
in controversies on the adequate action in a certain physical space. The struggle for
meaning opens the debate for the classifications of data as facts, alternative facts,
and nonfacts. Current digital geomedia that provide Web2.0 elements support
negotiation on this, going beyond traditional formal participation paths (c.f. Bennett
et al. 2009). And as technology supports global communication, and as geomedia
provides global data, problems concerning the global system with all its complexity
come more into the focus and are open—if not consciously hidden—to formation
and activism. Altogether, the utilization of geomedia technologies, handling data,
developing meanings, and negotiating them with others is the core of an educational
approach named Spatial Citizenship, whereas Public Participation GIS, counter
mapping, and simple web mapping are the fields and tools of production of alter-
native meanings and negotiation.
4.3 Education for Spatial Citizenship and Its Reception
The approach of Spatial Citizenship as one educational attempt to enable learners to

maturely appropriate spaces was originally formulated as a counter draft to classical
GIS education (Gryl et al. 2010; Gryl and Jekel 2012). The latter focuses on
enabling learners for a GIS workforce that is of increasing importance for today’s
economies and therefore draws the main focus on technical skills in complex GIS. It
consequently follows a neoliberalist praxis of education that trains learners to
function in the economy. In contrast, Spatial Citizenship intends to enable learners
to participate in societal spatial decision-making processes using simple digital
geomedia to produce alternative spatial visions (Gryl and Jekel 2012). Therefore, it
addresses the humanist ideal of an education of and toward the development of
mature citizens.
The definition of citizenship used must, therefore, be aligned to this educational
and societal aim. Spatial Citizenship is based on a concept called the “actualized
citizen” (Bennett et al. 2009, 108) that explains how nowadays citizens can par-
ticipate in society using multilateral communication tools on the Web2.0, and
questioning unidimensional communication in traditional top-down information
channels. This strategy allows citizens to rise new discourses and to question and
deconstruct existing societal frameworks.
Geomedia is each media that carries geolocated information (Gryl et al. 2010)
and that is characterized by high, intuitive usability. Geomedia is based on the ideas
and technical framework of lay cartography (resp. Neogeography, Turner 2006; c.f.
paragraph 2) that allows nonprofessionals to produce maps that communicate
spatial visions (e.g., concerning design), supporting the user’s argument com-
pellingly. Spatial Citizenship regards geomedia as tools that enable new (spatial)
communication.
Maps are regarded as powerful communication tools; they can produce new
spatial visions as they have long been a symbol of ownership (or at least power of
interpretation) over land (Wood 1993). Maps are remembered more easily than
written texts because they approach different paths of perception in humans—
aesthetic and figurative communication paths (c.f. Dual coding, Paivio 1990).
Obviously, the “power of maps” (Wood 1993), which allows those who own
mapmaking (who employ professional mapmakers) to exercise power over the
distribution of meaning of physical space, is conflicted. Due to neogeography, and
following a Critical Cartography and Critical GIScience approach (Schuurman
2004; Crampton 2001; Harley 1989), maps are more openly regarded as individual
and social constructions that attach meaning to spaces and contribute to societal
spatial communication. This approach is, again, based on social-spatial theories that
regard space as constructed (Lefebvre 1993; Werlen 1993; Paasi 1986) and,
respectively, relational; meaning is attached to located, physical matter. Although
the matter might have a certain effect on action (Miller 2010) (that can, partly, be
compensated, for instance, due to technical innovations), following the theory, the
meaning provided is even more powerful in limiting and enabling action. Thus,
counter mapping can question the existence of a certain geo-address to the meaning
that it is linked to on a map (Gryl 2012)—making available differing meanings
connected to the same point on Earth.
As meanings differ, often conflicting and noncompatible rules of action in a
certain space arise that stand for differing interests. While De Certeau (1988) comes
up with a dichotomy of the powerful that set the meaning of spaces durably and the
powerless that question it in temporary actions (e.g., flash mobs, civil disobedi-
ence), web communication of spatial meanings, the influence of social media on
traditional mass media, and the concept of formation through web media illustrate
that roles in spatial conflicts become more complex than this depiction.
In contrast to other educational approaches of spatialities, mainly Spatial
Thinking (NRC 2006; Hegarty et al. 2011), the Spatial Citizenship approach takes
into account the social realm of spaces and spatial decision-making. For this, three
different core dimensions, differentiated in a competence model (Schulze et al.
2015), are formulated: (1) reflection for the deconstruction of spatial inequalities,
exclusions, etc., either displayed in maps or in the spatial praxis; (2) communication
and negotiation of alternative spatial constructions that limit spatial injustice; and
(3) technical and methodological competences to handle geomedia for decon-
struction and communication in a competent manner (Gryl et al. 2010; Gryl and
Jekel 2012).
The concept of Spatial Citizenship has been adapted by researchers around the
globe for different fields of application, different regions, and age groups (Gordon
et al. 2016; Bednarz and Bednarz 2015; Gryl 2015; Hennig and Vogler 2014;
Kanwischer and Quennet 2012). Some contributed to the theoretical development
of the approach: Elwood and Mitchell (2013) suggested the praxis of formation to
specify the manner of participation and adapt it to current web and everyday
communication, leaving traditional paths of involvement. Concerning the norma-
tive background of human rights and democracy, Pokraka et al. (2016) specified
these categories. While De Luca et al. (2015) brought in gender perspectives,
Pokraka (2015) applied the intersectionality approach to overcome paternalist
educational tendencies that were still implicitly hidden in the approach. Scharf et al.
(2016), Jekel et al. (2015a, b), and Gryl (2013) applied the concept of innovation
education, respectively, “innovativeness”, seeking a basis to encourage maturity
and volition for alternative constructions of space. Nevertheless, in response to a
stronger focus on the spatialities involved in citizenship in general, we have to
widen the view of Spatial Citizenship toward a Spatially Informed Citizenship.
4.4 Global Understanding and Space
Due to its focus on the variety of spatialities, we regard this idea of Spatially
Informed Citizenship as a meaningful concept to support global understanding as it
is defined, for instance, by Werlen (2017) in the Preface of this book. Following
this, global understanding involves a threefold bridging process that characterizes
this kind of understanding and that is supported within the International Year of
Global Understanding: “Bridging (a) the local and the global (…), (b) the multi-
plicity of socio-cultural worlds and the natural world (…), and (c) everyday life and
science (…)” (Werlen 2017, 51). Particularly (a) is also marked as global under-
standing in the narrower sense, but all three aspects seem to be relevant to develop
complex understanding, for instance, utilizing (b) in order to go beyond Euro- or
Anglocentrism and allow for systematic thinking concerning human–environment
conflicts. At this, we regard global understanding as mainly a political concept that
is to be supported and consolidated in more detail through various initiatives.
Spatially Informed Citizenship might be an independent concept being very useful
for gaining global understanding and therefore fill a theoretical and methodological
gap toward the aims of global understanding (Fig. 4.1).
A starting point to develop this concept and widen the view of its foundation,
Spatial Citizenship, might be a perspective of insight that takes into account “facts”
beyond meanings. It may be argued that the Spatial Citizenship approach described
above is a purely social constructivist approach that does not include “facts” such as
scientifically recorded data. It could even be proclaimed that actually, the Trump
administration was within its rights to implement its worldview that is not based on
facts, or on “other facts”. Thus, is a constructivist perspective dead because of the
separate realities provided? In order to handle these definitory problems, we have to
Fig. 4.1 Links between global understanding, Spatial Citizenship, and Spatially Informed
Citizenship
analyze the relations between a constructivist perspective and absolute euclidian

spaces regarding citizenship and understanding.
Coming back to the introductory example, there clearly is a measurable change
in climate, in terms of changing temperature and precipitation regimes, shrinking
glaciers, and new sea levels besides a host of other developments, all of them
spatial, although its causes may be less clear. And there are various interpretations
of this data—that may or may not do justice to the physical processes, and lead to
their understanding in terms of causes and effects. The concept of space needed for
this type of physical/technical understanding is the concept of absolute space, a
space used to technically organize, spatially analyze data, and produce simulations
with the intent of understanding physical processes. This concept of space is the
basis of the spatial approach in geography, and of course, the technical basis for
GIS and geomedia (see Allen et al. 1998; Werlen 1993). It has been widely criti-
cized for its inability to help understand human agency (Werlen 1993). Within
geography education, there has been a wider discussion, linking this concept to
technical rationalities only (Jekel 2007; Gryl and Jekel 2012). Relating this concept
to global understanding, we may understand physical processes (which still is
necessary!), but not social processes, and therefore an insufficient basis to link the
physical and social world. Relating it to citizenship, it is missing out on reflexivity,
engagement, individual interests, and power.
To understand the social processes—and the new administrations’ activity hid-
ing away data clearly is a social process—we need a different concept of space: a
space that is actively based on individual and collective interests constructed to
achieve specific aims and a space that is considered relational, and therefore a space
to be deconstructed to understand social processes (for example, see Allen et al.
1998; Pokraka et al. 2016, and many others). In this perspective, hiding away data
becomes an intentional act to deconstruct and reconstruct our ideas of the world. In
regard to the understanding of global processes, this concept allows us to under-
stand the political use of representation, the intentionality of our interaction with the
physical world. Relating this concept of constructed, relational space to citizenship,
it allows us to link to the idea of actualizing citizenship (Bennett et al. 2009; Gryl
and Jekel 2012). And it clearly supports the idea that educated subjects can actively
further their interests through engagement and putting forward their own repre-
sentations of space.
The question, however, is how these two concepts interact. In a forthcoming
essay, Rhode-Jüchtern (2017) suggests an approach based on the ideas of a “New
Realism”. This approach opposes two current mainstream philosophies, namely,
both constructivism and naturalism (see Rhode-Jüchtern 2017; Gabriel 2014).
Instead, it argues that there are actually objective and subjective realities, “New
ontological realism claims that any perspective on Mount Etna is as real and ‘out
there’ as Mount Etna itself. The fact that Mount Etna looks like a mountain to me
and like a valley to the Martian are relational facts involving Mount Etna itself and
not just facts involving me or the Martian” (Gabriel 2014, 10).
Gabriel goes on to suggest there is no need to separate the mind from matter as it
would be just as real as the physical landscape. Translating this to the politics of the
US administration, measurable climate change and climate change effects are there,
no matter what a specific institution is willing us or its citizens to believe. The
problem is the second fact: The ideas of the administration are there, whatever
changes are happening. This critique is not aimed at prioritizing science, data, or
nature over politics.
However, it is more interesting to follow Rhode-Jüchterns (2017) argument
regarding educational consequences. He starts from (1) a theme that may be
transformed into a problem; (2) the problem is related to specific aspects (per-
spectives) of a phenomenon of reality; (3) problems are generated in communica-
tion processes, and finishes that (4) problems produced through communication
may be considered contested, therefore leading to the need for strategies for
problem definition. Rhode-Jüchtern argues that through this theory-linking
approach, the existence of phenomena is not discounted; however, the problem
definition is clearly an outcome of construction. A return to “facts”—i.e., data—
follows as the next step of problem solution. And beyond the facts—it would be
“real” (disciplinary) perspectives that inform problem solutions. The result is an
amalgam of various concepts and perspectives, but in most cases, one of the basic
points is to use at least two different concepts of space discussed above: absolute
and relational.
To illustrate this, climate change—measured using tools of science and absolute
space—is only to be transformed into a problem using the concept of relational
space and subjective perceptions and interests. And to solve the problem—think,
for example, of sea level rise—there is both the relational space of the politics
involved, as well as the absolute space: Will our new dam, if built, fulfill expec-
tations? What are uncertainties and risks? What extent of sea level rise will be dealt
with?
4.5 Consequences for Secondary Education
The above discussion leads to a variety of seemingly eclectic ideas that might be the
basis of a Spatially Informed Citizenship education rooted in, and aiming for, global
understanding. Although this discussion is not clearly aimed at a school subject’s
domain, we concentrate on possible contributions from a background of the dis-
cipline of geography, and other spatially aware disciplines (ecology, architecture,
spatial planning, sociology, etc.). In our understanding, an engaged citizen con-
fronting the current situation of the world and participating in its development
definitely needs qualifications in the following six areas.
4.5.1 Disciplinary Concepts: Space and Spatialities
The value of disciplinary concepts has recently been widely discussed in connection
with the Geocapabilities project (Lambert et al. 2015). We do think that these ideas
are compatible with the ideas of new realism that see scientific schools of thought as
existing “facts” (Gabriel 2014). At the same time, these ideas can provide a specific
lens/perspective on phenomena that can ensure the intersubjectivity
(Rhode-Jüchtern 2017) seemingly missing from a postfact world. Accordingly,
there are disciplinary core concepts that, as long they are checked against the
current conditions of society, can provide a useful structure for specific school
subjects.
Although we think that there is a variety of core concepts coming from the
discipline, we also think that geography’s sensibility toward space and spatialities is
probably its unique selling proposition. We suggest a minimum of two concepts of
space to develop global understanding:
(a) A concept of absolute space that can be used to order and to represent data, to
hypothesize and to reason about the world “out there”. This concept has been in
the mainstream of geography for years, and it has been transferred to education
under the Spatial Thinking tag (NRC 2006). Great care has to be taken to link
this concept to ontologies that can support this concept (Werlen 1993), i.e.,
reasoning with absolute space is only applicable in the science domain, while in
the humanities domain this concept may only be used for ordering, representing
and building hypotheses. Thus, the concept is valuable for ecological questions
and reasoning, but less so for the political and citizenship domains where it may
be used to invent problems (Jekel et al. 2015a, b).
(b) A relational concept of constructed space that allows us to reflect on the use of
the concept of absolute space by various institutions to deconstruct human
activity and that allows for alternative meanings to be constructed. This rela-
tional concept of space is necessary for the explanation of human–environment
interactions as it includes the subjective perspective of human action. It is this
concept that has been the base of the Education for Spatial Citizenship
approach (Gryl and Jekel 2012).
The main problem here with current geography education seems to be that
educators comingle various concepts of space in an ontologically unsound way. If
Spatially Informed Citizenship education is to be successful, it has to make sure that
the concepts are used appropriately depending upon the ontologies of the phe-
nomenon in question. We also think that both concepts are compulsory for global
understanding.
4.5.2 Everyday Regionalization
A variety of authors have clearly suggested reconstructing social geography from

the viewpoint of social action, and within the spatial domain, looking into everyday
practices of regionalization (Paasi 1986; Werlen 1993; Lefebvre 1993). Contrary to
early critique by mainstream geographers, these theories do not neglect the physical
world. The common denominator is social action as an intentional practice. We do
think that the idea of intentional action is a prerogative for any idea of responsibility
toward others and a wider world.
We do think that to deconstruct and actively act on current global developments,
Werlens’ 1995/97 idea of everyday regionalization can be deemed helpful, as it
links regionalization to a variety of domains (informative-significative,
political-normative, production-consumption) and therefore allows for the inclusion
of social, political, and economic domains. It is especially useful as many of the
current developments do not take place in administratively bounded entities, but in
fluid communities difficult to depict in absolute space (Jekel et al. 2015a, b).
Consequently, everyday regionalization allows us to make sense of a complex and
globalized world. We do, however, think that in many—especially ecological—
issues, a grounding in absolute space is necessary to complement the above spheres.
4.5.3 Systematic Thinking
We are furthermore convinced that this kind of thinking requires a systematic and
complex understanding of the world. Several theories describe human–environment
relations, for example, Actor–Network Theory, and from these, we suggest political
ecology (Krings 2008) as the most compatible to an action-focused and educational
approach to the appropriation of spaces. This concept has been applied to geog-
raphy education by Kanwischer (2015), and, again, it involves absolute spaces and
facts about the existence of natural phenomena and their connections in a complex
natural system. It also connects the social realm with various actors in different
contexts with their action taking place on different scales and with differing scopes.
Being aware of the various interests involved, the reasons for decision-making
beyond logical terms become visible. In addition, including the basis of facts such
as climate change and starvation, their consequences become clear as well. These
observations leave sustainability as a target that is not fully realizable due to the
complexity of the network of factors and actors involved and is, here comes the
social constructivism again, mainly used as political catchword (Hasse 2006).
4.5.4 Interests and Responsibility
Based on the idea of actors acting according to their interests, it must be asked
which personal competences and attitudes would a Spatially Informed Citizen
need? One should be able and willing to stand up for her/his own interests and
avoid being marginalized. At the same time, marginalization of others and/or
violent conflicts when interests interfere should be hindered. Therefore, two main
moral barriers to the citizen’s freedom are advisable, as described by Gryl et al.
(forthcoming) for the Spatial Citizenship approach: democratic negotiation and
fundamental human rights. While the first has to be rethought for fluid communities
targeting more direct democracy principles involving openness beyond formal
suffrage, argumentation, negotiation, and convincing (c.f. “postindustrial democ-
racies”, Bennett et al. 2009, 106), the latter are based on the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR) of the United Nations. These barriers always mark the
compromise between controversy as a fundamental principle of political education
(Grammes 2005) and normative humanity.
4.5.5 Methods of Participation and Activism
Considering current practice in citizenship education, we may state that many of

these endeavors are aimed at “dutiful citizens” (Bennett et al. 2009; Bednarz and
Bednarz 2015), often with a considerable part establishing or perpetuating local,
regional or national identities. This conceptualization in our opinion (a) misunder-
stands the global, or at least not administratively bounded nature of current chal-
lenges, and (b) disrespects the current lifeworld of students in particular, and
citizens in general, whose identification is less with local communities and the state
and more with specific lifestyles, discourses and (social media) communication
tools.
We, therefore, suggest widening the concept of participation. Participation takes

place as soon there is interaction with the aim of influencing or creating a specific
situation together with various stakeholders. And it takes new forms that are beyond
representational democracy. If geography education wants to partake in this, we
need to explore ways of online and social media participation, as well as forms of
activism that may be beyond demonstrations and voting. Organizing flash mobs,
orchestrating social media campaigns with the help of geomedia, and counter
mapping are just a few of the tools that may be necessary to confront politics that
are reintroducing new borders or reinforcing existing ones.
4.5.6 Representations and Communication
Although Spatially Informed Citizenship is developed to draw the focus beyond

geomedia, still, due to the medialized world we live in, media as an instrument of
communication is crucial. However, we suggest a broad term of media inspired by
the one (McLuhan 1968) who suggested it: We regard not only data with geo-
graphic coordinates as useful to communicate about spaces from local to global
issues, we also regard any kind of visual and auditory information, either analog or
digital, and even odors and persons as potentially informative concerning spaces.
This is where Spatially Informed Citizenship clearly goes beyond Spatial
Citizenship regarding all kinds of communication, potentially through media, as
suitable to maturely appropriate spaces. This communication is fostered through
social media channels, enabling participation. In the current web milieu, mash-ups
made from different forms of media become more and more important, leading to a
complex network of very different forms of media that link the digital and the
material. The transfer since “the medium is the message” (McLuhan 1968) alters
information, producing a variety of facts and perspectives. Understanding this
network is essential to making sense of information in order to question, produce,
and utilize it; the origin of the data and the interests involved (political, commercial,
etc.) clearly influence the perspectives concerning certain problems and produce the
facts of a certain discourse. Therefore, a reflexive approach to media, being aware
of the own and other’s thinking and action based on media, in other words, a mature
form of media competence, is a relevant ability within the approach suggested in
this paper.
4.6 Conclusion
In no way do we suggest that the above list of qualifications is exhaustive, or even

at the same level of theoretical foundations. What we try to argue is mainly the
obvious: If geography is to contribute to global understanding and to citizenship
education (which we regard is closely linked), it should take into account (a) current
society–space relations and the communication tools involved, and (b) respect the
findings, theories, and core concepts of the discipline in respect the central notion of
space to empower students to become reflective, and at the same time, competent
citizens. The idea of a spatially informed citizen, based on the competent handling
of both absolute and relational concepts of space, in our understanding is central to
both deconstruct current developments and politics, as well as to competitively
participate in tomorrow’s world of our students. Therefore, we regard Spatially
Informed Citizenship not only as an essential contribution to global understanding,
but for understanding-based global action as well.
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Part II
Geography Education for Global
Understanding
Chapter 5
The Role of Geography Education
Michael Solem and Zhou Weiguo
5.1 Introduction
When considering the role of geography education for global understanding, two
questions become salient. First, what constitutes global understanding? Answers to
this question are varied and interdisciplinary; no single scientific or artistic field can
claim global understanding as its domain. Yet, it is possible and important for
disciplinary communities to reflect on the nature of their curriculum and its aims for
students to attain greater understanding both of and within the world.
Our goal in this chapter is to present an argument that asserts a foundational
purpose for geography in schools is to develop the capabilities of young people to
think in specialized and distinctive ways about the world’s diverse cultures and
environments. This includes thinking in moral terms and appreciating the ethical
dimensions of social and environmental problems. To buttress this assertion, we
present an example that demonstrates the value of powerful disciplinary knowledge
for ethical decision-making about global climate change.
Clarifying the role of geography education for global understanding also requires
us to ask a second question: Which cultural and institutional contexts of geography
education promote global understanding, and why? The answers will once again
vary considerably depending on the context of where the question is asked and who
asks it. After all, no single nation or jurisdiction can credibly argue that their
approach to geography education has all the “answers” for how to instill in learners
the affective and cognitive qualities that are the markers of global understanding.
M. Solem (&)
Texas State University, San Marcos, USA
e-mail: msolem@txstate.edu
Z. Weiguo
East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhouweiguo21@126.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_5
60 M. Solem and Z. Weiguo
We view geography education as a global enterprise, and as such, geography

educators have much to learn from the praxis of different educational systems in
geography. To illustrate what can be gained from comparative thinking about
geography and global understanding, the second part of this chapter will discuss
how the geographic concept of sustainability is addressed in American and Chinese
geography curriculum standards and textbooks.
5.2 Geographical Knowledge as a Pillar of Global

Understanding
The arguments we forward in this chapter have roots in the GeoCapabilities project.
GeoCapabilities is an international collaborative project supporting teacher edu-
cation in geography. At its core, GeoCapabilities argues that the absence of geo-
graphical knowledge in formal education deprives young people of some vital
perspectives, ultimately undermining their capabilities as autonomous and inde-
pendently minded citizens. In its first phase funded by the U.S. National Science
Foundation, the project produced a theoretical framework for communicating the
contribution made by geography education to human capability development
(Lambert et al. 2015). A second and more practical phase, funded by the EU
Comenius Programme, concluded in February 2017 with the launch of a teacher
training website (www.geocapabilities.org).
Ideas of human capability development were first formulated in the writings of
Nussbaum and Sen (1993). Capabilities are different from competencies and
transferable skills like teamwork, communication, and planning. Ultimately,
capabilities are about human potential and freedom “to be” and “to do”.
Human capability requires thinking; human beings enjoy greater freedom when
they are able to think in specialized ways that enable them to form healthy alle-
giances and make good judgments and choices about information, arguments, and
facts. Thinking in such specialized ways requires knowledge, and it is here where
schools and universities provide a crucial social function.
It is true that all knowledge is socially constructed, but some knowledge, which
GeoCapabilities refers to as “powerful disciplinary knowledge” (PDK) (cf. Young
2008), is more reliable than other forms of knowledge (such as knowledge gained
incidentally and from everyday experience). Even though PDK is contested and
dynamic, it has been tested and verified in social communities called disciplines.
When people lack the opportunity to access and acquire the PDK taught in formal
geography education, they are less able to think in distinctive and disciplined ways
about the world.
PDK in geography enables specialized thinking based on geographic facts,
theories, and concepts such as space, place, and environment. By emphasizing the
value of PDK in formal schooling, a “capabilities approach” to geography educa-
tion can set people apart from the day-to-day and enable them to use geographical
5 The Role of Geography Education for Global Understanding 61
knowledge to think the “not yet thought” (Bernstein 2000, 30). We would argue
that this ability to think beyond one’s everyday experiences is at the root of global
understanding, especially as it concerns the capacity of individuals to think in
ethical and moral terms. Moreover, thinking beyond oneself is at the heart of the
human capability of affiliation, which philosopher Martha Nussbaum conceives as
“being able to live with and toward others, to recognize and show concern for other
humans, to engage in various forms of social interaction, and to be able to imagine
the situation of another” (Nussbaum 2011, 33).
With regard to the human capability of affiliation, geography education is also
significant because of the inescapably ethical and moral aspects of its subject
matter. While recent research has theorized relationships between geographical
knowledge and human capability, much less is understood about how people use
geographical information and concepts to think in ethical and moral terms.
Philosopher Martha Nussbaum describes this capability as practical reason, which
she defines as “being able to form a conception of the good and to engage in critical
reflection about the planning of one’s life” (Nussbaum 2011, 33). A more robust
theory of geographical ethics and moral education is needed to inform pedagogy
and to clarify the role of geography education in providing access for young people
to disciplinary knowledge that enables them to think in distinctive ways and engage
in practical reason.
By supporting pluralistic thinking, geographical knowledge can contribute to
cosmopolitan moral education (Hirose 2011). Carol Gilligan’s work on care ethics
theorizes that human empathy and compassion emerge from thinking about reasons
why other people think and feel as they do (Gilligan 1982). Nussbaum (1997)
argues it is significant to confront with others sincerely and try to accept various
images of them, for the sake of controlling and restraining negative feelings such as
hatred and aggressive anger against others. Both moral educational theories deal
with thinking and relating to others, which inevitably happens in the actual geo-
graphical world. Thus, geographical knowledge and thinking can engage people in
concrete and actual pluralism, which is opposite to egoism.
To illustrate these ideas, consider a vignette produced by the GeoCapabilities
project that describes the concept of global interdependence in the context of
climate change (Fig. 5.1). The vignette sets up a discussion of the extent that
international responsibility for climate change can be determined using data on
internal CO2 emissions from energy consumption. The vignette explains that while
at first glance, it appears countries with high CO2 emissions (such as China) are
most responsible for the pollution driving climate change, this interpretation, based
strictly on the data depicted on the graph, belies an underlying geography of global
interconnectedness, trade relationships, and globalization. This geographical
knowledge enables people to think about the data presented on the graph in a way
that leads them to better judgments and more informed decisions.
To illustrate how a geographical concept can frame an ethical analysis of a social
or environmental issue, we apply below a “Seven Step Guide to Ethical Decision
Making” (Davis 1997) that was successfully implemented in the cases developed
for the GIS Professional Ethics project led by Penn State University, the University
Fig. 5.1 Example of a powerful disciplinary knowledge (PDK) vignette

of Minnesota, Oregon State University, and the American Association of

Geographers (www.gisprofessionalethics.org). Davis’s method is designed to help
students analyze cases methodically through the following sequence:
Step 1 State problem. For example, “there’s something about this decision that
makes me uncomfortable” or “do I have a conflict of interest?”
Step 2 Check facts. Many problems disappear upon closer examination of
situation, while others change radically.
Step 3 Identify relevant factors. For example, persons involved, laws, pro-
fessional code, and other practical constraints.
Step 4 Develop list of options. Be imaginative, try to avoid “dilemma”; not
“yes” or “no” but whom to go to, what to say.
Step 5 Test options. Use such tests as the following: Harm test: does this
option do less harm than alternatives? Publicity test: would I want my
choice of this option published in the newspaper? Defensibility test:
could I defend choice of option before Congressional committee or
committee of peers? Reversibility test: would I still think choice of this
option good if I were adversely affected by it?
Step 6 Make a choice based on steps 1–5.
Step 7 Review steps 1–6. What could you do to make it less likely that you
would have to make such a decision again?
Now consider Davis’ seven-step method in the context of the PDK climate
change vignette. As a pedagogical approach, imagine using this method to guide
students as they apply the concept of global interdependence in a process of ethical
decision-making about responsibility for climate pollution.
Step 1 State problem. “How might we assess international responsibility for
greenhouse gas emissions?” Reaching an answer is a core challenge in
international diplomacy on the global environment.
Step 2 Check facts. Data are available that show the amount of carbon emis-
sions from internal energy consumption. When used to rank countries, it
appears countries like the UK are doing well compared to China, the U.S.,
and India. However, the geographical idea of global interdependence
calls this assumption into question.
Step 3 Identify relevant factors. The UK has managed to reduce its internal
carbon emissions by, for example, exporting its manufacturing opera-
tions to other regions, including China and India. Many stockholders
profit from these operations, while the consumption of traded goods
within the UK contributes to pollution in places where those goods are
produced.
Step 4 Develop list of options. Option 1: Assign responsibility using a simple
ranking of countries based on their internal carbon emissions. Option 2:
Account for pollution using additional data and information about the
workings of the modern global economy [note: many other options could
be potentially formulated here for discussion].
Step 5 Test options. Harm test: If Option 1 is exercised, countries that rank
higher on the chart may need to pay relatively more and be required to
comply with stricter environmental regulations in an international cli-
mate treaty. This action will benefit citizens of the UK and elsewhere,
but costs of compliance will be heavier for people living in the U.S.,
China, India, etc. If Option 2 is exercised, calculations will need to
consider both internal and externally produced emissions of carbon
pollution. Reversibility test: While a UK citizen (for example) might
conclude that Option 2 is arguably “fairer”, it does mean that he or she
might have to pay additional taxes for pollution controls. Additionally,
there may well be complications and challenges with determining
accountability that would lengthen or potentially derail any international
resolution or agreement.
Steps 6–7 Students would complete their analysis by discussing the significance of
the geographical concept or idea (in this case, global interdependence)
for reaching an ethical resolution (in this case, how to determine indi-
vidual and international responsibility for climate pollution).
The example described above captures the essence of our argument: Ethical
decision-making that originates in geographical knowledge enables individuals to
consider a broader range of facts, identify more relevant factors, and choose from
and evaluate a wider set of options. This, in turn, will result in a more complex and
sophisticated appraisal of the likely potential outcomes stemming from those
options.
5.3 A Comparison of Geography Education Systems

in the U.S. and China
Having established the value of PDK in geography education as a pillar for global
understanding, we now turn to specific examples from the U.S. and China of how
these countries specify the contribution of geography education to understanding
the global geographical concept of sustainability.
5.3.1 United States
In the United States, the content of geography curricula is determined by the states,
not the federal government. However, the U.S. federal government does provide the
states with important guidance in the form of voluntary national standards for
different subjects.
Currently, the U.S. national geography standards are published in the volume
Geography for Life: National Geography Standards (Heffron and Downs 2012).
Geography for Life consists of 18 content standards organized into six essential
elements describing the broad categories of geography as a school subject. Each
standard has one or more content themes, with knowledge and performance
statements for students in grades K-4, grades 5–8, and grades 9–12.
The preamble to Geography for Life (pp. 7–16) presents a broad rationale for the
inclusion of geography in the U.S. school curriculum. Many passages in the
preamble strongly imply an important role for geography education in advancing
global understanding in terms of sustainability, sustainable development, and
affiliation with others. For example,
Geographic literacy will also be necessary for sustaining the environment. As individuals
and as members of society, humans face decisions on where to live, what to build where,
how and where to travel, how to conserve energy, how to wisely manage scarce resources,
and how to cooperate or compete with others [emphases added]. (Heffron and Downs 2012,
7)
An analysis of the U.S. national geography standards reveals many ways that an
education in human geography, physical geography, and geographic technologies
and analytical methods contributes to an understanding of sustainability and sus-
tainable development. Table 5.1 summarizes how three standards address sustain-
ability under the essential element of “Environment and Society”.
It is important to note here that most U.S. students do not receive a compre-
hensive education in geography supporting the goals of sustainable development as
presented in Geography for Life. States have their own curriculum frameworks, and
thus states and local school jurisdictions prescribe the content taught to students in
schools. This means that one must look to the various states of America to deter-
mine the extent that U.S. schools actually provide students with access to geo-
graphical knowledge.
Table 5.1 Essential element: environment and society

Standard 14: How human actions modify the Summary of ESD content:
physical environment • Changes to the environment have
potential costs and/or benefits
Standard 15: How physical systems affect human Summary of ESD content:
systems • Environments vary in their carrying
capacities
• People live with both environmental
opportunities and constraints
Standard 16: The changes that occur in the Summary of ESD content:
meaning, use, distribution, and importance of • The uses and values of resources
resources change across cultures and over time
• Resource use should be managed for
sustainability
5.3.2 China
In China, students receive geographic education throughout primary, junior high,

and senior high school. In primary school, geographic content is taught in the
context of Moral Character and Society and Science, whereas in junior and senior
high school geography exists as an independent and compulsory course in the
curriculum.
As an indispensable course for global understanding, geography provides rich
content both through the National Curriculum Standard and the textbooks used in
basic education. To illustrate examples of how Chinese geography education
develops global understanding about biodiversity and sustainability, we present
below excerpts from Moral Character and Society (Grade 5, Volume II) for pri-
mary education (Liu 2007), Geography (Grade 7, Volume II) for junior high school
education (Fan 2012), and Geography: Compulsory III (Grade 2 of High School)
by People’s Education Press (PEP) (Gao 2009).
PEP is a large professional publishing house under the Ministry of Education of
China, which mainly engages in the research, composition, compilation, printing,
and distribution of elementary textbooks and other textbooks. PEP enjoys the lar-
gest share in the market of elementary textbooks in China. In addition, the ele-
mentary and secondary school teachers of China deem the textbooks as essential
teaching resources.
In Moral Character and Society (Grade 5, Volume II), the Amazon Rainforest is
used to introduce the concept of our beautiful global village (Liu 2007, 102):
Located in the largest flatland, the Amazon Basin, the Amazon Rainforest, as the precious
vault of biomass, boasts of rich flora and fauna resources. The Amazon Rainforest, where
you can find wonderful animals, harbors the secret of life’s evolution on Earth.
The textbook Geography (Fan 2012) introduces the environmental benefits of

rainforests, including the moderation of global climate, oxygen supply, water
conservation, the prevention of soil erosion, and the conservation of biological
diversity. In an activity, students analyze three opinions on rainforests (Fan 2012,
95–96):
• Viewpoint 1: It’s of necessity to develop rainforests as the semiarid region of the
northeastern Brazilian Highlands is in need of huge funds to establish its irri-
gation system, which might be beyond the government’s ability to provide.
• Viewpoint 2: Due to an upsurge in population, the demand for food and wood is
also on the rise. We therefore should economically develop the rainforests.
• Viewpoint 3: As the rainforests are shrinking, causing many environmental
problems, we should stop all development activities.
After considering each view, students are encouraged to share their opinions
about the development and protection of rainforests.
The textbook Geography: Compulsory III introduces the essential environmental
function of rainforests, regarding the forest as the general control agent of nature. It
employs data and graphs to emphasize the global environmental benefits of the
Amazon Rainforest, reaching an assertion that the Amazon Rainforest belongs to
both the local nation and all of humankind. An accompanying activity has students
engage in a role-play scenario (Gao 2009, 34):
• Role 1: Indigenous Resident. The indigenous residents settled on tropical
rainforests and employed traditional shifting cultivation. However, there is an
increasing number of people moving into the rainforests, leaving the indigenous
people with less and less land for their livelihood. Beyond that, their traditional
culture is under threat. Therefore, should the indigenous people abandon their
traditional ways of living and move into cities?
• Role 2: Governor. The local government is shouldered with huge debts with
large interest rates. As there are many poor people in both rural and urban areas,
the government should provide them with lands for livelihood. The question is:
which one is of the top priority: forest protection, poverty alleviation, or
repayment of debts?
• Role 3: Owner of Logging Companies. Due to the huge market, the export of
timber is highly profitable. The logging companies not only hire local people,
but pay taxes to the Brazilian government. Nevertheless, it is not a good deal to
cultivate trees in rainforests as it requires 20 years for the saplings to grow into
lumber. Therefore, should the owner of the company continue to log or plant
trees on the already harvested land?
The above examples from three Chinese geography textbooks imply a learning
progression. The primary education textbook only briefly describes the rich flora
and fauna resources of rainforests. At the junior high level, the textbook presents
the benefits and costs of damage to rainforests, trying to bring out the multiple
angles of forest development and protection. In high schools, the textbook not only
describes the multiple functions of rainforests, but discusses the reasons for their
concentrated distribution from the perspective of history and nature. Additionally, it
employs a report on the environmental benefits of rainforests for the local area, the
moderation of global climate, and the balance of the ecological environment. The
textbook further emphasizes the point that the local government and people, and the
rest of the world, should endeavor to protect the Amazon Rainforest.
From the perspective of global understanding, pupils first learn to appreciate “the
beautiful global village” learning general knowledge about the value of rainforests.
Junior high school students then go a step further on the functions and potential
issues of rainforests based on an understanding of their fascinating landscape.
Finally, senior high school students are expected to be able to clarify their obli-
gations and measures of rainforest protection based on a global outlook.
Student learning activities are a major component of Chinese geography text-
books and classes. From primary to high schools, the textbook activity column on
the Amazon Rainforest has progressed students from a simple to a complex
understanding (see Table 5.2). In primary education, there is only a reading column
for descriptions of the rainforest environment. The textbooks for junior high school
Table 5.2 Content progression and activity levels for teaching about rainforests from primary to
senior high school in China
Grade Content Student Cognition
activity
5 Precious flora and fauna resources of rainforests Reading Lower
7 The benefits and crises of rainforests Discussion
11 Global environmental benefits; the protection and Role-play
development measures of rainforests
Higher
include a discussion of the development and protection of Amazon Rainforests,

during which the students can expound their views on the development and pro-
tection of Amazon Rainforests. The textbooks for senior high school take things a
step further, acquainting students with the different viewpoints of different char-
acters through role-play, thus deepening understanding of the complex nature of the
Amazon Rainforest and related sustainability problems.
5.4 Conclusion
The comparative examples of U.S. and China geography education demonstrate the
relevance of geographical knowledge for achieving goals for sustainability. Being
geographically informed provides an ethical grounding for understanding the sig-
nificance of sustainability for the future well-being of Earth and its inhabitants.
Crucially, an education in geography can prepare individuals to engage in ethical
action toward people, places, and environments around the world; a person who is
capable of taking such action is the embodiment of Nussbaum’s notion of
affiliation.
The interdisciplinary nature of geography makes it of broad relevance for
advancing global understanding. Through international collaborative projects such
as GeoCapabilities, geography educators play an important role by promoting a
collective disciplinary culture for progressive knowledge-based teaching in schools.
Through these activities, geography educators elevate public consciousness of the
contribution that an education in geography makes for developing the capabilities
of young people and their global understanding of and about the world.
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Chapter 6
Geography Education and Global
Understanding: Exploring Some Ideas
and Trends in a Fast-Changing World
Joop van der Schee and Tine Béneker
6.1 Introduction
Already 400 years ago, Comenius seems to have said that ‘universal education
would provide people the skills, competencies, and intellectual tools to live in peace
with one another and relate across national boundaries’ (Reimers 2013: 60).
Especially after World War II, a lot of energy has been invested in stimulating
education for Global Understanding. Some initiatives like the Eco Schools and
Global Schools projects are more successful than others. Apart from special pro-
grammes and projects, nowadays many countries have regular curricula in which
young people learn about other countries and societies. However, there is consid-
erable variation across countries, regions, schools and even teachers regarding what
knowledge, skills and attitudes students should acquire about the world in which
they live. Much attention in education worldwide is given to reading, writing and
mathematics but in most countries, not much attention is given to Global
Understanding and significant questions related to how we wish to live together in
the world of today and tomorrow. That is quite strange, as all education is for the
future. ‘Besides being important, the future is also seen by many as urgent and
likely to be very different from the world we grew up in’ (Pauw 2015: 307).
Whereas the opportunities to cross borders and become world citizens are
growing fast, counter-movements are also visible. Modern technology enables more
and more people to travel (digitally) across the planet and to communicate with
other people wherever they are. The Internet is ‘a big leap forward’ for humankind
as it gives very fast access to huge amounts of local and global information, and
J. van der Schee (&)

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
e-mail: j.a.vander.schee@vu.nl
T. Béneker
Utrecht University, Utrech, The Netherlands
e-mail: t.beneker@uu.nl

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_6
72 J. van der Schee and T. Béneker
offers the opportunity to exchange information and to cooperate. Thus, world cit-
izenship seems to be the near-future for many on planet Earth. What happens on the
other side of the globe affects our life directly and what we drink, eat and waste has
effects in other parts of the globe. These effects can, of course, be positive like more
efficient international trade and international scientific projects, but also negative,
for example, in the cases of the rapid diffusion of diseases, environmental pollution
and cyber computer attacks. The fast changes during the last decennia and the new
threats perturb many people. Xenophobia has made a comeback and national
borders are once again significant. To stop immigrants, new walls between coun-
tries have been built in Europe, the US and the Middle East. Speeches by Trump,
Erdogan, Orbán, Le Pen, Wilders and others are full of anger, nativism and rampant
populism. This populism is not new, but closing windows and looking inward is a
reaction to a fast-changing, complex and interdependent world that appears to have
become a more and more ‘successful’ answer in the political arena.
A 2016 research among 18–25-year-old people in the Netherlands (Broer and
Pleij 2017) shows that many of the 262 respondents have a completely different
image of their world than the same age group 10 years earlier. In 2016, 27% of the
respondents voted for the populist and nationalist party of Geert Wilders
(PVV) while in a comparable 2007 survey 7% of the respondents voted for Wilders’
PVV. The researchers conclude that ‘youngster are living in a more fearsome world
than 10 years ago, no wonder that they are more pessimistic about the future’ and
‘the message is that we have to look for new democratic ways of living’. In contrast,
Dutch children (15 years of age) are still among the happiest in the world according
to several reports, for example, UNICEF (2013). However, what we do know from
several research outcomes is that (Western) young people often show a dissonance
between their personal and a global future (for example, Reynie 2011; Rubin 2013;
Béneker and Wevers 2013). They are relatively optimistic about their own future
and very pessimistic about the future of their country and the world. What concerns
they have vary over time (Hicks and Holden 2007).
These rising fears of the global have implications for what to teach and learn at
school. Does it lead to new ethnocentrism and the tendency for students to ignore
the global consequences of local actions? (Merryfield et al. 2008:7). Do young
people learn the skills to survive on an individual basis in their own societies and
not to bother about anything that is foreign? Or are young people and their teachers
able to strive for learning about different scenarios of the future and working
together across borders? The International Year of Global Understanding is one of
the initiatives to put Earth and all inhabitants that live on it in a global perspective
on the (educational) agenda again (IYGU 2016). IYGU aims:
To yield deep but actionable insights into the ways all peoples can live together more
sustainable. The focus will be on developing strategies for targeted local projects with a
global reach. There are three elements to this: research, education and information.
Research will bring scientists together to understand the global impacts of everyday local
activities related to culture, society, economy, and nature. The IYGU will empower
bottom-up movements for sustainable everyday politics. Classrooms throughout the world
will use the research results at all educational levels. The IYGU will provide information
6 Geography Education and Global Understanding … 73
and promote knowledge sharing to increase public awareness by means of publications,

computer games, TV programs, etcetera. (http://www.global-understanding.info)
The IYGU website also states that Global Understanding has four key messages
that all together consist of 11 sub-messages.
However, a precise definition of Global Understanding is missing. Global
Understanding seems necessary for managing change from the bottom-up and to
solve global problems sustainably. It links local everyday actions to global issues
and is based on research outcomes. But is that it? Educators can ask many questions
about the list with 11 messages in Table 6.1. The ‘understanding’ part that could be
promoted by education is not described or defined at all. When do people have a
global view that reduces the risk of regional conflicts? How is Global
Understanding based on research?
Surprisingly, the 2016 International Charter on Geographical Education
(IGU-CGE 2016) does not mention Global Understanding at all. The word ‘Global’
as well as the word ‘Understanding’ can be found five times in the Charter, but the
combination ‘Global Understanding’ is not present. However, ‘International
Understanding’ is part of the old 1992 and the new 2016 International Charter on
Geographical Education, referring to the UNESCO Recommendation concerning
Education for International Understanding, Cooperation and Peace. One might
think it is strange to miss Global Understanding in the New International Charter on
Geographical Education as the new International Charter on Geographical
Education was published in 2016, the International Year of Global Understanding.
On the other hand, many phrases in both documents seem to be in-line. The aim of
the IYGU is ‘to yield deep but actionable insights into the ways all peoples can live
together more sustainable’ as the new Charter speaks about geography that
‘enables us to face questions of what it means to live sustainably in this world’.
Table 6.1 List with 11 key A. Linking the global and the local
statements about Global 1. Everyday actions matter for global climate change
Understanding (Source http:// 2. Everyday decisions depend on lifestyle
www.global-understanding. 3. A global view reduces the risk of regional conflicts
info)
B. People’s practices
4. Global problems require sustainable solutions
5. Sustainable change should emerge from the bottom
C. Science and everyday life
6. Everyday life and science belong together
7. Global Understanding is based on joint social and natural
science research
8. Research should address the logic of everyday life
D. Sustainability and Global Understanding
9. Climate change is an example of the links between global and
local effects
10. Global change may be climatic, social, cultural or economic
11. Societies need Global Understanding to manage change
sustainably
The new Charter states that ‘geography is concerned with both the local and the
global and the interconnections between these scales of human experience’ as the
IYGU has as its key message ‘linking the global and the local’.
Nevertheless, Global Understanding is not a very clear concept and more
information and discussion about how to apply it in education is most welcome. So
we decided to consult some experts in the field to get a better view on their ideas
about what Global Understanding should be and, more importantly, whether and
how it can be realised by geography education.
6.2 Survey Method
To get a better view of Global Understanding, a digital questionnaire was sent to 50

geography educators in January 2017. All these geography educators are part of the
network of the Commission on Geographical Education of the International
Geographical Union. The selected geography educators are living all across the
globe. The biggest groups of selected geography educators come from Europa, Asia
and South America. The response rate was almost one third (32%). Six women and
10 men sent the questionnaire back before the deadline. The reactions came from
different continents, but were distributed unevenly, see Table 6.2. Most respondents
live in Europe.
The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions. Most of them were open questions.
The questions focused on three sub-themes (Table 6.3). The data were analysed by
Table 6.2 Number of reactions on the Global Understanding questionnaire per continent
Continent Number of reactions
Africa 1
Asia 4
Oceania 1
Europe 9
North America 1
South America 0
Total 16
Table 6.3 Sub-themes and some questions in the Global Understanding questionnaire
Sub-theme One example of the questions
A. What is Global Can you give us three keywords that should be part of a definition
Understanding? of Global Understanding?
B. Why Global Do you think it is important to increase Global Understanding in
Understanding? your country and if so why?
C. How Global Please mention at least one good practice of Global Understanding
Understanding? in geography education in your country, or if that is not possible, in
another country
the two authors of this chapter. The focus of the analysis was on the three
sub-themes of the questionnaire. No analysis was made by gender, location, or
other background characteristics of the respondents.
6.3 Results
6.3.1 What Is Global Understanding?
We asked the respondents to mention three keywords that should be part of a

definition of Global Understanding. There is a big variety in answers (Table 6.4),
but most frequently mentioned are cultural diversity, sustainability and global
issues. No item is mentioned by 50% or more of the respondents. Sixteen
respondents sent 48 reactions, of which 23 were analysed as different. Table 6.4
shows 35 reactions that were mentioned more than once. Most striking is the
frequent mention of cultural diversity, a keyword not very prominent in the majority
of the key messages of the IYGU, although the IYGY states ‘IYGU recognizes
culturally different paths to global sustainability’.
Furthermore, we asked the respondents to reflect on the differences between
global and international understanding. We used a quote from Graves and Stoltman
(2016) to highlight this: ‘the story of the IGU Commission on Geographical
Education begins with the view that geography was a key scholarly component of
international understanding’. Only one of the respondents sees no difference
between global and international understanding. Six respondents explain the dif-
ference by saying that Global Understanding has to do with a different scale, five
respondents mention that the idea of a global system is crucial in Global
Understanding and three respondents mention the link between local and global as a
key focus of Global Understanding.
The respondents were also asked to think about the statement of the IYGU by
looking at the list with the key messages from the IYGU (see Table 6.1). We took
Table 6.4 Top 10 answers to Keyword Frequency

the question ‘What is Global
Understanding?’ (N = 48) Cultural diversity 7
Sustainability 6
Global issues/globalisation 5
Personal action 3
Empathy/respect 3
Acceptance/tolerance 3
Causes and consequences/interaction 2
Climate change 2
Awareness 2
Complex systems 2
Table 6.5 Main elements of Elements Frequency

geography education that
contribute to Global Geographical thinking 8
Understanding mentioned Relation humans–nature 6
three times or more World, regions, places 5
(N = −47) Scales 5
Diversity 3
the first eight statements in order to avoid too long a list. Five respondents agreed
with the IYGU key messages as the core of Global Understanding without an
amendment; one respondent deleted two key messages; three respondents added as
well as deleted messages; while seven respondents added new key messages. The
key IYGU message ‘Everyday decisions depend on lifestyle’ was deleted twice.
One of the respondents argued that ‘lifestyle is not the only aspect that is important
for everyday decisions’. All added comments were mentioned only once; however,
a key message about the cultural dimension and a key message about the geo-
graphical perspective were mentioned twice. A remarkable new key message reads:
‘Diversity in communities is celebrated and valued in a context of lived social
justice’. It fits nicely with the frequency of cultural diversity as a reaction to the first
question of the survey.
‘What does geography education contribute to Global Understanding?’ was
another question in this part of the survey. The respondents stick to ‘geographical
thinking’ and aspects of it such as ‘looking at different scales’ and the ‘relationship
of (hu)man and nature’. Moreover, they mention the study of (the diversity of)
places and regions. In Table 6.5, the three elements the respondents wrote down are
divided among the five most mentioned—sometimes overlapping—categories.
Altogether, respondents sent 47 reactions. The elements mentioned in Table 6.5
align well with key precepts of the 2016 International Charter on Geographical
Education.
6.3.2 Why Is Global Understanding Important?
All respondents think that it is important to increase Global Understanding in their

countries, but they give different explanations. Some notable comments include:
Global Understanding increases co-operation among regions which could lead to a better
understanding and efficient management of the earth’s resources (Nigeria).
My country is very vast and diverse in ethnics, religions, and culture. We need to respect
others so there will be no pitting, and the majority will protect vulnerable groups.
Physically our country is also varied. The west region is relatively fertile and rich of natural
resources. Some regions are very dry and infertile. We need to help and share the pros-
perities to people from the poor regions so that there will be no imbalanced welfare
(Indonesia).
We are all on the same planet and we should give it to future generations in good condition
(Spain).
Global Understanding trains students to understand the state of the world in which they
live. This is the best way to fight extremes. That is a burning issue in France. It is also a way
to educate to sustainable development (France).
Because our students are in need of more and better geography education, which is
foundational to Global Understanding (USA).
6.3.3 How to Realise Global Understanding?
The last sub-theme of the survey focused on how to realise Global Understanding.
We asked respondents to mention three barriers to increasing Global Understanding
in geography education. The participants raised many different bottlenecks, but one
dominated over all others: geography teacher training. Many respondents sent
reactions like ‘teachers lack geographical thinking and knowledge of geography’.
Approximately, 50% of the respondents advised to train primary and secondary
teachers better in geography and Global Understanding. Two other barriers were
mentioned more than once. First, curriculum content problems like ‘geography is
taught within a social course’ were identified. Second, obstacles that have to do
with policymakers who do not recognise the importance of geography education
were cited. Among other things, respondents recommend as solutions to avoid these
barriers were ‘to increase discipline-based education in primary school teacher
education’ and ‘seeing technologies just as nice tools, not as important content in
geography education’.
Despite the bottlenecks listed, when asked to mention good practices of Global
Understanding in geography education in their country, respondents provided these
examples:
Thick Jumper Day to stimulate students system thinking about ecosystems (Belgium).
A local school helps students to maintain aquaponics systems and learn about sustainable
agriculture (Taiwan).
Some teachers learn students to read newspapers or web info critically with special
attention for actual issues like the crisis in Ukraine, the migration crisis, the war in Syria
(Czechia).
The International Geography Olympiad is very effective through geographical studies and
experiences (Japan).
Some characteristics of Global Understanding like connecting the local and the
global and developing critical thinking about information and about the relationship
between (hu)mans and nature are found in more than one suggested good practice.
The last questions of the survey asked participants to reflect on personal and
geography community actions that may increase Global Understanding through
geography education. In addition, respondents were invited to add remarks about
the topics of the questionnaire. The majority of the respondents mentioned personal
actions related to their work as a teacher, like:
I try to encourage my students to join international activities and go to try to know other
countries and join exchange programs (Turkey).
To use holistic approach and new technology to help students to understand the interde-
pendencies and conceptualizations of space, place, and people (Greece).
Some of the respondents also wrote about research and discussions with teachers
and national standards as fields where they are able to make a difference in
developing Global Understanding.
Most respondents think that the international community of geography educators
can help to increase Global Understanding by collaborating in research and prac-
tical programmes. Materials, toolkits, sharing experiences and information
exchanges are keywords in the reactions of the respondents.
A few respondents added interesting remarks at the end of the questionnaire,
such as this from Australia:
We do not do enough. We could take a leading role with statements but we need a media or
social media plan. I would like to have an opportunity to explore what we could do and say
to explain, for example, the Trump movement. I believe President Trump has little
understanding of transcultural global issues. As a result he has some rather outdated ideas,
and is trying to authorise some rather insensitive policies. In Australia we have a politician,
named Hanson, who I think also lacks transcultural understandings. She is very outspoken
and alienates a lot of Australians and new immigrants. We, as educators, need to explore
how we can use our curricula around the world to educate the students that such attitudes
are not needed anymore – that the world has grown up since World War II when other
rulers had such simple ideas
6.4 Conclusions and Discussion
Although this survey is basic, the number of respondents limited and not all
answers very surprising, we can learn three things from the results.
First, that the cultural element—diversity and commonality—needs more
attention in a definition of Global Understanding. One might argue that the IYGU
aim ‘To yield deep but actionable insights into the ways all peoples can live
together more sustainable’ includes this aspect, and that it is more than thinking
about climate change and using green or blue energy. Nevertheless, the key mes-
sages of IYGU can be more explicit in seeking attention for respect for cultural
diversity. A second and connected issue is social justice. Without social justice,
there is no foundation for sustainable living together. The gap between have’s and
have-nots is big and those who are poor are fighting to survive and are focused on
short-term goals. Long-term issues like sustainability will only be reached if the gap
between different groups is not too big. Morgan (2015: 304) states that ‘Whilst
geographical futures are to some extent open, it is important to recognise that
powerful forces act to limit possible and preferred futures. Geographical education
is an important arena for the study and understanding of probable futures’. Our
late colleague Gerber (2003: 32) cites Castells (1998) who wrote about ‘The Fourth
World’ which he defines as comprising:
Large areas of the globe, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, and impoverished rural areas of Latin
America and Asia. But it is also present in literally every country, and every city, in this
new geography of social exclusion… And it is populated by millions of homeless, incar-
cerated, prostituted, stigmatised, sick, and illiterate persons….But, everywhere they are
growing in number, increasing in visibility, as the selective triage of informational capi-
talism, and the political breakdown of the welfare state, intensify social exclusion. … The
rise of the Fourth World is inseparable from the rise of informational global capitalism.
Speaking about the challenge for the next 25 years Gerber suggests that ‘the
least geographical education can do is acquaint learners with the four Worlds and
encourage them to use this kind of understanding in the development of our World
as a better place to live in’. Gerber (2003: 31) speaks about ‘reawaken of con-
science amongst all peoples on our planet’, ‘tackling the worst inequalities that are
occurring around the world’, and geography education ‘that promotes education
for justice’. In addition to an analysis of spatial and social injustice at different
scales, ‘stories of hope’ are necessary (Hicks 2006). We as geography educators can
help students think critically about what is happening on Earth and what can be
preferable futures. Sustainability, cultural diversity, solidarity and social justice are
keywords, necessary in whatever scenario will be chosen. As geography educators,
we should avoid succumbing to pessimism, and offer opportunities to develop new
futures linking the local and the global. This is in line with what is written by the
IYGU. It is also consistent with the 2016 International Charter on Geographical
Education (IGU-CGE 2016: 5):
geographically educated individuals understand human relationships and their responsi-
bilities to both the natural environment and to others. Geographical education helps people
to learn how to exist harmoniously with all living species.
A second outcome of the survey is the need to specify Global Understanding in

classroom (geography) projects and to share project materials and experiences
obtained through research. We do not have clear evidence on how to stimulate
Global Understanding in geography education. How should that be done? Do we
want a transmissive type of learning that focuses on delivering and developing
knowledge and understanding? Or should our goal be a more transformative
learning that focuses on socially reflective and critical approaches? What Smith
(2013: 260) writes about in her work about geography education and Sustainable
Development is also true for geography education and Global Understanding:
Transformative learning is learning ‘in which pupils are encouraged to recognise
and question vested- and self-interest in order to develop their own thinking about
the sort of society they want to be part of, and to reflect on alternative solutions and
lifestyles that can achieve that state’. Smith (2013: 260) follows Vare and Scott
(2007) saying that ‘transmissive learning needs to go hand in hand with trans-
formative learning’.
Which steps can be taken in a classroom depend on the teachers and the context
in which they are working, but can also be supported by international initiatives like
the Geocapabilities project. The Geocapabilities project (Solem et al. 2013;
Lambert et al. 2015) offers a platform for teachers to realise a curriculum to expand
young people’s capabilities in geographical understanding that can stimulate Global
Understanding. The website of this project learns us that ‘the school curriculum
(including geography) enables young people to think beyond themselves and their
everyday experiences. It therefore contributes to the “substantive freedoms”
available to young people. That is, for example, freedom to think, make good
choices and decisions how to live. To be able to think geographically enables young
people’s capabilities in a particular way’. Interesting in this respect is the contri-
bution of Kenreich (2013: 161) advocating for ‘critical geographic literacy’: ‘the
capacity of students to use geographic tools and concepts to critically examine
spatial expressions of power in their lives, communities, nations and the world’.
This should cultivate a stronger sense of agency to move towards a more just
society—locally and globally. Kenreich (162) mentions important bottlenecks like
‘technocrats thirst for data to rank schools, judge teachers, and sort students’.
Given the political context, it is often difficult for teachers ‘to see their class as a
community of learners who take up vital and pressing social issues of our day’
especially as some teachers ‘feel ill-equipped with insufficient knowledge and
materials to teach inquiry based’.
One big step forward in geography education is to build an international data-
bank or clearinghouse of successful materials and practical suggestions for teaching
Global Understanding. This can help to realise ideas of colleagues involved in IGU,
IYGU and the Geocapabilities project and it can concretize the call from many
geography teachers around the world. Such a databank can only function well if
good international geography education research is included. The materials should
be tested through clear and transparent methods and the results included in the
databank. A second prerequisite for such a databank is that we do not focus only on
the upper levels of secondary geography classes, but also equally on all children in
primary and secondary schools, including vocational schools. Without listening to
the voices of young people, living in different cultures and social classes (Robertson
and Tani 2013) geography education for Global Understanding is not viable.
Priority should be given to developing quality geography education for Global
Understanding for students in lower vocational schools as often these students do
not take advantage of globalisation.
Third, there is the call of a group of respondents in our survey to invest more
joint energy in putting geography education and Global Understanding on the
educational agenda of policymakers. This is also a point of action in the 2016
International Charter on Geographical Education (IGU-CGE 2016: 5). For a long
time, EUROGEO President Karl Donert is one of the most active in trying to
convince policymakers to invest in projects that stimulate young people to think
about planet Earth, including the use of modern technologies. He rightly argues for
better and bigger coordinated international action to stimulate geography, IT and
Global Understanding. He deserves our support. In our actions, we should focus on
what geography as a discipline and thus, geographical thinking, has to contribute to

learn about planet Earth’s grand challenges like water, food, energy, urbanisation,
transport, migration, borders and pollution.
Early in 2017 ‘Earth needs thinkers not deniers’ was a slogan used by American
scientists worried about climate change and sceptical about what President Trump
said about it. We as geography educators have to show policymakers that Earth
needs geographical thinkers, geographical knowledge and geography education, not
deniers. Take them on (virtual) field trips and show them what modern geography
has to offer.
Last but not least, change is everywhere and goes on. The Greek philosopher
Heraclitus said it already 2500 years ago: ‘Panta Rhei, everything goes’. Heraclitus
also said that it is not easy to create things, it is always a battle, and working on
things we should be careful and know our limits to succeed on the way to peace.
Finding that way, that is what geography can help us with.
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Chapter 7
How Geography Curricula Tackle
Global Issues
David Lambert and Nicola Walshe
7.1 Introduction
This chapter is written from the perspective of two teacher educators in England, at
the beginning of 2017. There is a lot to unpack from this simple contextual
statement. First, as teacher educators, we hold on to an ideal of preparing teachers
who have vision. That is, teachers of geography who are inspired by the subject and
its educational potential and who wish to work with children and young people in a
way that enables them also to see the point of thinking geographically about the
world. Second, our perspective is inevitably shaped in part by the cultural and
political significance of our spatial and temporal setting. The impact of the UK’s
2016 referendum on EU membership (leading to ‘Brexit’) is still far from clear—
both on the future of the UK itself and the future of the EU. However, it does seem
to be the case that a new nativism is taking hold in the UK and across Europe, and
indeed many other parts of the world, symbolized most forcibly through the
astonishing election of Donald Trump as President of the USA, a tycoon who has
bought and sold in global markets, but whose political instinct is to build walls,
strengthen border controls and retreat behind ‘America first’.
Is school geography immune or aloof to these events and the ensuing instabil-
ities? The stuff of geography includes enduring concepts such as environment,
territory, borders, nations, states, globalization, etc. But events remind us that such
ideas are themselves always in motion. How we think about, and with, these ideas
inevitably evolves and shifts. In fact, the very purpose of a vibrant discipline such
as geography is to keep such ideas in motion. This is how specialist knowledge
D. Lambert (&)
UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
e-mail: david.lambert@ucl.ac.uk
N. Walshe
Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
e-mail: nicola.walshe@anglia.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_7
84 D. Lambert and N. Walshe
develops and hopefully improves our ability ‘to make sense of the world’. But how
does this relate to the school subject? What geography should we teach in school?
We try to address these questions, specifically in the context of the school
subject’s capacity to help young people grasp global issues. Global understanding,
we argue, can be considered to be an example of what has been termed powerful
knowledge (Young 2008; Young and Lambert 2014; Lambert et al. 2015). This
follows the influential work of the late British geographer Doreen Massey, who
urged school teachers to ‘take on the world’ (Massey 2014) and aspire to develop
with young people a multilayered, relational ‘global sense of place’. We interpret
this as the capacity to imagine the globe as a place, a single entity containing
myriad interlocking systems understood through the examination of environmental,
economic, cultural, political, and social processes. Though we may see the
everyday world as a mosaic of different places, nations or regions defined by their
boundaries, a global understanding brings different perspectives of flows and net-
works and interdependencies. If we take this seriously, if we do take on the world,
then young people need ideas in order to provide new ways of seeing and thinking.
Geography in this sense is a disciplinary resource that provides access to a par-
ticular form of powerful knowledge; in short, the means to ‘think geographically’.
Our argument is that the laudable aim of the International Year for Global
Understanding (IYGU), to better prepare children and young people to face the full
range of global challenges,1 is more likely to be achieved through a high quality and
suitably ambitious geography curriculum, than through one that does not, explicitly,
try to teach children how to think geographically. Whether we focus on global
environmental change (climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution and resource
degradation including soil loss), the immense human diversity across the globe (and
the need to understand different perspectives, values, perceptions and existing local
knowledges) or the impacts of economic and sociocultural globalization (including
accelerating technological changes), or indeed, immense uncertainties that exist
about global governance (and the reluctance among many people and some of their
leaders to contemplate the sharing of sovereignty when it comes to facing some of
these challenges), then taking on the world is a potent symbol of geography’s
potential as a school subject.
We use this chapter to open up this argument. In order to keep us grounded, and
with an international readership in mind, we will start with an attempt to identify
how the global has been articulated in official curriculum documents across three
countries. But we then go on to emphasize that the words on the official pages of the
geography curriculum are only a starting point. We want to appeal to a sophisti-
cated and extended view of professionalism (see Brooks 2016) in which we
understand geography teachers as specialists who can bring insights from the dis-
cipline to interpret and develop depth and texture to the words on the page. In the
‘post-truth’ age, where President Trump’s press spokespeople talk openly about
1
See: http://www.global-understanding.info/what-is-iygu/iygu-challenges/.
7 How Geography Curricula Tackle Global Issues 85
‘alternative facts’, as if only opinion or instinct matters, this has never been so
important.
7.2 Finding the Global
In this first section, we explore the curricula of three countries: Singapore, the
United States and England. These countries have been chosen to be illustrative of a
diverse range of curricula, within the logistical constraints of such a task. For
example, our choice was limited to English speaking countries with accessible
electronic curriculum materials. Although this is not by any stretch a globally
representative sample of countries, it allows us to consider curricula, where
geography benefits from a relatively active research community, whilst still
showing some diversity: a large federal state, a small city state and a medium-sized
country—in different geographical locations across three continents, where
approaches to geography as a school vary according to political and cultural cir-
cumstances, for example, from the US context of social studies to the strong
humanities tradition in England. Our purpose is to provide an empirical platform for
our discussion identifying ‘the global’ within the context of three curricula. This
will help us explore the ways in which formal curriculum documents might support
or constrain teachers to develop global understanding in their classrooms.
Each curriculum can be considered at three levels. The first encompasses the
fundamental aims and values of the national curriculum: what are the stated reasons
for education and how might this support or constrain the development of the global
dimension? The second is the subject curriculum, seen predominantly but not
uniquely through the discipline of geography. At this level, we also consider the
place of geography within the overall structure of the curriculum and how this
impacts its ability to consider the global. The third level is the enactment of that
curriculum, or what really happens. To assess this, we are dependent on what we
can gather on how teachers are supported to consider ‘the global’ through subject
associations and support materials or exemplars. The purpose of this first discussion
is to explore the ways in which school geography, as defined through these three
levels of curricula, inspire or constrain teachers to enable children and young people
to think globally (geographically) and to develop a global sense of place.
7.2.1 Singapore
The vision of the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore is captured by the

slogan ‘Thinking Schools, Learning Nation’. The curriculum aims to prepare a
‘generation of thinking and committed citizens who are capable of contributing
towards Singapore’s continued growth and prosperity’ (MOE 2009). Students learn
English alongside their mother tongue language to help them retain their ethnic
identity, culture, heritage and values (MOE 2009). This explicit recognition of, and
value placed on, the diversity of Singapore’s population is perhaps a promising sign
for developing the global. There is also a focus on twenty-first century challenges,
not least through the Framework for twenty-first Century Competencies and Student
Outcomes (MOE 2015). The MOE explicitly identifies globalization, changing
demographics and technological advancement as key driving forces of the future,
specifying what it believes are the three key ‘competencies’ to help students thrive
in a ‘fast-changing world’. These are Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and
Cross-Cultural Skills. Here then, there is explicit emphasis on ‘the global’:
Our society is becoming increasingly cosmopolitan and more Singaporeans live and work
abroad. Our young will therefore need a broader worldview, and the ability to work with
people from diverse cultural backgrounds, with different ideas and perspectives. At the
same time, they should be informed about national issues, take pride in being Singaporean
and contribute actively to the community (MOE 2015).
It appears that at the level of aims and values, the MOE encourages an appre-
ciation of ‘the global’. However, is it through a functionalist lens that the global is
being seen? In other words, to what extent is this vision simply to provide an
awareness of the global as an economic opportunity? The second level of our
analysis may shed light on this, the geography curriculum itself. In Singapore,
geography is taught within social studies at the primary level, and individually
within the humanities department at secondary level, where it is distinguished by
key concepts, such as place, space, environment and scale (Curriculum Planning
and Development Division 2016). One of the secondary geography syllabus aims is
to foster global awareness of current geographical issues and future challenges.
Thus, students study relationships and interactions between and within physical and
human phenomena at local, regional and global scales. The syllabus stresses an
issues-based approach to geography which, Chang (2011) argues, foregrounds
issues of sustainability, in particular, those associated with climate change.
At the level of enactment, the Geography Teachers’ Association of Singapore
(GTAS) plays an active role in promoting and supporting geography education in
Singapore (GTAS 2016). Brief review of their annual publication, GEObuzz, shows
a range of articles relating to global issues of the ‘fast-changing world’, such as
green space and sustainable urban living (Irvine et al. 2016), climate change resi-
lience (Irvine 2015) or livestock trading (Neo 2014). However, the main focus is
often the local: presenting climate change as a global issue but focusing on the local
consequences. Whilst the global can be used to contextualise local issues, a deeper
concept of the global may require more time being spent on understanding local
place as part of the global system. Thus, in the context of Singapore, what is ‘the
global’ that teachers impart to their students? Is it a functionalist ‘preparation’ for
the global as an economic opportunity, a scalar context for a range of local, national
or international issues, or an attempt to engender in students a more nuanced global
sense of place, such as advocated by Doreen Massey? Our analysis does not enable
us to answer this question but has caused us to ask it. In a sense, we are asking from
where does the concept of global arise and develop, what role has the discipline of
geography played in shaping what is taught in school?
7.2.2 USA
Within the US context, education is primarily a State responsibility. The official

mission of the US Department of Education is to ‘promote student achievement and
preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and
ensuring equal access’ (US Department of Education 2016). This lays down some
of the mood music in which State and local communities, plus both public and
private interests can contribute to the school curriculum. For example, the National
Council for Social Studies (NCSS), the setting within which geography is taught in
the USA, has developed its own curriculum standards. This provides a set of
principles by which content can be selected and organized to build a State-specific
curriculum to prepare ‘informed and active citizens’ (NCSS 2016). It suggests ten
themes or organizing strands for social studies programs which include people,
places and environments and global connections (NCSS 2016). It remains a moot
point, however, the strength of the geographical perspectives that lie behind these
words, as geography as a subject often seems buried beneath the social studies
(McDougall 2015), and subservient to history.
Thus geographers, through the collaborative effort of all four professional
associations for geography in the US (the American Association of Geographers
(AAG), National Council for Geography Education (NCGE) the National
Geographic Society (NGS) and American Geographical Society) have also
attempted to spell out content standards in the form of Geography for Life: National
Geography Standards, first published in 1994, and revised in 2012 (Geography
Education Standards Project 1994; Bednarz 2004). Geography for Life (http://www.
ncge.org/geography-for-life) comprises 18 standards organized into six overarching
themes: the world in spatial terms; places and regions; physical systems; human
systems; environment and society and the uses of geography. Interestingly, there is
no explicit reference to ‘the global’ within these standards, notwithstanding refer-
ences to human and physical process active on ‘the Earth’s surface’ and the
importance of ‘knowing about the world’. Understanding of flows, networks and
interdependencies are in evidence within these US standards, albeit with a heavy
emphasis on the spatial analysis of these and a reluctance to ‘take on the world’
(Massey 2014), at least in the sense that Massey intended.
Even so, the extent to which geography standards are incorporated into
State-specific Social Studies curricula varies significantly. An interesting example is
the Colorado Department for Education (CDE), which through their State academic
standards, suggests that social studies programs ‘prepare students to identify,
understand, and work to solve the challenges facing our diverse nation in an
increasingly interdependent world’. This stops well short of the global. Geography,
according to CDE, provides students with ‘an understanding of spatial perspectives
and technologies for spatial analysis, awareness of interdependence of world

regions and resources and how places are connected on local, national and global
scales’ (CDE 2009). At best, this is the global simply as wider context, although
more detailed grade level expectations for the standards do contain many explicit
and implicit references to the global, (for example, ‘spatial thinkers evaluate global
systems such as culture, diffusion, interdependence, etc.’). In Colorado then, con-
scientious teachers are invited to explore global interdependencies with students,
possibly supporting them to develop a global sense of place.
However, this is not reflected in all US State Social Studies curricula. In contrast,
Georgia’s Standards of Excellence (Georgia Department of Education 2016) for
eighth grade (junior high school level) appear to be more parochial. Students should
be able to ‘locate Georgia in relation to region, nation, continent and hemispheres;
distinguish among the five geographic regions of Georgia in terms of location,
climate, agriculture and economic contribution; locate key physical features of
Georgia and explain their importance; and analyze the importance of water in
Georgia’s historical development and economic growth’ (Georgia Department of
Education 2016). Although at ninth grade students begin to learn World Geography,
at the end of eighth grade their experiences of ‘the global’ in geography are very
different from their peers in Colorado (at least where they have been well taught). As
such, this demonstrates a lack of consistency at the level of values and of curriculum
expectations to impart concepts of the global through the school curriculum.
How then does this translate to the third level of our analysis, to the enacted
curriculum in US geography (or social studies) classrooms? Sarah Bednarz suggests
that key aspects of Geography for Life have not been adopted evenly or even
widely across the US, the reasons for which lie predominantly with the professional
preparation of individual teachers; the majority of social studies teachers have not
themselves studied geography in any depth (Bednarz 2004). Support for nonspe-
cialist social studies teachers is fragmented (the NCGE is small compared to the
NCSS; furthermore, unlike history geography receives no Federal US education
dollars), and although some States have active Geographic Alliances (see http://
alliances.nationalgeographic.com/) supported by the NGS, it seems that in the
absence of more systematic or nationwide support the potential of geography in
schools will be limited for years to come. The AAG Education team provides a
range of support for geography teachers in the US, including online support through
GeoCapabilities, Geography for Life and GeoMentors projects. In particular, the
Geographic Advantage, an AAG companion website for ‘Understanding the
Changing Planet’, provides a range of online geographic investigations over four
themed areas (AAG 2013). However, how students experience this is very much
dependent not only on the State in which they reside, which determines the
geography curriculum, but also the expertise of the teacher who may not be a
subject specialist.
7.2.3 England
In England (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have different arrangements

within the UK) there is a national curriculum for geography. Almost all secondary
schools have some specialist geography teachers, the majority of whom are grad-
uates of geography (although an estimated 30% of geography lessons nationally are
taught by nonspecialists). The Department for Education (DfE) states that the
national curriculum provides pupils with ‘an introduction to the essential knowl-
edge they need to be educated citizens. It introduces pupils to the best that has been
thought and said and helps engender an appreciation of human creativity and
achievement’ (DfE 2014). The national curriculum for geography aims to ensure all
pupils ‘develop contextual knowledge of the location of globally significant places
…. Understand the processes that give rise to key physical and human geographical
features of the word, how these are interdependent and how they bring about spatial
variation and change over time’ (DfE 2013). The explicit reference to the global is
welcome, but as in previous cases it seems merely to stress a descriptive context,
and the odd expression ‘globally significant’ is left undefined. Within the relatively
sparse detail of the curriculum, at each of the three ‘key stages’ (from 5 years, to the
age of 14), there is specific locational and place knowledge defined alongside
human and physical geography and geographical skills and fieldwork. For example,
at key stage 1 (ages 5–7) students’ locational knowledge should include being able
‘to name and locate the world’s continents and oceans’, and place knowledge ‘to
understand geographical similarities and differences through studying the physical
and human geography of a small area of the UK and of a small area in a contrasting
non-European country’ (DfE, 2013). By key stage 3 (ages 11–14) students should
then have wider locational knowledge ‘using maps of the world to focus on Africa,
Russia, Asia (including China and India), and the Middle East’, alongside place
knowledge to ‘understand geographical similarities, differences and links between
places through the study of the human and physical geography of a region in Africa
and a region in Asia’ (DfE 2013). This reference to specific world places is valu-
able, but as we also noted in our US case, stops well short of the global: knowledge
of the world is not the same as a sense of the global. Perhaps significantly, Eleanor
Rawling, lead DfE geography consultant during the development of the 2014
National Curriculum, suggests that the development process was strongly political,
with moments of direct input from Ministers over topics, such as climate change
and global citizenship (Rawling 2015).
As such, the global is significant by its absence within the English National
Curriculum, but at the level of enactment, there is a range of support for specialist
geography teachers very specifically to develop the global, particularly from the
Geographical Association (GA) and Royal Geographical Society (RGS). For
example, an edition of Teaching Geography, the GA’s professional journal for
geography teachers, has a focus on global learning (GA 2015), and both the GA and
the RGS are partners in the Global Learning Programme (GLP: http://glp.
globaldimension.org.uk/). This is a national, government-funded program which
supports schools to embed ‘global learning’ into teaching across the curriculum
(GLP 2014). Interestingly, the funds come from the Department for International
Development (DFID) rather than the DfE, implying a particular skew or focus to
‘global learning’, one where political purposes might supplant the educational aims
(a danger noted by Bill Marsden (1997) some years ago in his discussion of ‘good
causes’ and education).
7.2.4 Summary
This brief foray into finding the global in the curricula of three countries raises a
number of issues. First, there is a lack of consistency about how ‘the global’ appears
within formal curricula. In the case of Singapore, the global features strongly in the
context of twenty-first century competencies and emerges through an issues-based
curriculum. In the UK context, place and location appear significant, and yet
developing a global sense of place does not appear explicitly to be a curriculum
aim. In the US, even though the national standards appear strong in some ways, the
local interpretation of these and the weak position of geography within social
studies mean that US school students may receive a very parochial geographical
education. Second, there is a lack of clarity on the meaning of global within official
documents: it is questionable the degree to which ‘global learning’, ‘global issues’
or even ‘globalization’ carry meaning beyond generic everyday parlance. It was
noted in all three cases that global was sometimes reduced merely to signify a
descriptive, scalar context for local, national or international issues. We will
develop this matter further in the next section. For it is difficult to see that in any of
our chosen cases the idea of the global being in accordance with Massey’s notion of
a global sense of place, the demand that we are able to ‘take on the world’ (Massey
2014) and grasp the planet itself as a place, to be understood as a whole in order to
foster ‘responsibility at a distance’ (Massey 2002, p. 293). In Massey’s words,
Going global is crucial to thinking spatially. In our teaching we are very careful to pay
attention to those central concepts, place and environment. But space is equally important.
If time is the dimension of sequence, of things and events following one after the other,
then space is the dimension of simultaneity, of things, events, people existing at the same
moment. It is this that underlies our concern with interdependence. And, therefore, it is
space that poses that fundamental question: ‘How are we going to live together?’ The
global is an essential scale for making this point. (Massey 2014, p. 38)
It is interesting that Massey acknowledged herself that interdependence can

“seem to be simply vacuous (yes, of course, we are all connected)” (op cit, p. 38). It
is the close study of the content of those interdependencies that matters so that we
come to new understandings—of the interplay between people and the physical
environment, for example, or the fact that all of us are utterly dependent on here as
well as elsewhere. This is the potential of school geography, to achieve such a close
study of global interdependencies with children and young people.
7.3 Geography’s Powerful Knowledge
Of course, Massey is not the only academic geographer who has argued the case for
geography’s position to develop in students a more critical sense of place.
A number of academics have shown that studying the global through a geographical
lens supports us to better appreciate the sophisticated nature of interrelationships
between spaces at different scales. Even so, economic geographer Peter Dickens has
reflected on the marginalisation of geographers within the globalization debates in
higher education (2004). This, he suggests, has resulted in a superficial debate in
academia and beyond, in which there is an implicit assumption that the global
determines the local. Dickens argues that geography offers the opportunity to
develop a more ‘joined-up’ approach to thinking about the global, considering the
agency rather than simply the powerlessness of the local, and supporting Massey’s
argument that,
Places are not simply always the victims of the global; nor are they always politically
defensible redoubts against the global. For places are also the moments through which the
global is constituted, invented, co-ordinated, produced. They are “agents” in globalisation.
(Massey 2004: 14)
Dickens argues that it is the geographer’s more sophisticated conception of scale

which allows this more nuanced understanding of the global (Dickens 2004), and
how it ‘works’. Saskia Sassen, for example, has considered the strategic role of
what she termed the Global City within the global economy, not as a product of
ubiquitous global processes, but instead being places of enormous resource con-
centration, which are mobilized to coordinate globalization (Sassen 1991). For
anyone living in the UK, for example, London is not only taken for granted as the
capital city and often the source of national pride as with the 2012 Olympic Games
but also increasingly seen as somewhere different: it is not like the rest of the UK.
Its wealth, its power and its diversity—its role in global systems—gives London a
different sociopolitical culture from most of the rest of the UK. Thus, the Brexit
vote mentioned in our introduction may well have resulted from a suspicion not so
much about ‘Europe’ but of ‘London’ and what it represents. Similarly, Trump’s
nativist retreat was explicitly designed to appeal to those who feel ‘left behind’ by
globalization.
And yet, what geography teaches is that even though a ‘sense of place’, pro-
viding national, regional and local identities, is of profound importance (and it has
been exploited by demagogues throughout history), a retreat behind imagined
borders is, in this day and age, not a sustainable choice. From Humboldt’s writings
onwards (Wulf 2015), the geographical perspective has been to keep the world
whole as a connected system. This enables a complete rejection of climate change
deniers who would have us believe that it is a Chinese ‘hoax’, or that ‘our’ con-
sumption is not anyway connected to ‘their’ CO2 emissions. Examples of geo-
graphical scholarship developing such thought include O’Brien and Leichenko’s
exploration of the dual and related effects of economic globalization and climate
change as being inextricably linked (2000, 2003). It is the geographer’s ability to
unpick these complex relationships and interdependences between spaces of the
local and the global that make it a powerful subject in school through which to
develop with young people a global ‘sense of place’, or the ability to ‘take on the
world’.
Our guiding question in this chapter was how do geography curricula tackle
global issues? So far, on the basis of our sketch of three different national settings
and the focus provided by Massey’s concept of a global sense of place, our answer
could be summarized as slightly ambivalent. Whilst we acknowledge some
impressive formulations and the clear identity of geography being concerned with
place, space, environment and interconnectedness—which usually includes the
global scale—we are also impressed with Massey’s exhortation that acquiring a
knowledge of the world is not in itself adequate. Her critique encourages us to think
hard about the meaning and intention behind the words in official curriculum
documents, including any ideological (national) priorities. It is possible to see in
curriculum formulations, perhaps inevitably, the boundaried world of nations,
competition and self-interest. ‘Taking on the world’ implies stepping beyond this,
for example, understanding the costs of economic globalization to some groups/
locations, as well as the benefits (to other groups/locations). In some contexts such
as climate change, when we take on the world, we may even begin to see the
adoption of a global perspective as an essential prerequisite for human survival
(Lambert 2013).
7.4 Curriculum Futures and the Challenge for Teachers
Put this way, the ability to think geographically (which we say includes the ability
to take on the world, and adopt a global sense of place) may be thought of as a
signifier of an educated person, especially in this day and age. This is the core idea
that underscored the GeoCapabilities project (www.geocapabilities.org). The pro-
ject which went on to develop materials to support geography teachers, in effect
tests the hypothesis that an absence of (high quality) geography in the school
curriculum deprives young people of certain aspects of their intellectual capability.
The notion of quality is, of course, paramount here. It refers to epistemic quality in
the classroom, and uses a ‘Three Futures’ heuristic (Young and Lambert 2014) in
order to distinguish between possible curriculum scenarios—those that do, and
those that do not, encourage epistemic ascent (Winch 2013): that is roughly, being
on the pathway towards appreciating expert, systemic, specialized knowledge.
Crudely, this means access to the teaching of knowledge that is not characterized
Table 7.1 A typology of geography’s powerful knowledge (underpinning a ‘Future 3’

curriculum). Adapted from Maude (2016)
Type Characteristics
1. Knowledge that provides students with Using ‘big ideas’ such as:
‘new ways of thinking about the world’ ∙ Place ∙ Space ∙ Environment
These are meta-concepts that are
distinguished from substantive concepts, like
‘city’ or ‘climate’
2. Knowledge that provides students with Using ideas to:
powerful ways of analysing, explaining and ∙ Analyse E.g. place; spatial distribution …
understanding ∙ Explain E.g. hierarchy; agglomeration …
∙ Generalise E.g. models (push-pull models
of migration; demographic transition …
3. Knowledge that gives students some power To do this, students need to know something
over their own knowledge about the ways knowledge has been and
continues to be developed and tested in the
discipline
This is about having an answer to the
question: ‘how do you know?’ This is an
underdeveloped area of geographical
education but is a crucial aspect of ‘epistemic
quality’ (Hudson 2016)
4. Knowledge that enables young people to School geography has a good record in
follow and participate in debates on teaching this knowledge, partly because it
significant local, national and global issues combines the natural and social sciences and
the humanities. It also examines significant
‘nexus’ issues, such as food, water and
energy security; climate change; development
5. Knowledge of the world This takes students beyond their own
experience—the world’s diversity of
environments, cultures, societies and
economies. In a sense, this knowledge is
closest to how geography is perceived in the
popular imagination. It contributes strongly to
a student’s ‘general knowledge’
simply by the accumulation of facts (the banking model of education, known as

Future 1), nor by a gross overemphasis of discreet generic competences said to
support lifelong learning or learning to learn (the outcomes model, known as Future
2). Instead, GeoCapabilities advocates a Future 3 curriculum scenario based on the
development with students of what is called ‘powerful knowledge’ (Young 2008),
summarized in Table 7.1 (see also Slater et al. 2016).
7.5 Conclusion
We have tried to show in this chapter that geography, as a community of scholars,

does indeed create powerful knowledge—an example being how geographers
conceptualize the global. Part of what gives this knowledge ‘power’ is the means it
affords teachers to interpret and develop curriculum specifications. This is why we
need specialist teachers of geography, to ensure that the curriculum as made or
enacted by teachers, has epistemic quality. The notion of powerful knowledge is,
therefore, significant and has been explored by GeoCapabilities (the website pro-
vides materials to enable teachers to do the same). Alaric Maude (2016) has very
usefully proposed a typology, summarized in Table 7.1, which again has been
derived from Young’s writings. What gives knowledge ‘power’ is, according to
Young, what it enables you to do or think. It is this that provides the basis for the
‘capabilities’ approach to curriculum thinking as explored by the GeoCapabilities
project.
It is reasonably heartening, and maybe not surprising, to find that geography
curricular, as illustrated in this chapter, identify global processes and globalization
as part of the contents of geography education. This is how it should be. But to be
able to think critically about the global, and to develop deep and sophisticated
global understandings are another matter. We are clear that to be able to think
geographically about the global is potentially extremely important, arguably, an
essential component of citizenship education for children and young people. First,
teachers need to be able to do this, for they have an enormous responsibility to
interpret the curriculum through a Future 3 lens (Lambert 2016) so that it has the
capacity to enhance and develop students’ capabilities; that is, their functioning to
be and to do in a rapidly changing world.
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Chapter 8
From Classroom Practices to Global
Actions
Caroline Leininger-Frezal and Sophie Gaujal
8.1 Introduction
Understanding globalisation and the ways in which it affects local regions on a

worldwide scale is a question relating to citizenship, and touches our daily lives
without us necessarily measuring the stakes, the impact and the significance. The
question of mobility is particularly revealing of these issues. We travel about on a
daily basis without necessarily measuring the impact on the environment (products
of greenhouse gas emissions, for example), or the impact in terms of spatial issues.
Certain areas are well connected, while others are isolated. This results in, and
generates social and spatial inequalities. Mobility is at the heart of local- and
global-level sustainability issues, which raise burning social, economic and envi-
ronmental questions on every level. This inspired us to raise these questions and
explore global issues with high school students. We hypothesised that an experi-
ential geographical learning approach (Kolb 1984) could help students to think of
mobility by articulating local issues in relation to global issues and positioning
informal geography vis-à-vis formal geography.
In the proposed teaching approach, the researchers developed a case-study
method based on Charles de Gaulle (CDG) Paris airport, which consisted of asking
students to undertake a virtual journey from France to Las Vegas. This case study
was designed in four stages: immersion, implication, investigation and institu-
tionalisation. The objective was for students to understand that their access to the
world is conditioned by the area in which they live. The most isolated areas were
C. Leininger-Frezal (&) S. Gaujal

Paris Diderot University, Paris, France
e-mail: carolinefrezal@wanadoo.fr
S. Gaujal
e-mail: s.gaujal@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_8
98 C. Leininger-Frezal and S. Gaujal
those from which travel would be the most costly, both financially and environ-
mentally. This case study educates students about the globalisation of intercon-
nection, interfaces and discontinuity, and develops their awareness of the
interconnection between all places, as well as the environmental issues associated
with mobility. It is a way to make students understand the impact of their daily
actions and more broadly, the link between Earth systems processes and socio-
cultural contexts of human action. That is one the goals of IYGU programme.
The present study was organised into three phases. First of all, the aim was to
show that mobility is key to understanding global issues. Second, the experiential
case study was proposed to students. And finally, the value of this approach in
terms of learning and its limits are demonstrated.
8.2 Mobility: An Important Issue for Citizens
8.2.1 What Is Mobility?
Mobility is ‘a form of movement which is expressed through changing one’s

position’ and ‘Geographic mobility […] implies a change of location’. (Brunet et al.
1992, p. 333). Based on this definition, mobility covers a multitude and variety of
realities. Mobility can be temporary, e.g. for tourism, or can be permanent, such as
international migration. It may be a one-off, such as for an exceptional purchase in a
city, or regular, such as commuting. Merely discussing, mobility does not cover the
reasons which motivate individuals to leave. Mobility may be forced, as in the case
of armed conflict or persecution, for example. It may also be chosen, for a better
place or simply to experience a complete change, such as a holiday. While being
mobile is perceived positively in western societies, in reality, it can be endured or
even suffered, a violence imposed on those individuals who do not want to be
mobile.
Geographic mobility is intrinsically linked to social mobility. Migration, par-
ticularly economic migration, is often motivated by the perspective of improving
and enriching living conditions. Generally speaking, geographical mobility depends
on social factors. The higher the individual’s level of education, the more likely
they are to be mobile; they are able to go to more numerous and varied places. They
also tend to be more able to take advantage of the amenities offered by the places
they visit. As such, residents of underprivileged neighbourhoods or areas are less
mobile both on a local and on a global level than those from more privileged areas.
Understanding mobility is, however, an important citizenship issue because it is one
of the keys for understanding the world, its inequalities and challenges regarding
sustainable development. Understanding the impact of mobility in the production of
greenhouse gases is also essential to understanding climate change. A part of
humanity is not very mobile, which puts it on the margins of globalization.
8 From Classroom Practices to Global Actions 99
8.2.2 Geographic Mobility: The Key to Understanding

the World
Moving around requires various kinds of infrastructures: footpaths and cycling

paths for green modes of transport in urban areas, along with roads, motorways,
railways, airports, train stations, ports, etc. In order to work, these infrastructures
need services: maintenance, repairs, cleaning, etc. They also offer services: public
transport, catering, ticket sales, etc. Transport infrastructures vary in terms of cost,
often operated by public actors but not exclusively. These infrastructures are hubs,
which manage flows (merchandise, passengers, finance flows, etc.). They organise
the local area and determine its integration on a global scale. Studying mobility
enables us to understand that geographical space, in contrast with mathematical
space, is not inert, smooth and continuous. It is rather a construct and has dis-
continuities. It is the product of various actors’ contributions, on different levels, in
response to their own reasoning, strategies and stakes. Mobility is pulled between
the dynamics of three concepts, that of competitiveness, i.e. the need for a region to
adapt to globalisation, that of fairness, i.e. the right of each resident to have easy
access to places and that of sustainable development.
Above all, mobility reflects the unequal insertion of some regions in the global
system (Dollfus et al. 1990). The least advanced countries, mostly located in South
America, Africa and Asia, have a poorer air service than developed countries in
North America, Europe, Oceania and Southeast Asia. This means that these places
profit less than others from globalisation, which penalises them in terms of com-
petitiveness. A place which is not easily accessible, whatever the scale, is not very
attractive and therefore less competitive than those which are more easily accessed.
Multinational companies, for example, prefer to be based in pleasant regions, which
offer lots of amenities (international schools, good hospitals, shopping centres,
services, etc.), but which also have an international airport so that their executives
from all over the world can easily travel. This is not the only criteria, of course, but
it is a determining factor in finding a location. For these actors, being mobile is
necessary in order to remain on an equal playing field.
Mobility is also a central issue for sustainable development. Indeed, the cam-
paign against climate change involves the necessity to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and particles in the air from road and air traffic, which are highly pol-
luting. This requires us to rethink mobility in a different way, to how we used to
design towns and cities around the car in the 1950s and 1960s. It means imagining
and developing alternative modes of transport (public transport and soft modes of
transport), along with designing a dense and compact city. Sustainable development
encourages us to think locally and to act globally.
Today, mobility is at the heart of several social issues (globalisation, the cam-
paign against climate change, sustainable cities, etc.), which go beyond a local scale
and may have direct links with students’ daily lives.
8.2.3 Mobility: A Topic to Be Taught in Geography
The aim in teaching geography is not only to provide students with enough
knowledge to understand the world in which they live and its major issues. It is also
to make them capable of acting within, and influencing, their space (Pigaki and
Leininger-Frézal 2014), i.e. to enable students, who are future adult citizens, to be
spatial actors. Geography education should contribute to a process of student
emancipation and empowerment. Teaching this discipline has both practical and
citizenship benefits (Audigier 1993). Regarding mobility, it is important to enable
students to be mobile, able to get around, by providing them with knowledge,
particularly regarding localisation, and skills, such as knowing how to read a map or
plan, position or direct themselves. To travel around, it is also important to have the
physical and financial means, which is beyond the provisions of geography edu-
cation of course, and cultural awareness, as discussed above. It is important not to
be scared of other people or places, which means geography education should
empower students to construct certain representations of the world.
Knowing how to travel also means considering associated sustainability issues,
which are as follows:
• Environmental and climate issues, prioritising soft (cycling, roller skating, etc.)
or less polluting modes of transport (public transport, carpooling, electric cars,
etc.), etc.
• Financial and social issues, given the fact that certain journeys have a high
social cost, for example, when we take flights offered by low-cost airlines who
practice social dumping.
• Political issues, given the impact of a trip on the region or destination. Going to
a country under a dictatorship, for example, means submitting yourself to the
government of the leader and contributing to legitimising their power.
Knowing how to travel means making the link between what we know and what
we do. However, knowing does not always lead to doing (Festinger 1957).
Geography education, therefore, aims to develop knowledge of how to act among
students, requiring the development of adapted teaching approaches, which is why
experiential geography is proposed here.
8.3 Experiential Geography: A Lever for ‘Global

Understanding’
8.3.1 From Experiential Learning to Experiential

Geography
The experiential learning theory was formalised by Leon Kolb (1984) in-keeping
with the theories of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1951) and Piaget (1971). Experiential
Fig. 8.1 Experiential learning based on Healey and Jenkins (2000, 187)
learning is aligned with a holistic approach, which takes into account the person in
every dimension: intellectual, ethical, psychological, cultural… It promotes active
learning, which places the learner and their experience at the heart of the learning
process. This theory is founded on the premise that individuals can learn from their
experiences by critically analysing them, which leads them to conceptualise the
experience. They can then assess the solidity and validity of their theoretical
construction by testing it in experiments. The entire process can be mapped out as
shown in Fig. 8.1.
Geographers, especially Anglo-Saxons, have adopted the experiential learning
theory to develop experiential geography. This is geography education based on
students’ experiences and enables students to question their representations and spatial
practices and to rethink these in light of the knowledge and skills acquired in class.
The experiential learning approach is aligned to the epistemology of the disci-
pline. Indeed, so-called hermeneutic geography (Retaillé 2000; Thémines 2006;
Hertig 2009) incorporates the spatial representations of actors and their spatial
practices as an object for analysis, to understand the meaning of places, i.e. the
space as it is perceived and/or experienced. This is not true for other geographical
fields, such as spatial analysis. Experiential learning is also coherent with the wide
teaching practices in geography education, such as analysis of students’ initial
representations or those developed during fieldwork (Krakowka 2012; Elwood
2007; Halocha 2005; Healey and Jenkins 2000; Ives-Dewey 2009).
Experiential geography is not limited to fieldwork, it can implement other
learning approaches. ‘Other types of learning situations can also adopt experiential
learning: role play, discovery learning, problem resolution, etc.’ (Pruneau and
Lapointe 2002, 4). To teach students about mobility so that they learn about the
major issues, an educational game was developed, which is arguably better able to
teach students to understand the inequalities in mobility and sustainable develop-
ment issues than local fieldwork.
8.3.2 A Serious Game to Experiment with Mobility
We have developed a simulation game ‘A Race to Las Vegas’. The following

instructions were given to students.
You have to get to Las Vegas as soon as possible. The first person to arrive wins. To
organize your journey, you have the internet, a Chance Card – which does not necessarily
bring good luck – selected at random, and a route map. The Chance card gives you
precisions about the conditions of your trip (city of departure, stopover, budget, passenger
comfort, airline, bonus time…). The route map enables you to indicate the various steps of
your journey, the cost, the duration and the sites used to organise your trip.1
In this way, students are placed in a situation of immersion, through a common

social practice with which they are, therefore, familiar: travelling. The aim is for
them to understand that regions—and consequently, their populations—are not
equal in terms of mobility, and that, particularly long-distance mobility, has con-
sequences for the environment. Plunged into a beyond-learning situation
(Brousseau and Balacheff 1998), students must resolve a practical problem: how to
get from one place to another on the Earth’s surface as quickly as possible? The
game enables students to be implicated, by giving them a practical problem to
resolve: to get to a place several thousand kilometres away as soon as possible. To
do this, during the course of the game (investigation phase) they employ spatial
strategies and attempt to maximise the comparative advantages of each location.
Their decision-making operates according to the spatial knowledge in their pos-
session, internet sites they visit, and the constraints they are faced with. To carry out
this exercise, no documentation was given to students. Their research was carried
out on the internet, and students were advised to visit online route calculation sites
and flight comparison sites. This research was undertaken in groups of two or three,
over the course of an hour in an IT room. This was the investigation period.
Through this pretend trip, students can experience the various levels, modes of
transport and metrics, and thus increase their awareness of mobility issues. The
choice of Las Vegas obliges them to make a stopover and to experience the concept
of a hub: Las Vegas is indeed largely served by medium-haul flights. By doing this,
they also become aware of the phenomenon of polarisation, selection and spatial
inequality.
In order for them to experience the complexity of transport networks, students do
not travel from the same destination. They simultaneously familiarise themselves
with their place of departure and the instructions drawn from a hat. They may also
have handicaps, compulsory stopovers, or bonuses (time and budget). Some, the
luckier ones, leave from Paris and are, therefore, close to CDG airport. Others leave
from a regional city, such as Marseille, Lille or Rodez (see Fig. 8.2).
They can, therefore, quickly get to CDG, via various means: the medium-haul
flight may seem the fastest (although you must allow time to get there, and be sure
to land in CDG rather than Orly). The TGV (French high-speed train) can be a
‘shortcut’, as long as you take the line which stops at CDG. Students departing from
a more isolated city have a definite handicap. Some, for example, must leave from a
different airport to CDG, others have a compulsory stopover in Atlanta. This is not
necessarily an obstacle, but does oblige students to go beyond France to understand
1
This text is extracted from the geography course given on January 7, 2017 by Sophie Gaujal.
Fig. 8.2 Departure cities featured in the game
Fig. 8.3 Examples of chance cards
the issues on a European scale… To maintain the dimension of a game, bonuses

and penalties are distributed randomly (traffic, customs searches, etc.) (Fig. 8.3).
This initial phase of the game enables students to experiment with the concept of
distance in various ways: distance in time, distance in kilometres and environmental
distance. This leads students to then better understand the concept of spatial
inequalities, of hubs, of outskirts, as well as the concept of multimodality, which
enables CDG to be competitive by capturing flows on a regional and national scale.
Students are, therefore, faced with a spatial organisation, which is very hierarchical
and selective, positioned according to hubs, which are constantly strengthened by
public politics (so that they remain competitive). Awareness of environmental
distance also inspires students to question the environmental impact of the trips
used in simulation.
The trip enables students to easily identify with the situation they are faced with
as the journey is standard social practice (Martinand 1986). As users of
Fig. 8.4 Route map to be filled out by students
communication networks, they are active players in their mobility: everyday, they
make decisions, choose one itinerary over another depending on cost, traffic, time,
reliability of the network, etc.
At the end of the game, students submit a sheet on which they have mapped out
their path (Fig. 8.4): the main stages of their journey are mapped, as well as modes
of transport used, journey length, and financial and environmental cost. The time of
departure corresponds to the beginning of the lesson. They were also required to
detail any handicaps or advantages they had.
Students discovered concepts and how to mobilise them within geographical
reasoning. This was the final phase, i.e. institutionalisation (Hertig 2009), which
enabled them to transition from informal geography to formal geography.
Immersion, identification, implication and institutionalisation were the four com-
ponents of this simulation.
8.4 From a Game to Understanding Global Issues
8.4.1 From Informal Geography to Formal Geography
Experiential geography is a teaching approach, at the crossroads between informal

geography and formal geography. Formal geography and informal geography are
two levels of knowledge (Gaujal 2016). Informal geography implements experience
of the geographical space. We travel every day, use familiar points of reference,
choose to go to one place rather than another, because it is faster or because the
journey is more pleasant. Throughout life, we choose to live here rather than there
because we prefer the area, because it is less expensive, because we can find work
or spend our holidays here. As such, we implement all sorts of spatial strategies,
linked to our experience of the area. Spontaneous geography results from knowl-
edge, representations and our spatial practices.
Informal geography is founded on ideas, concepts and methods developed
through academic and/or scientific geography. At school, every week, students
study geography. They learn how to design the space, according to the transversal
concepts of the programme such as globalisation, sustainable development, land
planning and development, areas of power,etc. and all of these are explored on
various scales, from local to global spaces. The space is analysed as a construction,
developed by several actors and influenced by many stakes, some of which have
existed for a long time.
Informal and formal geography originate from the same discipline of geography,
itself connected to other pools of knowledge developed in other disciplines. As
such, formal geography enables us to understand that it is not by chance that we live
here rather than there, that we choose one journey over another and why it may
seem more pleasant.
Links between spatial issues and taught geography are rarely explicit for students
or to the adults they will become, and rarely made explicit by teachers. On a daily
micro-spatial level, curriculums, especially in France, prefer to teach small-scale
geography, concerning states and regional spaces. More widely, educators describe
geography teaching in which students have difficulties in finding their place,
geography, where transmissive teaching is promoted. The aim of the ‘Race to Las
Vegas’ is to simulate an experience, which taps into their spontaneity but also
encourages them to reflect on formal geography to enable students not only to
understand mobility issues but also to anchor their learning in their spatial practical
experiences. The next step in this teaching enables students to analyse the ways in
which it would be possible to implement these reflections. This is the aim of the
institutionalisation phase.
8.4.2 From Experience to Awareness
The institutionalisation phase begins with a calculation of the distances travelled in

the simulated trips. The figure below presents the results obtained by students.
Comparison of the various results obtained, produced a verdict of the winners:
here, the group from Paris. It also enabled an exploration of the strategies students
implemented, with some having introduced a constraint which was not initially
foreseen in the exercise: the budget. All students agreed that they did not have equal
opportunities from the beginning.
All students were obliged to go through an airport to get to Las Vegas, and most
had to make one or two stopovers. This was an opportunity for them to understand
that space is not smooth, and that to go from point A to point B on this planet, you
need to go through doors (ports and airports), which connect the local scale with the
international scale. On a European scale, these international airports are few in
number. CDG is one, as is demonstrated in the responses submitted by students, the
large majority of whom chose CDG as their departure airport, except when they
would have to make a stopover in Heathrow. The fact that they had to make a
stopover to get to Las Vegas emphasised the concept that this trip was truly on a
global scale. The city of Las Vegas is, in fact, mainly served by medium-haul
flights, and so any city in the world with similar characteristics could have been
chosen. And finally, the fact that Heathrow proposes a direct flight to Las Vegas
gave them additional information; it shows different airports have different flight
strategies and donot all provide flights to the same places. In the case of CDG and
Heathrow, the two airports have a concerted organisation for serving different
regions. In this way, students progressively explored the notions of a ‘hub’ (a word
borrowed from IT which, like a wire wheel (hub and spokes), is the central point in
a network) and more specifically, an airport hub, which enables medium-haul
flights to be replaced by fewer long-haul flights. The first conclusion drawn is that
space is organised in a very hierarchical and selective way, leading airports to
develop strategies in order to remain globally competitive. Consequently, CDG is
the second European airport, behind Heathrow, for passenger transport, the first
European airport for freight and the top-ranked French airport, with 180 flight
companies. CDG manages flows from all of France and neighbouring countries to
all over the world, as illustrated in Fig. 8.5.
Students also explored the notion of a multimodal platform by studying
Table 8.1. The notion of a ‘multimodal platform’ could seem redundant vis-à-vis
that of a ‘hub’ but it is nevertheless different. It describes a vast platform, com-
bining several modes of transport. Originally an airport, built in 1974, and initially
comprising one departure runway and a terminal, today it hosts four runways, two
control towers and three terminals. It furthermore has a high-speed train
(TGV) station, inaugurated in 1994, which means people can get to CDG airport
seamlessly from Marseille, Lille or Brussels. CDG, furthermore, has two TGV
stations and several parking lots. Merchandise is redirected via the freight zone.
These infrastructures, constantly developed, enable the platform to maintain its
position as a worldwide interface and to polarise flows on all levels, thereby
remaining competitive with the other large European airports of Heathrow,
Schiphol and Frankfurt am Main. To ensure students realise the diversity of these
infrastructures, the game varies players’ departure cities. Some depart from Paris
and are thus close to CDG airport; they nevertheless still have to choose the right
Fig. 8.5 CDG, an international hub

Table 8.1 Summary of results obtained by students during the race to Las Vegas—results
Handicap/ Journey Price Carbon Chosen itinerary
advantage length footprint
Fastest Departure: Paris, 13 h 27 m 1727 euros 3829 CDG airport, stopover
group free choice of tons of in Atlanta
itinerary CO2
Slowest Departure: Paris, 46 h 05 m 635.25 euros 5275 CDG airport, stopover
group penalty time -2 h tons of in Moscow then, New
CO2 York
Other Departure: 21 h 44 m 3738.38 euros 3799 Marseille station,
group Rodez, bonus tons of CDG airport,
time 2 h CO2 Philadelphia
Fig. 8.6 Roissy-CDG, a multimodal platform
mode of transport to get to CDG (for example, driving there by car in rush hour
could cause them to miss their plane). They must also ensure they allow plenty of
time in advance to go through customs. Other players will depart from a regional
city, such as Marseille or Lille. They can, therefore, get to CDG quickly via various
modes of transport: a medium-haul flight could seem to be the fastest way (although
you must allow the time it takes to get there, and ensure that you arrive in CDG and
not Orly). The TGV could be a shortcut, as long as it stops directly in CDG, as it
avoids a trip through Paris on public transport (Table 8.1 and Fig. 8.6).
Finally, analysing the table enables students to see the unequal access citizens
have to the various modes of transport and how well their regions are served in
terms of transport. Students leaving from Rodez, for example, had a serious
handicap. This opens up the question of isolation. Rodez is indeed on the outskirts
of the French transport system: while Rodez is geographically closer to Paris than
Marseille (as the crow flies, 502 km between Paris and Rodez, compared to 661 km
between Paris and Marseille), it is possible to get to Paris, and even CDG, from
Marseille in three hours by TGV, while from Rodez the train journey takes seven
hours, with a changeover in Brive. This evokes the notion of spatial inequalities:
indeed, could it be possible that all residents may not have the same access to
mobility? This question inspired a debate and was an opportunity for students to
explicitly recognise a dimension, which had nevertheless underpinned their anal-
ysis: that of land planning and development, along with the stakes involved and the
various stakeholders. The French State, as the mainland developer, must provide a
solution to a tricky equation, between the principle of regional equity, which
purports that every citizen should have equal access to mobility, the principle of
competitiveness, which, in the context of globalisation, means some points must be
reinforced, and the principle of the environment, which requires axes of commu-
nication to be balanced to avoid flows being concentrated on one axe alone. The
question of sustainable development arises. The longer the journey and the more
changeovers, the more polluting it is. Paradoxically, residents of the most isolated
regions are actually the worst polluters.
8.5 Assessing the Experiential Tool
The ‘Race to Las Vegas’ game aims to encourage students, using their informal
geography, to explore the various notions associated with formal geography, such
as multimodal platforms, hubs, and spatial inequality. The game also encourages
students to realise the various strategies and options available to a traveller
undertaking a simple journey, on several levels, introducing students to notions
explored in more depth in following lessons, e.g. land planning and development
and sustainable development. For students, a game like this is the opportunity to
explore living geography and its contributions to their lives as future citizens of the
world.
For the purpose of this chapter, it was deemed misleading to assess any potential
changes in behaviour of students on the question of mobility. Adopting an
eco-citizenship behaviour is an educational objective more than an operational
outcome from specific lessons. What was interesting, however, was to be able to
gauge to what extent students had managed to articulate their live experiences, and
what they had learned about CDG with the concepts and knowledge provided in the
lessons. To do this, they were assigned an essay to be marked. These papers were
analysed to gauge the success of the experiential learning tool. Analysis of these
papers led to the identification of four student profiles in the test class, which
comprised 32 students, all 17 years old, in a high school in the Parisian suburbs.
These four distinctive profiles are described as follows:
Category 1: Some students (5) had difficulties with the very subject of the essay. They did
not manage to organize their arguments and, while their work took the form of an essay
(with an introductory paragraph and two paragraphs to develop their argument), in the facts
presented, the presentation of arguments is very confused. The CDG example is a source of
similar confusion.
Category 2: Other students (11) were better able to organise an overall argument.
However, they had difficulty in integrating the example of CDG in their argument.
Consequently, CDG was discussed separately. It is an external element to the discussion,
which seems to be artificially stuck in the essay, without being related to the general idea it
is supposed to illustrate. In this way, A2 opens her first segment with: “CDG airport is an
international hub”. A long introduction to CDG ensues – ten lines -, over the course of
which the notions of hub and multimodal platforms are introduced and defined. CDG is
followed by another example, the port of le Havre, then by the Millau Viaduct. At no point
in this part did she mention the idea that she would like to promote it, with these examples.
Other copies present a diagram which closely represents the diagram developed in class. Of
the eight students chosen to present a diagram, four would be classed into this second
category.
Category 3: Students who articulated their idea with their lived experience belong to this
category (10). Herein, we find developments of CDG which closely match that described
above (introduction of the notions of hub and multimodal platform, one distinguished from
the other and defined, some alongside a diagram), but the example is integrated in their
argument with an introduction and conclusion phrase, which sometimes led to a second
example, generally that of le Havre. Both of these examples are used to support the idea of
competitiveness. Consequently, B began her segment as follows: “France is competitive on
a European and worldwide scale, its transport infrastructure links France, Europe and the
world. CDG is an international airport which is developing to meet European and inter-
national competition. It is both a hub and a multimodal platform”. They then develop their
argument for CDG, illustrated with a diagram (Fig. 8.7).
She concludes her segment as follows: “in this diagram, we have CDG, which is a hub, i.e.
a point where all communication media are concentrated. However, it has European
competition, but is currently ranked first for freight and second for passenger traffic,
competing closely with London and Amsterdam airports. CDG experiences saturation
problems and must continue to develop or find alternative solutions to keep its competitive
edge.”
Category 4: lastly, a final segment of the class (6) reversed the idea and the example, raised
at various stages of the argument, and supported their stance. Consequently, Q promotes
CDG using the argument of attractiveness: being a hub, he says, CDG is attractive: “For
example, if a plane flies to New York, the hub, CDG, will attract flyers from other countries
via medium-haul flights and will then direct them to another hub” To strengthen this
attractiveness, on all levels, various developments are undertaken: “To attract them, we will
create a multimodal platform. The idea is to combine several modes of transport to facilitate
access nationally (parking lots, a train station, tramway, main roads from LilleAnd con-
tinuing with the example of le Havre: “this idea of a hub equally applies to ports like Le
Havre which attract and redirect flows, and once merchandise arrives, it is redispatched via
various modes of transport using a multimodal platform” F cites the example of CDG three
times: to show that France boasts a position as a crossroads of communication in Europe
(hub), to show the developments undertaken around CDG to strengthen its competitiveness
(multimodal platform), and thirdly to validate position by comparing CDG with Le Havre.
Beyond these categories, shared aspects unite the students: all (except one)
discuss CDG in their essay, which substantiated their arguments, even if the way in
which they used it was sometimes clumsy. This shows that they succeeded in
conceptualising their experience. The obstacle students faced lay mainly in
2
To respect the anonymity of the students, we will designate them by letters. This and subsequent
intervention took place during the course of geography given by Sophie Gaujal, 9 janvier 2017.
Fig. 8.7 B’s diagram: CDG, an international hub
manipulating the notions of multimodal platform and hub (used by virtually all the
students), their definitions of which often resembled a direct quote from lessons and
sometimes presented an obstacle to reasoning. However, students did not use ‘the
race to Las Vegas’ in so many words when recounting their trip. The experience is
recounted in a roundabout way in some papers, like for M, who developed the
notion of fairness: ‘If a French person wants to go abroad via CDG airport and they
live in a small town, getting to CDG will cost them a lot more money, will take
them a lot more time and will generally be more difficult than for someone who
lives in Paris.’
To conclude, the case study on mobility, developed from a race in Las Vegas,
enables 4/5ths of students to understand the issues surrounding mobility on the
various levels of the scale and to articulate these, relating them to what they
experience in their personal trips. Experiential geography is an approach which
enables students to perceive the complexity of sustainable development issues
without falling into pitfalls of behaviourism or a simplistic vision of the phenomena
involved. The approach also gives meaning to what is being learned and encourages
students to appropriate the concepts and knowledge they acquire. Experiential
geography is thus a way of acquiring the knowledge needed to understand global
change. It is also a means of understanding the global reach of local actions. It is an
empowerment tool for training active and responsible citizens.
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Chapter 9
Geography Education, Transculturalism
and Global Understanding
Niranjan Casinader and Gillian Kidman
9.1 Introduction: Ill-Fitting Suits
Over the last decade, there has been increasing recognition in global educational
policy that a key facet of global understandings is its incorporation of and asso-
ciation with distinct cultural elements. There is an integration and recognition of
cultural education into both national and international policy directions and posi-
tions. In Europe, the Organisation for Co-operation in Economic Development has
instituted a policy of ‘Global competency for an inclusive world’ that has cultural
understandings and facility at its heart:
…young people need to collaborate with others from different disciplines and cultures…
Global competence includes the acquisition of in-depth knowledge and understanding of
global and intercultural issues; the ability to learn from and live with people from diverse
backgrounds; … cross-cultural engagement should balance clear communication with
sensitivity to multiple perspectives and that global competence should equip young people
not just to understand what act. (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
2016, p. 1)
The United Nations Educational Scientific And Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO) has developed a priority of Intercultural Competencies in education
(UNESCO 2006, 2013), and under what has become the global benchmark for
comparisons in national educational systems, the Program Of International Student
Achievement (PISA) is considering measuring ‘… how well pupils can navigate an
increasingly diverse world, with an awareness of different cultures and beliefs…’,
in response to the need for students to have certain competencies ‘… in a world
N. Casinader (&) G. Kidman

Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
e-mail: niranjan.casinader@monash.edu
G. Kidman
e-mail: gillian.kidman@monash.edu

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_9
114 N. Casinader and G. Kidman
where globalisation is a powerful economic, political and cultural force’ (Schleicher

2016). In Australia, the national curriculum that was introduced in 2010 includes
the mandatory teaching of Intercultural Understanding’ as a standard student
capability (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA]
2016a).
The difficulty with these statements of globalised connection, however, is that
they are, or are being, based on concepts of cultural understanding that are no
longer appropriate to the global context as it exists towards the end of the first
quarter of the twenty-first century (Casinader 2016). This disconnect will be dis-
cussed more deeply in Sect. 9.3 of this chapter, but in short, the prevailing notions
of multiculturalism and interculturalism were developed primarily at a time prior to
the onset of the current phase of globalisation. Under the principles of The
International Year of Global Understanding, a deeper consideration of societies and
cultures is essential to ‘…building the new social and political relationships that
cater for the emerging global reality’ (International Year for Global Understanding
2017). The trend of global events in 2015–17 has been characterised by the rise of
strongly nationalist, exclusionary and culturally intolerant factions in places as
widely separated as the USA, Europe and Russia. As a result, the imperative to
reconfigure notions of global and cultural understanding has become even more
heightened and significant as certain sociopolitical elements try to redefine the
world in terms of past glories of fractured nationalism, and not the existing,
embedded reality of ingrained interdependence of societies around the world.
If ‘global problems require sustainable solutions’ (International Year for Global
Understanding 2017), then it becomes necessary to formulate an approach to cul-
tural education that offers hope and a form of understanding that reflects the global
interactions and relationships of the twenty-first century, and not the last decades of
the 20th millennium. The conception of terms such as intercultural understanding,
or even multicultural understanding as it is still used in some parts of the world (for
example, in the USA), arose out of the state of global affairs that existed prior to the
contemporary age of globalisation, a period that is generally perceived to have
begun in the early 1990s. In essence, it can be argued that modern globalisation is
characterised umbilically to the development and implementation of the Internet as
a universal tool of communication.
The intent of this chapter is to suggest that a more sustainable form of global
understanding needs to incorporate a form of cultural education that is based on the
idea of transculturalism, rather than the more simplistic concepts of multicultur-
alism and interculturalism that have prevailed to date (Casinader 2016, 2017). It
further argues that geographical inquiry education provides an ideal forum and
content for the development of that transcultural understanding. We will begin by
discussing the relationship between global and cultural understandings, before
looking more closely at the notion of transculturalism and how it differs in concept
and scope from multiculturalism and interculturalism. The chapter will then con-
clude by examining the relationship of transculturalism to geographical inquiry.
9 Geography Education, Transculturalism and Global Understanding 115
9.2 Global Understanding and Cultural Capacity:

A Review
For many scholars in the field, globalisation as it is perceived now, began in the late
1990s, and is primarily considered to be a multifaceted phenomenon (Eckersley
2007; Rizvi 2000), a reality that has been reflected in some of its most significant
social, political and cultural ramifications that have been in stark focus over the last
3 years. The BREXIT vote in the United Kingdom, the election of the Trump
administration in the USA and the rise of ultra-conservative forces in Germany,
Belgium, Russia, Turkey and the Philippines, all of whom have used a countering
of modern globalisation as part of their raison d’être, are all powerful reminders
that globalisation is far more than just an approach to global economics. More than
anything, however, events such as these, which, on the surface, appear to be a sign
of a retreat from internationalist thinking, only strengthen the call and rationale for a
more embedded global understanding in populations around the world.
In many ways, globalisation is not a new phenomenon. Contrary to the largely
Western-centric writings surrounding global development patterns in the latter half
of the twentieth century, such as dependency theory (for example, Frank 1969; and
Raul Prebisch, as cited in Brookfield 1975) and Wallerstein’s world-system model
(Wallerstein 1974), all historical periods have been characterised by the develop-
ment of more complex webs of interaction between peoples and places to some
extent, with some periods of change being more catalytic than others. The growth of
the Ancient Roman Empire, the expansion of the lands ruled by Genghis Khan or
the European-dominated colonial period between the sixteenth and nineteenth
centuries, were all facilitated by technological developments in communications
technology. In particular, innovations that have enabled people to move around the
globe more readily, more accessibly and with greater ease have been instrumental in
creating more frequent possibilities for the interaction for a greater number of
people across a larger number of places around the world.
Where the modern substantiation of globalisation differs, however, has been its
influence on the scale of demographic behaviour and actions across the previous
barrier of geographical distance. The ability of, and the practicability for, people to
move across large parts of the Earth’s surface is now matched by the greater
multitude of factors that encourage and facilitate that movement, both voluntary and
forced. This phenomenon has been, for many, even more dominant within the last
30 years of global history. Travel that once took several months by sea can now be
taken over several hours by air, and at a reduced cost, so low in relative terms, that
long-distance travel is now within the financial reach of more people than ever
before. Transport technologies mean that people resident in one country can go and
work and live temporarily (or permanently) within another. All the multifarious
modes of contemporary media and their associative networks, both corporate and
personal, mean that knowledge about what is, and has, occurred in other parts of the
world has become more immediate and intensely reactive. Global migrations,
whether temporary or permanent, have become an established feature of
twenty-first-century life on a planetary scale, and not just confined to a few

countries whose populations might have been perceived previously as being more
economically advantaged. Global mobility is now an established norm of everyday
life to the point that it has become perhaps the ultimate definer of what it means to
be global in the twenty-first century.
In short, the possibilities for people to be both aware of how others live in
different parts of the world, and the potential for them to be in more frequent
contact, are now givens in everyday life, no longer in the realms of fantasy.
Meetings of peoples and/or cultures that were once idiosyncrasy or a rare event
have now become commonplace; the separation between peoples and their ideas in
the one part of the world with those of others in different locations sometimes
becomes so minimal as to be non-existent. The propensity and opportunity for
cultural interaction between peoples, whether face to face or through electronic
means, has equally become an established feature of modern existence. Regardless
of the current trend in some parts of the world, which is characterised by the
particular global perspective of the alt-right (or should that be, the non-global
perspective), and a partial Canute-like retreat to within the perceived walls of life of
protectionist nationalism, this heightened opportunity and propensity for cultural
meeting and mixing will remain on the agenda. Nonetheless, the development of
global understandings through education is in such a state of constant flux that it
requires a new approach, one that needs to be based on concepts of cultural rela-
tions that are more relevant to the current and future global morass than those that
currently in play.
9.3 Transculturalism: A New Building Block for Global

Understanding
The current formulations of cultural knowledge and understanding, together with

their educational equivalents, were derived from attitudes to and about culture that
were initially developed in the 1960s and then later formulated more clearly in the
1970s and 1980s. It is not appropriate within the context of this particular work to
detail the full history of these changes (for a more detailed account, see Casinader
2016), but a short summary is necessary to provide the required context. The three
decades after World War I were characterised by an evolutionary worldwide
response to the common wish to avoid future occurrences of large-scale conflict,
symbolised and actualised by the formulation of global bodies such as the United
Nations and its constituent agencies. Aided by the simultaneous period of
decolonisation, which saw countries in regions such as Africa, Asia and South
America take their position in global affairs as independent States, there was also an
impact on the long term of changing conceptions and attitudes towards cultures
other than that evident in the Anglo-dominated former colonial powers.
As outlined elsewhere (Casinader 2014, 2015), one of the most significant,

long-term impacts of the creation of this period of internationalism, as a precursor
to globalisation in the 1990s, and the measures in international education that
emerged from that, was a growing interest and awareness by the ‘so-called’
developed countries about different parts of the world, and in particular, the ways in
which other people lived; in the conceptual vernacular of the day, different cultures.
This focus in knowledge about other countries was, in essence, the genesis for the
concept of multiculturalism as it emerged in the 1970s, later to be reinforced and
extended through the concept of interculturalism. Although the terms are often
incorrectly considered to be interchangeable, multiculturalism is generally seen as
developing a knowledge of individual cultures within a society (Casinader 2016).
Interculturalism, on the other hand, is not only concerned with developing a better
understanding of cultures through communication, but also with the importance of
developing individual agency in order to address any imbalances in existence and
power (Casinader 2016). Interculturalism therefore is an extension of, or a stage
beyond, multiculturalism.
The value of having a society that was composed of different cultures, all distinct
in their own way, was itself a reinforcement of the ideals of internationalism that
resulted from the aftermath of the destruction of World War II. It was also, argu-
ably, an outcome of a global society that, whilst becoming increasingly integrated
economically and politically, the world was still awaiting the more dramatic social
changes that would eventuate with pronounced global mobility on the part of
individuals. Migration was, by and large, more likely to be permanent, with less
likelihood of people returning to places of origin. Multiculturalism represented a
recognition and toleration of difference, but not necessarily an acceptance of dif-
ference (Casinader 2016, 2017).
The shift towards intercultural behaviour and education as being more appro-
priate for the needs of society began to occur in the late 1970s, particularly in
Europe. The existence of cultural differences was seen to be hindering social
cohesion, and it became apparent that more was needed than just ‘knowing’ the
facts about a culture. It was recognised that the ability of people to engage with
others from outside their cultural milieu, and to understand different cultural per-
spectives, as opposed to just knowing about them, was key to generating a society
that was proactive in its efforts to unite people from different cultures on the one
common set of citizenship goals. This is not to say, however, that these interpre-
tations are part of a universal movement. In North America, multiculturalism
expanded its scope to include all matters of demographic diversity, including
gender and sexuality, as well as physical and psychological disabilities. In Europe,
the intellectual shift to intercultural as a base for thinking was more uniform and
much deeper. In Australia, however, the terms have continued to be used without
any apparent concern or consideration of what they might actually mean. Although
the Australian Curriculum incorporates Intercultural Understanding as an element,
all the State and Territory governments have a department or government authority
charged with promoting multiculturalism as a feature of Australian life; the dif-
ference may be small, but the implications are extensive.
Both multiculturalism and interculturalism, however, were constructed as con-

cepts before the main onset of contemporary globalisation in the mid-late 1990s.
The rapidity and frequency of communications across all technologies, including
transport, and the dramatic changes in global workforce structures that opened up
opportunities for employment that went beyond national borders and large scale,
altered the ground conditions of human interaction in ways that were often vastly
different to what had gone before. The enhanced conditions for individual global
mobility have created a much more diffuse and sophisticated network of cultural
connections between places, often of a much shorter time span that had previously
been the case. The rapidity of these continuous shifts and meetings of cultures have
created other issues, such as those of a more amorphous or hybrid sense of cultural
identity (Casinader 2016, 2017) in those whose lives had been either modified or,
indeed, created by the frequency and intensity of cultural contact and living. In
consequence, just as intercultural thinking was built on the foundation established
by multicultural approaches, it is now time for a further evolution in the learning of
cultural understanding to meet the more complex and interwoven pattern of social,
economic and political patterns of meeting and integration that currently charac-
terise global society. Without such a shift, attempts to develop global understanding
through education will not be sustainable, regardless of what measures might be
employed, any successes in reconfiguring old attitudes will only remain effective in
the short term, because past and current approaches are based on geographically
defined divisions of culture that are becoming less and less valid in the interactive
and mobile society of the twenty-first century.
Alongside these aspects of global mobility, there has been a shift in the con-
ception of culture itself. Up to the final years of the twentieth century, the successful
dominance of Europe and North America in the economic and political global
landscape, characterised by a liberal industrialisation strategy based on free trade,
regional and international free trade agreements, encouraged the continuance of
Western forms of societal development through their adoption by other sovereign
States. The perceived success and effectiveness of the Euro-American form of
development as part of the era of modern globalisation played a large part in the
adoption of similar strategies by previously industrially less-developed countries.
By the early years of the 2000s, however, the growth of new economic power-
houses such as China, India, the Republic of South Korea, Brazil and Mexico, saw
them, as governments and national populations, gain a greater degree of
self-confidence in the way in which they had been able to renew their
socio-economic systems to meet their needs as a modern sovereign State.
Previously, and in the main, to date, the dominant construction of culture has been
primarily an ethnographic summary of the way in which a particular group of
people lived, and as represented by artefacts such as language, religion, art and so
on (Casinader 2016, 2017). The dominance of Euro-American approaches to the
political and economic governance of society was also reflected in the discourse
around the skill of problem solving, which generally supported a paradoxical belief
that inquiry-based skills such as critical thinking were founded in Western culture,
but that, at the same time, the mental processes of critical and creative thinking did
not alter with cultural background; it could therefore be discounted as a factor in

influencing how people thought critically (Casinader 2014).
The first two decades of the twenty-first century have seen an increased ques-
tioning of this Western-centric monopolisation of thinking being unrelated to cul-
ture, particularly from researchers outside the North American sphere. (Casinader
2014; Dahl 2010; Kumar 2013) Instead, it is argued that culture can be primarily
seen as being more a state of mind (Bhabha 1994), rather than being primarily
symbolised by an array of visible representations of that way of life, as encapsulated
in the ethnographic conception of culture. The reconfiguration of culture as being
the substantiation of an attitude to life, rather than being defined and characterised
by visible and physical attributes or artefacts, has the advantage of taking away the
use of outward appearance in either skin colour or bodily features as a definer of
identity. In doing so, it also negates the value and relevance of using such differ-
entiators as a base for educational programmes about cultural understanding. In this
way, the superficial is diminished in focus, and cultural education based on tran-
scultural concepts that de-emphasise the outward appearances or more visible
characteristics of culture has a greater potential to be sustainable and effective.
The major advantage of shifting towards using transcultural ways of thinking as
a basis for global understanding is that it is inherently transformative. To be
transcultural is to see a change in attitude towards cultural difference, and not just in
behaviour, as part of which cultural diversity is accepted as the normative state in
global society, not as an exception that needs to be addressed. By approaching the
existence of multiple cultures as the main characteristic, and therefore the norm, of
global society in the twenty-first century, cultural education can be more directed at
looking at the positive implications of such a situation, rather than assuming that the
existence of difference creates an issue to be resolved. This is not to say, either, that
multicultural and intercultural ways of thinking are so obsolete that they need to be
discarded. They are, in fact, the building blocks on which transcultural ways of
thinking must develop. Knowledge about different cultures, and the ability to
engage with and communicate with people of different cultures, are preconditions
for a transcultural perspective. The development of transcultural attitudes is not,
however, a matter of acquiring a competency by completing benchmarks. Recent
studies (Casinader in press, 2018; Casinader and Clemans in press, 2018) that have
focused on the transcultural capacity of school teachers, both preservice and in
schools, have indicated that the accumulation of a number of globalising experi-
ences within an individual’s personal and professional life has a major influence on
the degree of transculturalism that they acquire. In this context, ‘globalising
experiences’ are broadly defined as any form of deep engagement with cultures and/
or living environments that differ radically from that at that point of origin or
residence. Whilst overseas travel that embeds the person’s experience within the
local environment is one of the more common and obvious ways which this
capacity can be developed, being exposed to a variety of challenging environments
within one’s own region or country can also have the same impact. For instance, in
a study that involved an investigation into the transcultural capacity of South
African teachers, one of the most transculturally aware individuals was an African
Xhosa teacher who had lived and worked across many parts of South Africa to the
point that he was fluent in all the 11 official languages (Casinader 2014).
Consequently, unlike multiculturalism and interculturalism, transculturalism not
only acknowledges the existence of varying cultures, but focuses on the points of
connection between them rather than their points of difference. Unlike its prede-
cessors, transculturalism perceives difference—not homogeneity—as the natural
state of a global society. It is primarily an attitudinal change that is built on the
sequential, developed acquisition of multi- and intercultural understandings. As
such, it encapsulates the stage of cultural understanding beyond interculturalism,
founded on the reality that the current demographic, and therefore cultural, fluidity
of global society will inevitably continue; globalisation is not a reversible process.
It accepts, acknowledges and accommodates the rapidity of current and future
demographic cultural changes and exchanges on a global scale. The global
understanding that can be built on the concept of transcultural thinking will
therefore be more sustainable and usable within the context of world society in the
second quarter of the twenty-first century.
9.4 Geographical Inquiry: A Vehicle for Global

Understanding in a Transcultural Context
As a discipline, geography is ideally suited to generating the development of global

understanding within young people through a transcultural lens. There are three
interrelated reasons for this: first, the transformative nature of the process of geo-
graphical inquiry in its most fundamental form; second, the nature of geography as
a discipline, with its dual Science-Humanities focus built on the interactions
between people and the environment; and third, its conceptual focus that includes
an integral sense of place and scale. An inclusive conceptual frame such as this
permits the progressive building of the elements of transculturalism in different
contexts, moving from the local to the global. It is embedded in the geographical
form of inquiry-based learning, making it best placed to build in the possibility of
students experiencing globalising learning experiences, and thus encouraging the
development of their own transcultural capacities.
Educationally, inquiry-based learning, on a cross-disciplinary basis, can be said
to form an investigation. However, contrary to the assumptions made by many
school educators, the nature of the inquiry process varies substantially with the
disciplines. A failure to understand the nature of the differences, and to take these
into account when constructing geographical inquiry-based learning experiences,
tends to lead to inconclusive educational outcomes on the part of the students, and
ill judgements being made as to the value of inquiry-based learning itself. The
power of inquiry-based learning lies in the development of skills in student-directed
investigations by the student learning to pose questions, not by the teacher asking
the questions of the students; in other words, in the students’ acquisition of inquiry
literacy.
We define the term inquiry literacy (as first suggested by Shore et al. 2009) to be
a person’s ability to understand and use the language, symbols and skills of inquiry,
as well as being able to reflect upon their meaning. Note that we do not specify ‘the
student’s ability’; rather we stipulate ‘a person’s ability’, as we include both the
student and the teacher as developing inquiry literacy. The inquiry literacy level of
the teacher is critical to the success of developing the student’s inquiry literacy. As
outlined in Kidman and Casinader (2017), inquiry literacy can be domain-general
as well as discipline-specific. Since inquiry literacy is not generic, it is not auto-
matic that an individual who has developed discipline-specific inquiry literacy in
one discipline is able to transfer that capacity into a different context without
specific professional learning. However, teachers who do undertake such study, and
therefore develop inquiry literacy in multiple disciplines—the result of
cross-disciplinary learning—are arguably more likely to be transcultural in their
attitudes and approaches to teaching, as they are more likely to have developed an
understanding of difference as being natural and expected, a key aspect of the
transcultural concept. In other words, they do not make the fundamental error of
assuming that inquiry literacies are automatically the same; instead, their first
instinct is the opposite, that it is more natural that inquiry literacies are likely to be
different.
Three basic forms of inquiry in the educational setting can be seen in the
disciplines of Science, Geography and History. As embodied by the approaches
taken to the inquiry strands embedded in the Australian Curriculum, the key dif-
ference between these three lies in the scope and purpose of the investigation, and
the part that evaluation plays in that process (Kidman and Casinader 2017). On the
one hand, scientific inquiry is more often characterised by experimental testing in
laboratory conditions, focused on particular hypotheses or scientific ideas that are
being tested. In some of its specialist sub-disciplines, such as Earth Sciences,
Science can extend this process into the field, whilst still maintaining its disci-
plinary methods. Evaluation in this context is concerned almost solely with the
validity and accuracy of the data, and the evidence that it provides (or not) in
relation to the conjecture being tested.
In historical inquiry, on the other hand, the focus of inquiry is on understanding
the perspectives presented by the different items of historical data (evidence) that
are under study. Evaluation is a term not usually employed in an historical context,
as the purpose of assessing the evidence is built around determining the relative
value of one particular piece of evidence in relation to another. The degree of
accuracy or validity of any item of evidence depends upon the part that it plays in
the interpretations that are developed by the historical investigator in an attempt to
understand the implications of the evidence presented. The scope of evaluation in
History is, therefore, in a state of fluidity; the discovery of new pieces of evidence
has the power to change the interpretation or validation of the data presented,
whereas in science, the evaluation is singularly attributable to the experiment that
has been conducted on the evidence presented. Science relies on evidence in ways
that an historical inquiry does not. History is permitted to be far more subjective
and not to rely entirely on empirical data, where Science does not allow such
liberties.
What makes geographical inquiry (see Fig. 9.1) so different and powerful as a
transformative agent, however, is its focus on the entirety of information gathered
from a particular place or places in relation to a specific investigation. Geographical
investigations, although they are defined by a particular aim or goal, are not con-
fined to the restriction placed upon them by the experimental methods employed in
scientific inquiry. Whereas field investigations that gather information from the site
in a geographical holistic approach are not necessarily seen as scientific inquiry—in
which empirical detail is demanded—fieldwork that responds to all the physical and
human elements within this particular study area is not only encouraged in geo-
graphical inquiry, but demanded by it. Evaluation in a geographical sense is con-
tinuous on the one hand, as it does not just involve the same evaluation of data
validity and reliability that is considered in both Science and History. What makes
the process of geographical inquiry so different is that it concludes with an eval-
uation of the implications of the investigation; that is, it demands an assessment of
what the findings of the investigation might mean for both the physical and human
Fig. 9.1 The sequence of geographical inquiry in the Australian curriculum

environment, as well as recommendation for plans of action according to the cir-

cumstances. In this sense, geographical inquiry is inherently transformational, built
into the process of geographical inquiry as the natural endpoint, challenging the
attitudes held by the investigators and those to whom they report. It is these aspects
that have much in common with the transcultural emphasis on looking beyond
difference. Global understandings are, in effect, generated by the inbuilt geo-
graphical response of an evaluative prediction.
The other advantage that geographical inquiry offers to the development of a
transcultural understanding is the discipline’s focus on place and its relationship to
the concept of scale. Geographical disciplinary knowledge encompasses a combi-
nation of the interactions between the physical and human environments, and these
can be investigated on a variety of scales ranging from the local, through the
regional and national, to the global. The basic techniques and sequences of inquiry
do not alter between different scales, and this allows geographical educators to plan
and incorporate learning experiences within an overall inquiry-based learning
program, enabling students to experience globalising experiences at local, regional
and global scales (see Fig. 9.2).
Progressively, over time, they develop their sequential understanding of first,
multiculturalism, and second, interculturalism. Finally, they then learn how these
concepts transition into a transcultural sensibility, aided by their engagement with
transcultural elements of thinking that has been built into their prior range of
learning experiences in a variety of contexts.
Fig. 9.2 Geographical

Inquiry with a transcultural
lens
9.5 Case Study: Transcultural Global Understanding

in Practice
One possible way to illustrate how this transcultural foundation to global under-
standings in a geographical inquiry context might be translated into a practical
school learning program is through a case study of a government primary school
located on the outer edges of Melbourne, the capital city of the State of Victoria in
Australia. To enable the richness of the implementation in this case study to become
better understood, it is necessary to provide a contextual background to the case.
Educational practices in Victoria, Australia differ considerably to many locales
internationally, so a short contextual outline is necessary for pre-understanding.
The context: Outer Woods Primary School (a pseudonym) is a rarity in the sense
that it is a public school that is a member of the Council of International Schools,
which globally tends to be dominated by independent or private institutions. The
teaching of global understanding is the part of the intellectual base of schools in this
association. In this case, it is the Principal who has been the driving force, sup-
ported by a leadership learning team that is determined to broaden the under-
standings of the children in their care beyond that of their local environment, which
is essentially Anglo-Australian, and not as representative of the overall multicul-
tural mix of the Australian population that might be found elsewhere. Melbourne,
the city where this school is based, is Australia’s most culturally diverse city, yet
Outer Woods Primary School is quite monocultural in its student composition,
being largely Anglo-Australian.
Inquiry-based practices: Outer Woods Primary School has developed a whole
school inquiry-based teaching and learning approach, in which there is a specific
emphasis on the coordinated use of an inquiry pedagogy across all the learning
areas (subjects) in each year level. An Inquiry Learning Committee, composed of
teachers from all the learning areas, meets regularly to coordinate the teaching
program across all levels. At the beginning of the school year, this Committee
decides on the specific themes and topics of inquiry that will be emphasised at
specific levels, which are based on the detailed specifications within the Victorian
Curriculum itself. For example, the 2017 inquiry curriculum (see Fig. 9.3) specified
the theme of ‘My Community, Our Community’ in Grade F-2, and ‘Australia as a
Nation’ in Grades 5–6. This school-based inquiry curriculum was also integrated
into the Global Education Program, principally with the incorporation of their
designated inquiry themes for each year level.
The Global Education Program: Working with one of the authors as a con-
sultant, the school has constructed and instituted a whole school global education
program based on transcultural lenses, the goal of which is to develop global
understandings amongst the students throughout the seven years that they will
spend in the school. The program was developed at the end of 2016 and is being
implemented for the first time in 2017. As illustrated in Fig. 9.3, the program
comprises three stages: Years F-2, which are focusing on multicultural under-
standings; Years 3–4, which build that prior work into intercultural understandings;
Fig. 9.3 Global education program at outer woods primary school: 2017
and Years 5–6, which have the intention of seeing the transition into a transcultural
understanding that has a global context.
The program has to operate within certain parameters, both financial and policy
related. The school does not have the financial resources of most independent
schools, and therefore its ability to take students away from the school environment
to undertake fieldwork has to be carefully monitored. However, the commitment by
the Principal to the Program is such that it has been allocated a substantial amount
of funding in terms of the overall school budget. The school is also required to meet
the requirements of the State’s Victorian Curriculum, which includes mandated
learning of an Intercultural Capability.
It should be noted here that it can be argued that being located in the State of
Victoria, and not in other States of Australia, provides the school with significant
advantages in implementing a global education program that is based on tran-
sculturalism and an emphasis, albeit less explicit, on geographical principles of
inquiry. Under the Australian Constitution, the delivery of education is a State
responsibility. National initiatives such as the introduction of the Australian
Curriculum require, therefore, the agreement of the six State administrations at each
stage of implementation. In the case of the Australian Curriculum, the States
retained the right to make certain modifications, if they desired, to the national
documents. In the case of Victoria, one of the key differences in the ‘Victorian
Curriculum’ was the direction that Geography and History were to be taught as
separate disciplines in the primary years. In the Australian Curriculum, these dis-
ciplines are taught (in the curriculum documents at least) as an integrated
Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS) subject, with its own integrated set of
HASS inquiry skills. The State policy of maintaining disciplinary integrity means
that the set of geographical inquiry skills from Years 7 to 10 (as in Fig. 9.1) can be
used as a base for the Global Education Program, with other sets of inquiry skills in
disciplines such as History being integrated as needed.
Within the Global Education Program, each class group within the school has
one period each week, taught by one of two Global Education Program teachers.
Students will spend 2–3 years in each of the program stages. Each stage has been
designed to include as many globalising activities as possible, both internal and
external, that the budget allows. These activities are designed to build the particular
cultural understanding applicable to each stage, with the long term of a transcultural
global understanding always in mind. What is particularly pertinent to this dis-
cussion, however, is the developmental structure of the Program in relation to
geographical inquiry. Each of the stages focuses on learning experiences at different
scales, beginning with the local (Stage 1: Years F-2), moving through the regional
(Years 3 and 4), and ending with the global (Years 5 and 6). It should be noted here
that the progressive development of geographical understanding built on different
scales, moving from the local, through the regional and/or national to the global,
has been an established conceptual foundation in Australian school geography for
over forty years. It is specified within the Geography design in the Australian
Curriculum (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority
[ACARA] 2016b). The Global Education Program at Outer Woods Primary School
is therefore following established principles in Australian geographical education.
The experiential activities are predominantly geographical in character, partic-
ularly in their acceptance of the interactions between the physical and human
environment. The culminating activity, a United Nations conference, is essentially a
problem-solving activity that requires evaluation and prediction of a desired future
following an inquiry-based investigation. In one sense, it has been designed as a
possible vehicle for the assessment of an individual’s transcultural global under-
standing, and at the time of writing, long-term discussions are in progress at the
school as to how this assessment might be undertaken and reported.
Integrating inquiry and transformative transcultural thinking. The most sig-
nificant aspect of this three-part, staged development of student cognitive abilities,
however, is the progressive use of the inquiry method within a fundamentally geo-
graphical context to encourage the growth and development of transformative,
transcultural thinking in students. The purpose of education, and therefore of
learning, has been long established as being one that is founded on the development
of student abilities in the transfer ability of concepts and skills from one context to
another. David Perkins (1992) argued that there are three main goals and education:
the retention of knowledge, the understanding of knowledge and the active use of
knowledge. More recently, these can be compared to John Hattie’s three worlds of
education: the acquisition of information, the development of deep understanding
and thinking skills, and what he refers to as a ‘… balance of surface and deep learning
leading to students more successfully constructing defensible theories of knowing
and reality.’ (Hattie 2009, p. 28) In other words, the purpose of learning is to develop
transformative thinking, and the global education program at Outer Woods Primary
School sets out to achieve that goal through a transcultural inquiry lens.
Such a goal in transformative thinking is reflected in another key aspect of the

Global Education Program (GEP); the school’s incorporation of its participation in
the Australian branch of the International Future Problem Solving (FPS) Program—
indicated in Fig. 9.3 through the use of the FPS acronym (Future Problem Solving
Program Australia 2017)—into the GEP. This global learning program, the central
office of which is in Florida, USA, involves schools registering individuals or teams
of students in a variety of learning options, all designed to ‘…develop the ability of
young people globally to design and promote positive futures through problem
solving using critical and creative thinking.’ (Future Problem Solving Program
International 2017). Catering for students throughout all levels of primary and
secondary schooling, the FPS Program, which is geared entirely around the prin-
ciple of student-centred inquiry learning in the ways its six-step process is applied
in various learning contexts, focuses on the encouragement of thinking that is not
possible ‘in the now’. It is therefore inherently transformative in its intentions, and
ideally situated to support a global education program such as that implemented at
Outer Woods Primary School.
9.6 Conclusion
The use of a transcultural perspective in a geographical education, framed through

the process of geographical inquiry, provides an effective, practical means of
conveying several of the key messages of the IYGU. As exemplified by the Global
Education Program (GEP) at Outer Woods primary School, such an approach
highlights the ‘…[l]inking [of] the global and the local…’ (International Year for
Global Understanding 2017), employing the geographical concept of scale to
demonstrate to children how changes at the global level are often dependent on
human actions at the community level. Such linkages are even more important in
achieving sustainable global change in cultural understanding, and the adoption of a
transcultural lens in geographic education embodies these viability and essentiality
of these connections. The GEP at Outer Woods Primary School provides a practical
substantiation of how transcultural approaches to global understanding can be
employed within a geographical inquiry context to create a learning program that
emphasises a global understanding that will be based on future realities, and not
those of the past.
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Part III
Global Understanding in Geography
Education Around the World
Chapter 10
Perspectives on Global Understanding
in Ibero-American Countries
Fabián Araya Palacios, Xosé Manuel Souto González

and Sérgio Claudino
10.1 Introduction
To teach global understanding through geography is a complex phenomenon that

poses a challenge in the Ibero-American context. This can be seen in the various
learning innovation networks that will be discussed in this article, which seek
global understanding from a spatial perspective. First, the concept of
“Ibero-American community” and its particular vision of the world is studied from
a territorial perspective. Then, the authors discuss different geographical education
proposals for global understanding suggested by public administrations, processes
of the institutionalization of education in Chile, Spain, and Portugal. Lastly, several
alternatives for global understanding suggested by teachers and students are pre-
sented. To do so, examples from the following networks are used: Geoforo,
Redladgeo y NósPropomos!. Each one of them contributes with the analysis and
understanding of notable social and environmental problems of the educational and
academic communities of the geographical Ibero-American space.
F. A. Palacios (&)
Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences,
The University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
e-mail: faraya@userena.cl
X. M. S. González
Department of Education in Social Sciences, Faculty of Education,
The University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
e-mail: xose.manuel.souto@uv.es
S. Claudino
Center of Geographical Studies, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning,
the University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: sergio@campus.ul.pt

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_10
132 F. A. Palacios et al.
10.2 The Ibero-American Community and Global

Understanding
The Ibero-American identity is a very complex issue, as it is influenced by a historic

process that resulted in the appearance of a group of state-nations during the nine-
teenth and twentieth centuries. In this process, teaching geography had great
importance in legitimizing both the identity and the borders of a territory (Claudino
2009). It also had an influence on the consolidation of certain features of the
humanization of nature which are represented in national symbols. Some commu-
nities from southern and central America have put forward several education pro-
posals that have had international resonance. Two examples are Paulo Freire and
Milton Santos, two leading figures that will be of interest to anyone researching how
to combine geography and education in critical citizenship education proposals.
In this social representation of the territory, some images will refer to a supra-
national scale, but they also reflect the diversity of the projects of the citizens who
reside in said territory. In some cases, seeking to be an opponent of the United
States (the Latin American case); in other cases, of an ideological vindication (the
Bolivarian movement) or a geo-economics project (Mercosur). This process was
similar to that of Europe during the creation of the European Union, as EU insti-
tutions aimed to create a system in which the supranational identity had more
weight than the nation-state identity (Claudino 2000); and especially, than the
small-scale nationalisms: the communities that did not reach a state status. These
are territorial problems that imply political attitudes and notions that affect the
teaching of geography and citizens’ demands.
This recalls the narrow connection between geography teaching and state
institutionalization (Sanguin 1981; Souto and Ramiro 2000). Some have tried to
simplify this combination of complex connections to favor identity vindications
based in territorial or language matters or ancient customs. Other processes based
on different kinds of behaviors and analysis focused on geographical practice have
emerged as a response to the institutionalized strategies to create territorial iden-
tities. What concerns us are the subjects who have a specific role in educational
communities. To ascertain individuals’ and communities’ views on a certain subject
is quite complex. Therefore, we have decided to cultivate dialogical analysis to
create arguments. Said argumentation can lead both to agreement and conflict, as
geography must educate in both senses.
10.3 Geographical Education Proposals for Global

Understanding on the Part of Public Administrations
Public administrations have used geography teaching as a tool to create or to

consolidate an identity feeling in respect of a certain territory. This becomes
apparent when examining school curricula, especially when it comes to the
10 Perspectives on Global Understanding in Ibero-American Countries 133
geographic study of the territory where said administration is located. The Spanish
case is paradigmatic: the 17 communities, created during the political transition
from Franco’s dictatorship to a constitutional democracy, soon tried to legitimize
their territorial dominancy through regional or national geography research,
depending on each of the dominating groups’ identities during this process.
10.3.1 The Historic Process of School Institutionalization
Through time, political administrations have channeled the demands of local,

regional, and state level power of the dominant groups. This phenomenon also takes
place at a supranational level, as we can see in Spain’s and Portugal’s choice of
geographical content in respect to the European Union. Also, at other moments in
history, the teaching of geography was not so significant in elementary education,
because it was reserved for the elite classes who were meant to lead the country.
This becomes obvious in the Spanish case: during the nineteenth century, geog-
raphy was exclusively taught during the last phase of elementary education.
According to a report written by the legislative power, the popular classes did not
require this knowledge (Souto 2014). During the same period, in Portugal, the
colonial empire promotes the idea of the metropolis as the generator of speech in
schools that entitles the possession of external territories: a way of creating a
geographical conscience in the public opinion through the teacher’s oral instruction
and textbooks.
What can be appreciated in Spain and other countries is that the change in the
teaching of geography is due to both educational pressure (new education
approaches) and social pressure (the need for a subject that legitimizes the expla-
nation and the understanding of the country into which the elementary students will
integrate). The evolution of geography teaching is mainly determined by the ide-
ology of the ruling classes and their politic power on the country’s future. This
phenomenon became clear during twentieth-century dictatorships (Franco in Spain,
Salazar in Portugal, Getulio Vargas in Brazil), where there were several attempts to
give value to geography teaching to improve the understanding of the essence of
their homeland.
This state of affairs that influences the configuration of the social image of a
territory will determine the presence of geography in the curriculum. The admin-
istrative structure of geography teaching varies depending on the country. As it can
be seen in Table 10.1, there is a certain similarity in the disposition of the different
stages of childhood and elementary education, whereas the differences increase in
the organization of secondary education. In addition, as it can be observed, the
teaching of this subject is done independently in the case of Brazil or Portugal,
countries in which the unity of a vast continental territory or a colonial empire
predetermines the teaching of geography (Albuquerque 2011; Claudino 2001). In
other countries, geography is integrated in the social sciences field, usually paired
with history.
Table 10.1 Organization of geography in the school system depending on the age of the students
in each school year
Childhood Elementary Secondary Secondary education
education education education (12–16) (non-compulsory)
Spain Ages from Ages from 6 to 11. Ages from 12 to Baccalaureate (ages
0 to 5 Social Sciences 16. Geography and from 16 to 18) and
(inclusive) History Educational Cycles
(ages from 16 to 20).
Geography in the last
year of Baccalaureate
Colombia Ages from Ages from 6 to 10. Ages from 11 to Ages from 15 to 17/
0 to 5 Basic primary, Social 14. 18: Intermediate
Sciences Secondary Technic, Social
Education, Social Sciences, Geography
Sciences and History
Brazil Ages from Ages from 6 to 10. Ages from 11 to Ages from 15 to 17.
0 to 5 Elementary 14. Elementary Secondary Education.
Education I. Education II. Geography
Geography Geography
Portugal Ages from Ages from 6 to 12. Ages from 12 to Ages from 15 to 18.
0 to 5 1st and 2nd cycle of 15. 3rd cycle of Secondary Education.
Elementary Elementary Geography elective
Education. Study of Education. course of
the Environment. Geography Socioeconomic
History and Sciences, Languages
Geography of and Humanities and
Portugal Science and
Technology.
(18 years old)
Chile Ages from Ages from 6 to 13. Ages from 14 to Ages from 14 to 17.
0 to 5 Elementary 17. Secondary Secondary Education.
Education. History, Education. History, History, Geography
Geography and Geography and and Social Sciences
Social Sciences Social Sciences
Argentina Ages from Ages from 6 to 12/ Ages from 13 to 17 A Basic Cycle (with
0 to 5 13, according to (compulsory). 5 or general content) and
jurisdiction. Primary 6 years, according Oriented Cycle Ages
Education. Social to jurisdiction. from 13 to 17.
Sciences Geography Geography
Source Elaborated by the authors
10.3.2 The Chilean Case
The Chilean education system consists of four subsystems. The first subsystem is
called Educación Parvularia (Preschool Education) (from 0 to 5 years old). The
second subsystem lasts 8 years and it is called Educación General Básica (ele-
mentary education) and the age range includes children from 6 to 13. The third
subsystem is called Educación Media (Secondary Education) and it lasts for
4 years, between the ages of 14 and 17. Finally, the last subsystem corresponds
with higher education. The final goal of this stage is the attainment of professional
qualifications or academic degrees. The compulsory education provided by the state
ends at the age of 12 years old, the second year of Educación Media (Secondary
Education) (Mineduc 2011).
Nowadays, geography is included in a larger subject called Historia, Geografía y
Ciencias Sociales (History, Geography and Social Sciences). Within this subject,
geography contributes to civic education, mainly, by providing the students with
the knowledge and the specific methodology of the disciplines that integrate
geography. Students will use this knowledge and methodology to develop skills. In
the case of geographic education, the following elements are emphasized: the
curricula and the teaching plans present the geographical aspects that will be taught
at the different levels of the education system, from the first year of elementary
education to the fourth year of Secondary Education (12 years in total). Despite
being poor in geographic content, the curriculum has an up-to-date vision of
geography, considering it as a social science. It is important to note that the
geography content is organized around sustainable development and the education
of a geographically informed citizenship (Conway-Gòmez and Araya 2011).
10.3.3 The Iberian Context
Traditionally, the Spanish geography curriculum has been based on the regionalist
school model. Some debates in the 1950s and the 1960s proposed to start geo-
graphic education studying the local environment or with Spain as a whole in order
to better understand the concept of the “nation-state.” In the twenty-first century, the
dispute between the different party policies focused on aspects of national identity;
choosing between a patriotic explanation for Spain or an explanation of small-scale
national identities such as Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia notably.
According to our study of the official school curricula (Souto 2008; De Miguel
2012), there is a constant fight to retrieve: (1) the study of landscape and regional
traditions when studying Spain and (2) the geofactors that explain the territorial
structure when studying the world. On the other hand, alternatives focused on the
study of social and environmental problems have been proposed, also as criteria for
the organization of the didactic units.
As in the Spanish case, the regionalist French school inspires Portuguese geo-
graphical education. During the first years of schooling, there is a major emphasis
on the local environment, focusing later on Portugal and the rest of the world. Due
to the traumatic loss of the colonial empire, the study of Portugal was intensified
after the revolution of 1974. At the same time, the study of general geography
focused on the world, which included a description of climate and relief inequal-
ities. Global understanding becomes only apparent through the acknowledgement
of the existence of different nations. However, when Portugal joined the European
Union in 1986, there was a decrease in the interest for the study of the country. The
“bigger European homeland” became more valued, as it represented the harmony

that is usually reproduced by the traditional approach of patriotic speech.
Consequently, there was a nationalist reaction on the part of the teaching staff.
This resulted in the study of Portugal being reserved for the first years of secondary
education. In 2001, under the auspices of the Agenda de Lisboa, some notable
novelties were introduced: a skill-based syllabus, a reinforcement of experiences
and procedures, and a devaluation of didactic content. Portugal, Europe, and the
world appear as the three main scales of organization. There was a preference for
teaching about the possible harmony between human action and natural resources
rather than economic, political, and social factors. In the study of population and
settlement, cultural diversity was seen as integrated within the context of identity
and not as a construction of a more supportive citizen community. Emphasis was
increasingly placed on facts and not on explanations of the factors that would
enable the creation of a more unified world community.
Legislative power has inflicted superficial changes in the teaching of geography.
The skill-based syllabus (that was never efficient when combined with the set of
routines of the classroom) has been replaced with a goal-based educational system.
This change caused a drastic change in content. The connection between identity
and cultural diversity has been maintained and the study of Portugal is reinforced.
The study of the non-European nations and sociocultural conflicts are still regarded
as minor, nonrelevant matters. For students at the ages of 16 and 17, geography is a
subject that is still focused on Portugal, with, as in the Spanish case, a brief
reference to the European Union. For students aged 17 and 18 in Portugal, a
geography program based on inequality, conflicts, and international cooperation has
been developed. However, it is an elective course which few students take. Thus, it
can be concluded that the geography curriculum in Portugal scarcely contributes to
the effective construction of global understanding.
10.4 Global Understanding Learning Alternatives

Proposed by Teaching Staffs and Student Bodies.
The Creation of Collaborative Networks
Nowadays, a great bibliographic production about geography teaching can be found

in Ibero-American countries, especially in Brazil (Souto and Navarro 2016).
However, this does not mean that a complementarity exists between the concerns of
elementary education and higher education. That is why it is essential to build a
good partnership between both the teachers’ and students’ communities; the
diversity in perspectives of geographical territories improves the diversity of the
interpretations.
New communication and information technologies have enabled the creation of
national and international networks of collaborative work in the fields of geography
and social sciences. These networks attempt to analyze the social problems that
have a territorial impact. An important challenge is to deepen the use of these

networks and to move up from a simple exchange of information to the creation of
collaborative networks with a significant impact on academic and education
development through networking. Using these networks, teachers and researchers
recognize each other as parts of an academic community that have common
interests and challenges (Araya 2009).
10.4.1 Geoforo
Geoforo. Foro Ibero-Americano sobre Educación, Geografía y Sociedad: The

Ibero-American Forum on Education, Geography and Society. Website: http://
www.geoforo.com/.
Members: this network has its origin in the initiative of academics of several
Ibero-American countries: professionals who were motivated by the development
and diffusion of geographic knowledge in the field of geographic and cultural
knowledge. Spain, Portugal, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile are
some of the countries that participate in this international collaborative initiative.
Objectives of the network: this network promotes reflection and discussion on
social, educational, and geographical subjects in different forums. It seeks to pro-
mote an alternative approach to geographic education, focused on the
socio-environmental challenges lived in the wide world, featuring remarkable social
contrasts. The respect for basic civic and social rights is seen as imperative—thus
promoting a broader and deeper reading of the socio-territorial reality of other
Ibero-American societies.
How does this network contribute to education?: The theoretical contemplation
and specific proposals that take place in the forum contribute to the development of
pedagogical innovations in the educational contexts of the participating countries.
How does this network contribute to research?: the GEOFORO members have
developed collaborative and comparative research projects that have enabled the-
oretical and empirical studies in local, regional, national, and international educa-
tional contexts.
Documents and publications: in this network, several publications have been
written in order to spread the knowledge and the didactic strategies that the
members of the Geoforo have created with their participation. Some of these
publications have been published on the website of a magazine called Geocrítica,
more specifically, in two publications called Scripta Nova and Biblio 3W. Also, this
website provides access to several resources and links of interest.
If we summarize the content and discussion completed as of December 31, 2016,
we see that both the teaching staff and university students are concerned about the
role that school geography plays in citizen political participation, in school practice,
and in the study of the local environment. But, as it can be seen in Table 10.2, they
also show concerns about the ITCs and the arrangement of the didactic units,
especially in the following threads: 10, 14, 18, 20, 21, 23. This forum is very active
Table 10.2 Interventions of students and teachers in the discussion forums

Forum Title of the forum that gathers diversity of opinions Number of
number responses
10 The Didactic Units 213
11 Skills and Geography 23
12 Textbooks in Brazil 19
13 Educational Research and Innovation 31
14 How Should We Train Teachers? An International 82
Approach
15 Didactic Units in School Practice 19
16 Geography and Administrative Determinations 50
17 Planetary and Environmental Education 57
18 Teaching Practices: Opinions and Experiences to 97
Innovate
19 The Control of Space and Control Spaces 18
20 ICTs and the Geographical Teaching of Social 90
Problems
21 Field Work and School Trips 393
22 Science Social Learning in the Local Environment 87
23 Politics, Education in Society and Social Sciences 110
Source Compilation based on the Geoforo website (geoforo.com). (12/12/2016)
with many responses. In this sense, we can validate the Geoforo Ibero-Americano
as a significant tool to understand school problems across a range of countries and
national cultures (Tonini et al. 2015).
10.4.2 RedLadGeo
Red Latinoamericana de Investigadores en Didáctica de la Geografía

(REDLADGEO). (Latin American Network of Researchers in Geography
Education. Website: http://www.geopaideia.com/?page_id=6.
Members. Founded in 2007, this network consists of a team of
teacher-researchers interested in geographic education. Colombia, Venezuela,
Brazil, Argentina, and Chile are some of the countries that participate in this ini-
tiative of continental collaboration.
Objectives of this network: This network works as an academic setting where
processes of research and innovation in geography teaching in both formal and
nonformal contexts are developed.
How does this network contribute to teaching? In the pedagogic context,
Redladgeo contributes with disciplinary and interdisciplinary proposals in order to
reinforce geographical education in both formal and informal teaching and learning
contexts. Every 2 years, a Coloquio International is celebrated, one of its objectives
being to exchange experiences and specific didactic materials that promote geo-
graphical education from a Latin American perspective.
How does this network contribute to research? The members of this network
develop collaborative research projects that make rigorous work with conceptual
and methodological aspects of geographical education possible. This has stimulated
the creation of new knowledge and through a socialization process, members have
shared new ways of approaching research on various topics. The knowledge,
understanding, and diffusion of the results of said projects are promoted during the
biannual colloquiums.
Documents and publications: On the website of Geopaideia, a team of
Colombian academics that participate in Redladgeo (http://www.geopaideia.com)
provides access to several free-access publications of network members. We can
also find the link to the journal of this network, called Anekumene. This publication
can be also found online http://revistas.pedagogica.edu.co/index.php/anekumene.
10.4.3 The Project NósPropomos!
Since 2011/2012, the Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning of the University
of Lisbon (IGOT-UL) has promoted the project Nós Propomos! Cidadania e
Inovaçãon a Educação Geográfica, Project We Proposed! Citizenship and
Innovation in Geographical Education.
The Nós Propomos! project intends, indeed, to push schools to conduct a case
study in which local power is directly examined. The methodology of this project is
simple: students, in groups, identify a significant local problem (for example, an
abandoned building in the city center that could be restored to have several social
uses; a neighborhood that lacks paved roads; abandoned riversides that could be
turned into parks; ways to improve urban accessibility for citizens with motor
disabilities, etc.). Next, they carry out fieldwork about the issue of their choice,
taking pictures or conducting surveys or interviews. Later, students start a con-
versation with the town council or the municipality about this specific problem and
then, with their own localities.
Project Nós Propomos! has been expanded to Spain, and with remarkable suc-
cess, to Brazil and now is starting in Mozambique, Colombia and Perú. One of the
renewed objectives of the Project is to promote the contact between the young
people of these different countries and continents, on the one hand, and to lead them
to understand the reciprocal problems, on the other. Thus, young Spanish students
and their teachers went to Portugal, where they shared with Portuguese colleagues
their reading of local problems and possible solutions. Portuguese students and
respective teachers also went to Spain (Claudino 2011). In September 2018, it will
be hold the First Ibero-American Congress We Proposed: Geography, Education
and Society.
This sharing of experiences among young people from different countries and
continents helps youngsters to overcome a reading of the “other” centered in
socio-territorial issues—contrary to the often stereotyped reading obtained in school
textbooks and syllabus. Moreover, within the framework of the Nós Propomos!
project, students have been putting forward proposals on the reception and inte-
gration of refugees, particularly from Syria, as well as of immigrants from Asia,
Africa, and Latin America (mainly Brazil) that have been implemented on the
ground. These proposals are directly articulated with the challenges of building a
multicultural society.
10.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have tried to analyze the different aspects of geographical

education in Ibero America, focusing on its contribution to global understanding
from a spatial and territorial perspective. The effort invested by the teaching staffs
and the students to keep geographic education active in schools and universities has
been valuable.
In several Ibero-American countries, although the disappearance of this impor-
tant discipline in the curricula had been predicted, geographical education has
remained vital. In addition, this subject is expected to grow and develop along with
the rest of the social sciences, maintaining its specificity and importance in the
education of the current and future generations. However, it is necessary to question
the way school geography is conceived, as it has been shown in the examination
and comparison of the official curricula of Chile, Spain, and Portugal.
Due to its own nature, geography can contribute to the creation of territorial
conscience, at a local, regional, national, continental, and worldwide level. The
twenty-first-century citizen will be, increasingly, a citizen of a global world, with a
clear understanding of his or her rights and duties. Thus, an education in deep
attitudes of acknowledgement and evaluation of the limits of this planet regarding
human life is needed. That is why it is important to contribute with proposals to
develop an alternative to the traditional teaching methodologies and to use the new
technologies in the teaching of geography, as in the case of Geoforo, Redladgeo and
the NósPropomos! project. These initiatives could take the form of advanced
training courses for teachers, forums, didactic materials, and the use of new tech-
nologies online.
It is key is that geographical education contributes to reinforce students’ spatial
consciousness. This would allow them to insert themselves in the current world,
developing the appropriate spatial competences to achieve an efficient and sus-
tainable management of the ecosystems and the environmental and human
resources. Making the case for this discipline as a curricular field that deals with
current social-environmental challenges, training good geography teachers, and
proving the ability to spark the interest of youth in spatial perspective problems,
will lay the foundation for the reinforcement and consolidation of Ibero-American
geographical education.
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements for support of a grant from DIDULS and

PMIFIP-ULS1501 (# IPA16411), Research Direction University of La Serena.
This study is part of a research funded by the MIMECO (EDU2015-65621-C3-1-R) and cofinanced
with FEDER of the EU funds. In addition, it ha sused the funds of the project “Personal marginal-
ization and the social utility of school knowledge” (GVAICO2016-092, Generalitat Valenciana).
References
Albuquerque, M. (2011). Século de prática de ensino de geografia: permanências e mudança. In

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Penso.
Araya, F. (2009). Enseñanza, investigación y conocimiento geográfico en contextos escolares
formales y no formales. Biblio 3 W. Revista Bibliográfica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales.
Universidad de Barcelona. Nº 831. (Vol. XIV). [on line] http://www.ub.es/geocrit/b3w-831.
htm Last Accessed May 25, 2017.
Claudino, S. (2000). European Union: The new Portuguese geography curricula in check.
Claudino, S. (2009). Ensino da Geografia em Portugal: tradições e desafios. In GEOFORO: Foro
Ibero-Americano sobre Educación, Geografía e Sociedad. [on line] http://geoforoIbero-
Americano.blogspot.com/2009/06/o-ensino-da-geografia-em-portugal.html Last Accessed May
25, 2017.
Claudino, S. (2001). Portugal a través dos manuais escolares de Geografia. Século XIX. As
imagens intencionais. Tesis de doutorado inédita. Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
Claudino, S. (2011). Teaching geography in Portugal: Going back to the future. Review Problems
of Education in the 21st Century, 27(27), 30–38.
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through an international online collaboration with students in Chile and the USA. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 2(35), 265–279.
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Geografía de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles. pp. 73–92. University of Zaragoza.
Mineduc [Ministry of Education in Chile]. (2011). Curricular Framework. [on line] http://www.
mineduc.cl/index5_int.php?id_portal=47&id_contenido=13293&id_seccion=3264&c=1. Last
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ciudadano en el mundo global. Actas del X Coloquio Internacional de Geocrítica. Universidad
de Barcelona. [on line] http://www.ub.es/geocrit/-xcol/19.htm. Last Accessed May 25, 2017.
Souto, X. (2014). El conocimiento crítico en redes sociales: el caso del Geoforo Ibero-Americano.
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en la enseñanza de la geografía. Grupo de Didáctica de la Geografía, Asociación de Geógrafos
Españoles. Alicante: Limencopt.
Chapter 11
Geography Education for Global
Understanding in China
Yushan Duan, Fengtao Guo, Lianfei Jiang, Xiaowei Xuan

and Xin Miao
11.1 Introduction
In China, the basic education curriculum has experienced eight waves of changes
since the founding of the new China in 1949 (Guo et al. 2016). Now, geography is a
stand-alone subject beginning in middle school. There are two separate sets of
geography standards, one for middle school (Years 7–9) and one for high school
(Years 10–12). Middle school standards emphasize regional geography, including
Chinese geography, world geography, and local geography. High school geography
includes three required courses and seven optional geography courses. Geography
standards serve as guidance documents to compile textbooks, for teaching, and for
student assessment in China. As an obligatory course in secondary schools,
geography is an important subject to provide the next generation with global
understanding (GU). Teachers and researchers have been working closely to
explore ways to enhance the value of the humanities by finding connections
Y. Duan (&) F. Guo L. Jiang X. Xuan X. Miao

School of Geographic Sciences East, China Normal University,
500 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200241, China
e-mail: ysduan@126.com
F. Guo
e-mail: fengtao.guo@foxmail.com
L. Jiang
e-mail: jianglianfei520@163.com
X. Xuan
e-mail: xuanxiaowei.123@163.com
X. Miao
e-mail: hermionem0731@163.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_11
144 Y. Duan et al.
between global understanding and the content of various subjects (Chen and He
2010). Li investigated and engaged in a case study in the Pudong New Area in
Shanghai to modify teaching methods in national and local geography curriculum,
with detailed content analysis of middle school geography textbooks (Li 2011).
From ancient times till today, the values of “harmony in diversity” (和而不同)
have always been cherished by the Chinese people; these values correspond to the
meaning of global understanding. We think global understanding includes four
aspects: (1) Know and understand the local knowledge of other countries and ethnic
groups. (2) Exchange and cooperation are vital to understanding. People can
develop a deep understanding by questioning, discussing, critiquing, and recon-
structing ideas while respecting others’ values and viewpoints (Yang 2006).
(3) Global moral awareness and peoples’ actions. Nearly all global issues are rooted
in a value orientation which needs common moral values to maintain global peace
and sustainable development. A good way to cultivate global moral awareness is by
solving global issues; it helps students learn the global consequences of individual
behaviors and allows them to perceive each persons’ role in shaping human destiny.
(4) Understanding not only means understanding others’ but also means being
understood. This is related to national and cultural identity.
As a consequence, this research was guided by three questions: (1) How is GU
represented in geography standards? (2) Is the content regarding GU sufficient in
geography? And (3) What are the problems in the implementation of GU?
11.2 Methods
This research analyzed geography content standards and conducted a questionnaire

to develop a rich and detailed illustration of GU in geography education. The mixed
method design consisted of two phases. In Phase 1, GU was divided into ten
categories (see Table 11.1) according to the Final Report, International Conference
on Education 44th Session1 (Xu and Wang 2003) and the website of the IYGU. The
authors coded the geography standards in terms of these ten categories.
Phase 2 involved completion of a questionnaire by a large sample of secondary
school geography teachers (n = 100). This research employed an online survey of
geography teachers in Shanghai, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Fujian (nearly 18 pro-
vinces) through an online questionnaire tool Sojump (see Fig. 11.1 or you can see it
on the website of https://sojump.com/jq/12052519.aspx). Forty-two percent of
respondents only taught in middle school, while 53% of respondents taught only
high school; 5% of respondents taught geography at both learning stages.
1
UNESCO international Bureau of Education. 1994. International Conference on Education 44th
Session. http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/34_69.pdf.
11 Geography Education for Global Understanding in China 145
Table 11.1 Ten categories of global understanding (Xu and Wang 2003)
Code Content Code Content
A Identify with the national culture B Know some other countries’
culture, history, and social
traditions
C Acquire skills and rules in D Recognize and be able to analyze
international communication interdependence in economic and
political fields
E Recognize and be able to think about F Know the reasons for regional
solutions to international issues such wars and conflicts and love peace
as climate change and ecosystem
G Live as a global citizen in daily life H Foster an awareness of
democracy
I Understand the significance of J Foster an awareness of human
cooperation and sharing rights
11.3 Findings
11.3.1 GU Was Clearly Presented in Both Standards

in a Different Way
Based on the idea—“learn geography for life, for life-long development” and
“cultivating modern citizens’ geography literacy”, both sets of standards have clear
requirements and expectations to achieve GU and related cooperation skills. The
curriculum objectives reflect and present the general goals of specific content and
are organized into three integrated aspects: knowledge and skills; processes and
methods; and emotions, attitudes and values (Chen and Lin 2012). Global under-
standing by objective (Table 11.2) are all treated with detailed illustrations in
the “curriculum content standards” (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic
of China 2003, 2011).
Through coding the content standards, we found geography standards only
contain content related to items A, B, D, E and G. We also discovered that the focus
of Year 7–9 and Year 10–12 is slightly different (see Figs. 11.2 and 11.3).
In general, the proportion of content standards regarding GU in middle school is
76.19%, more than that in the high school, 23.81%. The Year 7–9 curricula focus
on regional geography, in particular, China’s physical features and economic and
cultural characteristics. Year 10–12 curricula focus on in-depth discussion of global
issues and problems in regional ecological environments, such as climate change,
emphasizing students’ attitudes and responsibilities. For example, the Year 7–9
curricula content includes “use data to describe a distinctive cultural tradition in
some region”, while at the Year 10–12 level, students are asked to “summarize
major environmental problems faced by human beings with relevant data” and “Use
146 Y. Duan et al.
Fig. 11.1 Parts of the online survey on the smartphone
an example to describe the management of global environmental problems and

international action”.
Moreover, the activities suggested for Year 10–12 students are more detailed and
enriched, in particular, students’ actions in achieving the standards. For example,
students get an after-class activity to talk with a family member on environmental
issues, and to participate in campaigns to promote awareness of environment
protection.
Specifically speaking, the five GU items feature different topics. (1) Item A is
mainly presented through discussions of economics, population, national policies,
Table 11.2 GU in the objectives for geography curriculum

Knowledge and skills Emotions, attitudes, and values
Year 1. Preliminary understanding of 4. Concern for the environment and
7–9/ regional variations of people, development of hometown; concern for
Middle economies, and cultural development our national basic geographical
school 2. Knowing the connections between conditions to enhance affection for
hometown and China, China and the hometown and motherland
world 5. Respect the culture and tradition of
3. Know issues of people, resources, different countries in the world;
environment, and development facing enhance the feeling of national dignity,
humankind, preliminary understanding pride, and confidence; understand the
of human–environment interaction meaning of international cooperation;
preliminary form of global
consciousness
Year 1. Know human activities’ impact on 4. Same as #4 in middle school
10–12/ geographical 5. Know the big problems in the global
high environment, understanding the environment and development;
school formation and features of human understand the value of international
geographical environment cooperation; form preliminary global
2. Identify regional imbalances, consciousness
know the problems and solutions faced
by regional sustainable development
3. Learn to work independently and
cooperatively to conduct geographical
observation, experiments, and surveys
Fig. 11.2 Proportion of GU

items in geography standards
for middle school
148 Y. Duan et al.
Fig. 11.3 Proportion of GU

items in geography standards
for high school
and regional cultures in the Chinese Geography section; (2) Item B is presented
through population, racial and ethnic identities, languages, religions, economics,
tourism, and cultures in the World Geography and Human Geography sections;
(3) Item D is presented through studies of the interrelationships of economics,
trades, and cultures among different countries or between China and Hong Kong,
Macao, or Taiwan in the World Geography sections; (4) Item E is presented mainly
through the topics of resources development, environmental protection, natural
disasters, and ecological protection; while (5) Item G is mainly illustrated through
the topics regarding protection of the world’s cultural heritage and sustainable
development.
11.3.2 The Content of GU Is Not Sufficient

in the Geography Standards for Geography Teachers
The survey results show that nearly half of the respondents believe that the content
of GU in the geography curriculum standards is not sufficient. Only 4% of geog-
raphy teachers strongly believe that the content of GU is very adequate (Fig. 11.4).
Moreover, the authors found that there is a negative correlation between
understanding of sufficiency and the types of school in which respondents teach.2
As shown in Fig. 11.5, 53.5% of respondents in ordinary secondary schools, 50%
2
People used to divide schools into different levels such as key secondary schools. Now the
government has renamed them “model” or “demonstration schools” instead of key schools. From
the assessment and acceptance criteria of model high school, a model school is one that applies
Education Law in an exemplary ways, actively carries out teaching and education reform, has good
teachers and school conditions, manages teaching quality, has students with well developed moral,
Fig. 11.4 Contents of GU in geography is sufficient
Fig. 11.5 Understanding of insufficiency in different types of schools
in district-level model secondary schools, and 39.5% in provincial or municipal

model secondary schools believe that the global understanding component in the
geographical standards is not sufficient.
One reason for this perception of insufficiency may be that the standards
“Understand the causes of regional wars or conflicts, and love peace (F)” and
intellectual, and physical characteristics, appreciate society, and university education. Model
schools have a good reputation in and out of the province, city or district, with a longer history.
150 Y. Duan et al.
Fig. 11.6 The understanding about GU of geography teachers
“Learn the skills and norms of international communication(C)” are not found in
the standards. More than 70% of respondents believe that global understanding
education includes C and F (Fig. 11.6) however only A, B, D, E, G appeared in the
content analysis of the standards.
11.3.3 Insufficiency of Curriculum Resources Is a Primary

Problem for GU
Teachers prefer using the latest materials and employing a variety of teaching
methods regarding GU content to enhance students’ interests in learning. Eighty-six
percent of educators teach GU though introducing different cultures. In addition,
more than 60% of teachers use current affairs news and multimedia video to explore
global issues.
Some teachers are not optimistic about GU in geography teaching. The survey
indicates that 65% of respondents believe students’ GU abilities can be improved
through geography teaching, but still 31% respondents are not sure about this.
There may be many reasons for this uncertainty. The respondents indicate that a
lack of curriculum resources is the primary factor, and teachers themselves are also
an important factor. Deficiency of sustainable development (SD) materials in
textbooks, best practices and standards are all related to curriculum resources (see
Fig. 11.7), of which deficiency in the textbooks is most prominent. This indicates
teachers might not know how to better teach GU through geography. In addition,
half of the respondents think the definition of GU is too broad to be grasped. Except
for sufficient time to teach the subject (period), no other external factors were
identified.
Fig. 11.7 The problems confronted in teaching GU
11.4 Discussion and Suggestions
11.4.1 Needing Some Changes in Geography

Standards for GU
As the results show, teachers think GU in the content standards is not sufficient; the
content standards in Year 7–9 are more than that in Year 10–12. For this reason,
first, the content standards regarding GU in terms of categories A, B, D, E, G
should be presented more clearly or more appropriately. Second, categories C and F
could be integrated into the content standards. For example, historical and political
geography would help students to understand the reasons for regional conflicts and
to learn to love peace. Third, it is advisable to add as appropriate additional activity
suggestions or more global issues regarding GU in the standards for high school in
order to promote student’s deep understanding of GU, beyond just knowing the
characteristics of world regions which were taught in middle school.
11.4.2 Developing Diverse Curriculum Resources

Related to GU
Curriculum resources are a primary problem in implementation of GU at the high

school level. Subject teaching provides a platform for global understanding edu-
cation and curriculum resources are necessary materials in subject teaching (Chen
and He 2010). The International Charter on Geography Education and Chinese
National Standards for Geography Curricula illustrate the significance of devel-
oping teaching content for cultivating students to become responsible and active
global citizens (Xu 2009). So, it is vital to develop diverse curriculum resources for
global understanding education. First, we should add the cases and contents in
152 Y. Duan et al.
textbooks which are the primary and the most immediate teaching materials for
teachers. Second, school-based GU curriculum should be developed that can be
interdisciplinary curriculum including geography. Third, it might be advisable to
organize cooperative activities with international schools if conditions permit.
11.4.3 Bring Geography Teachers’ Subjective Initiative

into GU
As shown in the results, more than half of geography teachers think that GU is too
broad to be grasped; they need better teaching examples. So, first teachers should
read widely to understand GU better and to develop teaching resources related to
GU. Second, teachers should learn to create appropriate teaching contexts to
explore the human aspects and values of the subject (Chen and He 2010). For
example, maps appear to have no connection to GU. However, if we create a new
teaching situation by asking questions such as why different ethnic groups produce
different that might help develop GU. Why use the same geographical projections
and some maps centered on the Pacific Ocean as opposed to maps centered on the
Atlantic Ocean? Third, school administrators need to pay sufficient attention to GU
and provide more time and opportunities to teach about it; 55% of respondents
think they do not have enough teaching time on the subject.
11.5 Conclusion
In this time and age, school teachers are not teaching as the curricula tell them,
neither do students get access to the world through books only. By no means are the
textbooks and standards the primary resources to teach GU. While soliciting data
and stories through the questionnaires, we met a number of teachers who are taking
a more active and reflective role as curriculum designers by developing
school-based courses. And the Internet has enabled these inspiring teaching prac-
tices to be available to more peers throughout the country. Pioneering Chinese
teachers are role models in combining their strengths with curricula reform to create
a curriculum with a GU flavor for their own students’ benefits. They have become a
coordinated, professional network of school geographers that professional networks
of educators from all sectors of education should pay close attention to.
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documents for geographical tuition in China and the United States. Mitteilungen der
Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 158, 289–308.
Li, Q. F. (2011). Content and methods study on secondary education for international
understanding in geography. Unpublished master’s thesis, East China Normal University,
Shanghai, China.
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standards for compulsory education. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.
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cases from China. Shanghai Research on Education, 8, 51–52.
Chapter 12
Global Education for Global
Understanding: The Case of Finland
Sirpa Tani, Outi Houtsonen and Elina Särkelä
12.1 Introduction
Geography education in Finland has its roots in home region studies, long regarded
as the starting point for students to gain knowledge of the world. This was espe-
cially important in the early decades of the twentieth century, when there was a
need for the newly independent nation to construct its citizens’ national identity.
The creation of national identity was believed possible by the development of a
strong attachment to local, everyday environments. The change in focus began in
the 1970s by launching the comprehensive school system. Equal opportunities were
offered to all young people through the availability of free education for 9 years
from the age of 7 (Committee Report 1970). At that time, Finland was rapidly
changing from an agrarian society to a post-industrial and urbanized society, with a
real need to increase interaction with other countries. In that context, traditional
ideas of home region studies as the starting point of teaching were considered old
fashioned; instead, ‘international education’ was highlighted as a principle (Tani
2014). During that time, however, a clear distinction was made socially between
‘us’ (Finns) and ‘them’ (non-Finns). Finland was still culturally quite homogenous
and therefore, it was easy to think that internationalism would mean studies of
different nations; the national identity of Finland was considered solid and common
to all citizens of the country.
S. Tani (&)
Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: sirpa.tani@helsinki.fi
O. Houtsonen
Helsinki Normallyceum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: outi.houtsonen@helsinki.fi
E. Särkelä
Viikki Teacher Training School of the University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: elina.sarkela@helsinki.fi

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_12
156 S. Tani et al.
Societal changes were thus reflected in the curricular framework of compre-

hensive schools, first, by including international education in the cross-curricular
themes. The thematic concept was intended to be contextually applied to all school
subjects. When immigration began to increase in the 1990s, the thematic concept
involved integrating ‘multicultural education’ in all school subjects (Cantell and
Cantell 2009; Holm and Zilliacus 2009). ‘Home region studies’, ‘intercultural
education’ and ‘multicultural education’ are often considered landmarks on the path
towards global understanding. This relates to how they highlight the importance of
a person’s own identification to his or her own community, and the increasing need
and willingness to get to know others, and appreciate their possibly different ways
of living.
Global understanding needs not only an understanding and appreciation of other
cultures and societies, but also an interest in environmental issues and responsible
actions. Such an understanding and interest will contribute to achieving a sus-
tainable future. In the Finnish context, this aim has been implemented by national
framework curricula dating from the 1980s, when the concept of ‘environmental
education’ was first included among the basic aims of education (National Board of
Education 1985; see also National Board of Education 1994). In the 2004 cur-
riculum, the concept was replaced by the aim of ‘responsibility for the environment,
well-being and a sustainable future’ (National Board of Education 2004). The main
idea was to include environmental- and sustainability education in all school sub-
jects as one of many cross-cutting themes, not as a separate entity taught detached
from the other course content. This principle, regardless of its ambition, has not
been realized as well as initially intended. Several reasons for this can be identified.
First, these broader principles were easily ‘forgotten’ from the subjects and their
teaching. This may be attributed to the fact that the description of these
cross-curricular themes and educational aims appear in the opening chapters of the
national framework curricula, but they are not included in more detailed descrip-
tions of the separate school subjects and their specific aims. Second, environmental
issues have normally been associated with biology and geography teaching, which
has made it easy to think that teachers of these subjects would take care of envi-
ronmental issues. Cross-curricular integration has thus not been as efficient as
intended. Third, even if teachers of other school subjects would be interested in
environmental and sustainability education, their own knowledge of these issues is
often limited. Consequently, they may not feel confident in their expertise to teach
them.
In this chapter, the current framework for the Finnish secondary curricula will be
analysed to establish how the ideas of global understanding have been interpreted.
This analysis will be followed by a description of the role of the Finnish National
Agency for Education (formerly National Board of Education), the Ministry of
Education and Culture, and several non-governmental organisations in providing
supporting materials to teachers in their work for global education. The chapter then
gives some practical examples of global education in the classrooms of two
geography teachers in teacher training schools associated with the University of
Helsinki.
12 Global Education for Global Understanding: The Case of Finland 157
12.2 Status of Geography in Secondary Education
Finnish national framework curricula are renewed approximately every 10th year.
The present versions were launched recently; for the 9-year comprehensive school
(comprising 6 years of primary and 3 years of lower secondary education) in 2014,
and for the general upper secondary school in 2015. Geography is taught as part of
Environmental Studies along with biology, chemistry, physics and health education
in primary school, while in lower and upper secondary schools, it is taught as a
separate subject.
Since the implementation of cross-curricular themes has not been as successful
as initially intended, the renewed curriculum aims to develop stronger links
between overall educational aims, cross-curricular themes and school subjects. The
objectives are now described in more detail and for each subject; the
subject-specific aims are connected to the themes of meaning, values, and attitudes,
skills for investigation and action, and knowledge and understanding. The new
curriculum for lower secondary schools (Finnish National Board of Education
2014) highlights students’ role as active agents in the learning process. Gaining
knowledge, earlier considered crucial in education, is still regarded as an important
aim. Increasing attention, however, has been paid to the objectives of learning to
learn, skills and competencies, as well as values. The objectives of geography
education are expressed in three categories: (1) geographical knowledge and
understanding; (2) geographical skills, and (3) objectives related to attitudes and
values. The new curriculum identifies six key content areas (Finnish National Board
of Education 2014, 661–662):
• The map and regions of the world.
• The current, changing world.
• Basic conditions for life on Earth.
• Changing landscapes and living environments.
• People and cultures on Earth.
• A sustainable way of living and sustainable use of natural resources.
The 2014 comprehensive school curriculum considers students’ role as active
and responsible citizens important. To enhance that, their ability to understand
complex phenomena should be supported in geography education. Using different
information sources is regarded as necessary to allow the development of an overall
understanding of significant issues. Critical evaluation of the relevance and relia-
bility of information are considered crucial in this process.
The status of geography in lower secondary schools remained basically the same
as in earlier curricula, even when the emphasis of its contents moved from regional
geography towards more global aspects. In upper secondary school, the change was
more remarkable: geography lost one of its two mandatory courses. In the new
curriculum of 2015, geography had thus one obligatory course ‘The World in
Change’, and three voluntary courses (physical geography, human geography, and a
course on geomedia and geographical inquiry). The main aim of the mandatory
158 S. Tani et al.
course is to examine the changing world and its regional problems. Current news
from different parts of the world is followed during the course, and some natural
and environmental hazards and risks to humankind are studied (National Board of
Education 2015). The course not only studies risks, but also attempts to highlight
opportunities for positive development, and required approaches to control, prepare
for, foresee and adapt to the risks. Essential viewpoints for geography education are
defined as eco-social sustainability, circular economy and global development
issues. In the curriculum, emphasis is put on the skills required to use a wide range
of geographical media.
The aims of the new curricula thus sound promising for enhancing a global
understanding in geography. But how are these aims implemented in practice?
What kinds of challenges do teachers face in applying these ideas of curricula in
their everyday work? These questions will be answered here. A short overview of
the supporting materials produced by different bodies (both governmental institu-
tions and non-governmental organisations) is followed by teachers telling their
teaching experiences.
12.3 Global Education to Enhance Global Understanding
Finnish educational reports in 2007 first featured the term ‘global education’.
Global education was defined as the global dimension of citizenship education in
the project of Education for Global Responsibility based on the first educational
report (Kaivola and Mélen-Paaso 2007). The five sub-themes of global education
are (1) development education; (2) human rights education; (3) education for sus-
tainable development; (4) education for peace and conflict prevention and (5) in-
tercultural education. The final report of the project (Lampinen and Mélen-Paaso
2009) explored key concepts of global responsibility in the Finnish and interna-
tional frameworks, while also describing the state of global education in Finland at
that time.
As the sub-themes of global education indicate, cultural and social aspects of
citizenship education were emphasized, even when the theme of education for
sustainable development included environmental issues. Cantell (2011) has shown
how the ideas of global education share many of the educational aims presented in
the geography curricula.
Kepa (an organization with expertise in global development) acts as a platform
for Finnish civil society organisations focusing on development cooperation, global
education and advocacy work. It coordinates a global education network of more
than 150 organizations (Kepa s.a.). The main interests of the NGOs participating in
global education work in Finland are as follows:
• Human rights and equality education,
• Development education,
• Cultural education,
• Peace and security education,

• Communications and media education,
• Environmental education.
The website of the Global Education network states that ‘the methods of Global
Education vary from advocacy campaigns to school visits; from culture projects to
e-learning events. It is conducted for people of all ages and backgrounds: schools,
workplaces, free time activities and culture life’ (globaalikasvatus.fi/node/930).
While NGOs play a leading role in enhancing global education in Finland, some
governmental organizations also have an important role in supporting global edu-
cation. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs offers teaching materials to lower
and upper secondary schools on development cooperation (Maailma 2030, s.a.).
The Finnish National Agency for Education has designed supporting materials for
teachers, students and school principals, as well as for municipalities, to enhance
international approaches to education in comprehensive and upper secondary
schools. It also offers online materials for global education.
We are writing here about global education, even when the topic of the book
should be global understanding. Are there major differences between these con-
cepts, or are they basically the same? How do geography teachers see the role of
global understanding in their work? These issues will be explored next when two of
the authors, Elina and Outi, describe their thoughts on global understanding in the
context of their work as geography teachers.
12.4 Global Education in Practice
To gain a better view of global education in Finnish schools, this chapter now turns
to practice. Elina and Outi work at the teacher training schools of the University of
Helsinki. They both teach geography at lower and upper secondary levels. The first
author, Sirpa, was interested in hearing about teachers’ views on global education in
the context of geography. Questions and answers were exchanged by email, mostly
in Finnish; the excerpts used in this text have been translated into English. The
following questions were discussed:
• Based on your opinion, what are the most important issues of ‘global education’
and ‘global understanding’?
• How can geography education enhance global understanding?
• What do you think about the current geography curricula (for lower and upper
secondary schools) in relation to global understanding?
• How can local and global dimensions be linked to teaching?
• Are there any challenges in applying the ideas of global understanding in
geography teaching? If yes, please describe them.
160 S. Tani et al.
In her answers, Elina highlighted the importance of understanding planetary

phenomena as the basis for global understanding; Earth’s rotation and its influence
on living conditions in different parts of the world offered an important starting
point for studying global phenomena. She also mentioned the importance of paying
attention to current issues in teaching: studying global warming and the so-called
refugee crisis could enhance and deepen students’ global understanding. Both Elina
and Outi regarded questions of sustainability, development issues and intercultural
education essential. Outi explained it this way:
Development education helps students understand the reasons behind uneven development;
sustainable development is important for understanding the world as an entity and for
seeing the consequences of, for example, of the usage of using fossil fuels. Intercultural
education is important, because it enhances awareness and understanding of different
cultures at the same time when as helping to construct students’ own identity and their
tolerance of and empathy for other cultures.
Geography was considered an excellent subject in enhancing global under-

standing: it connects local issues to global phenomena; natural issues to
human-made elements. Thus, it works as a bridge between natural and social sci-
ences. This process was not straightforward though; it needed time from the stu-
dents, as Elina explained:
Global understanding is built throughout the school years and courses. It is the outcome of
geography teaching as a whole. Sometimes students need to be patient to ‘connect the dots’,
because understanding issues, along with their reasons and consequences, is a slow process.
The current geography curricula for both lower and upper secondary curricula
were discussed in light of global understanding. The change in lower secondary
school was considered positive; the old curriculum was more tightly focused on
regional geography, thus not offering clear ways to connect local issues to global
themes. The new curriculum of 2014 allowed clearer opportunities to construct
these links:
Elina: The approach to the themes is primarily global; teaching can then ‘zoom in’ on some
regional examples. This is different to the old curriculum, which involved studying Europe
in the eighth grade and Finland in the ninth grade from a regional point of view, after which
the studied themes could possibly be linked to the global level.
Outi: Understanding the world is now easier thanks to the new curriculum for lower
secondary school; two of the six key content areas are directly linked to the main issues
enhancing global understanding: ‘People and cultures on Earth’ and ‘A sustainable way of
living and sustainable use of natural resources’.
While the change in the lower secondary curriculum enhanced the global–local
linkage, the situation at the upper secondary level was regarded as problematic.
A shortage of time was the major challenge, as Outi explained:
At the upper secondary school, there is not enough time to get a deeper understanding of
the world during the mandatory course alone.
The three optional courses of the upper secondary curriculum included many
themes that could strengthen students’ capability of connecting global issues to
local phenomena, thus enhancing their geographical thinking. The problem was the
fact that these courses are chosen relatively rarely. Outi mentioned how the aims
and contents described in the curriculum gave a positive image of the situation, but
because these optional courses were not popular among students, global under-
standing could not really be developed as well as intended in the plans.
One of the questions investigated ways to correlate local and global dimensions
in teaching. Even when Elina highlighted global aspects as a starting point, she also
pointed out how many of the global risks were so big that they could easily cause
feelings of disempowerment and despair among the students. Thus, when studying
these issues, solutions to the risks were sought at the local level. Students’
opportunities to develop solutions should be supported to prevent them being left
alone with big issues.
The limited amount of time in teaching, and the risk of increasing students’
feelings of not being able to affect global issues were the most obvious challenges
mentioned. Outi suggested that even when knowledge-based teaching could
enhance students’ awareness of global issues, it did not necessarily lead to an
increase in their becoming active and responsible global citizens. She raised the
concern of students’ increasing despair and the need to enhance their empower-
ment. Elina highlighted the role of knowledge in teaching issues strongly present in
current media; the refugee crisis in Europe was one of the issues causing a stir in the
media; geography teaching could work as a counter-discussion against the mediated
opinions. She also mentioned how students’ fears and prior ideas could be con-
sidered in geography classrooms; however, hate discussion must be categorically
excluded.
Both teachers were aware of the risk that geography education faces in global
education: while teaching addresses the big issues and cultural diversities, opti-
mistic intentions were possibly causing more harm than good. Elina gave some
examples of these:
Another challenging issue is different cultures in geography teaching. Although trying to
tear down stereotypes, geography teaching can unintentionally maintain them. For example,
the third world is often described as unnatural and backward when compared to the first
world. In comparing issues, it is important to underline the inequality that needs to be
changed. However, attitudes might change in a way that was not the initial purpose.
There were many interesting examples of teaching methods mentioned in the

answers. Effective methods to enhance students’ empathy and perspective included
role plays and other activating methods, as these could widen their views and allow
them to step into other people’s shoes, so to speak. Discussions were also regarded
as valuable, as were some documentary films showing the everyday life of people
from other parts of the world; these encourage students to think about their own role
as consumers and the ethics of global markets, for example. Some of these materials
and methods could also raise objections against inequality in production chains and
against uneven distribution of material and immaterial well-being in the world.
162 S. Tani et al.
12.5 Conclusion
Our aim in this chapter was to give, in a Finnish context, an overview of the status
of global understanding. Young people’s global understanding can be enhanced by
the new content and materials of the curricula of geography education. Identified
challenges include the limited time allocated to geography in the Finnish curricu-
lum, especially at the upper secondary level; the complex nature of many global
issues that could easily cause feelings of fear and despair; and difficulties in con-
structing local–global links in classroom practices. Despite these serious problems,
geography education has also some major strengths, making it one of the most
powerful school subjects in enhancing global understanding. These include the
essence of the discipline, containing both natural and social-scientific aspects; its
long history of linking general geography to regional geographic aspects; and
finally, the strong tradition of linking teaching to students’ everyday experiences.
These elements make geography a core subject in increasing students’ opportunities
to find their own ways to act as responsible citizens in the contemporary world—
both locally and globally.
References
Cantell, H. (2011). Maantieteen opetus globaalin ymmärryksen edistäjänä (Geography teaching as

a contributor of global understanding; Abstract in English). Terra, 123(1), 3–15.
Cantell, H., & Cantell, M. (2009). Global education in a multicultural school. In M.-T. Talib,
J. Loima, H. Paavola, & S. Patrikainen (Eds.), Dialogs on diversity and global education
(pp. 51–63). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Committee Report. (1970). Peruskoulun opetussuunnitelmakomitean mietintö I: Opetussuunnitelman
perusteet (Report of the comprehensive school curriculum committee I). Komiteanmietintö 1970
A 4.
Holm, G., & Zilliacus, H. (2009). Multicultural education and intercultural education: Is there a
difference. In M.-T. Talib, J. Loima, H. Paavola, & S. Patrikainen (Eds.), Dialogs on Diversity
and Global Education (pp. 7–28). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Kaivola, T., & Mélen-Paaso, M. (Eds.). (2007). Education for global responsibility—Finnish
perspectives. Publications of the Ministry of Education 31. http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/
default/OPM/Julkaisut/2007/liitteet/opm31.pdf.
Kepa (s.a.) Globaalikasvatus – Tuo maailma opetukseen (Global education – bring the world into
your teaching). http://globaalikasvatus.fi/.
Lampinen, J., & Mélen-Paaso, M. (Eds.). (2009). Tulevaisuus meissä: Kasvaminen maailman-
laajuiseen vastuuseen (Future in us: Education for global responsibility; Abstract in English).
Opetusministeriön julkaisuja 40. http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2009/
liitteet/opm40.pdf?lang=fi.
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Foreign Affairs. www.maailma2030.fi.
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curriculum for basic education 1985). Helsinki: Kouluhallitus & Valtion painatuskeskus.
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(National core curriculum for basic education 2014). Helsinki: Finnish National Board of
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curriculum for general upper secondary schools 2015). Helsinki: Finnish National Board of
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Tani, S. (2014). Geography in the Finnish school curriculum: Part of the ‘success story’?
Chapter 13
Global Understanding and Geography
Education in Japan
Minori Yuda
13.1 Introduction
Geography education has played an important role in global understanding edu-

cation in Japan. Geography curricula from primary to secondary education are
designed so that students can acquire a conceptualization of their own world across
scales, expanding from their local neighborhood to city, prefecture, national, and
world levels. This structure reflects one of the most significant goals of education in
Japan, which is to learn to respect the differences, similarities, and uniqueness of
other countries while learning to understand Japan itself through understanding the
world.
13.2 Geography Education in the Education System

in Japan
The school system in Japan consists of 6 years of primary school, and 3 years each
of junior high (middle school) and senior high school. Education is compulsory in
primary and junior high schools for 9 years, covering the school age of students
from 6 to 15 years old. Geography education starts in the subject Social Studies
beginning in the third grade at primary school. Social Studies is required at primary
and junior high schools. Since Social Studies contains much geography content,
students learn basic geographical skills and knowledge during compulsory educa-
tion. However, in senior high school, geography is currently an elective subject.
M. Yuda (&)
Fukuoka Women’s University, Fukuoka, Japan
e-mail: minori@fwu.ac.jp

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_13
166 M. Yuda
13.3 The Basic Act on Education and Education

The goals of education in Japan are defined by the Basic Act of Education, and the
education contents in K-12 education are specified by Gakushu Shido Yoryo (the
National Curriculum Standards, hereinafter the NCS). The NCS are the education
standards defined by the government. General rules in the NCS at each school level
state that teachers must organize the curriculum in accord with the NCS. The latest
national curriculum was introduced in primary schools in 2011, in junior high
schools in 2012, and in senior high schools in 2013 (Yuda 2015).
The Basic Act on Education sets five goals for education. The fifth goal deals
particularly with Japan and other countries.
fostering the value of respect for tradition and culture and love of the country and regions
that have nurtured us, as well as the value of respect for other countries and the desire to
contribute to world peace and the development of the international community. (Basic Act
on Education 2006)
This goal shows that global understanding is obviously an essential element of

education in Japan. Although no particular subject is assigned to achieve this goal,
the contents of the NCS indicate that Social Studies, especially geography, can play
a vital role in developing students’ global understanding.
13.4 The National Curriculum Standards and Global

Understanding in Geography Education
The NCS is issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology (hereinafter MEXT) and has been revised about once a decade. As the
NCS has served as the standard for the curriculum with legally binding power, all
public schools must basically obey the curriculum standards when they organize
their curricula depending on the situation of the school. Therefore, curricula,
textbooks, and the content of lessons, in each school follow the NCS. Teachers also
make study plans based on the standards.
13.4.1 Global Understanding in Geography Education

in Primary Schools
As of 2017, the NCS for primary schools issued in 2008 has been used in all
schools since 2011. Students begin their study of Social Studies in third grade and
continue in fourth grade to attain three outcomes. First, students should learn that
they have responsibilities as members of a community through understanding local
13 Global Understanding and Geography Education in Japan 167
industries, consumer lifestyles, the living environment, and community safety.

Second, students should develop a sense of pride in their hometown through
understanding the geographical environment of their own environs. Third, students
should develop their skills to conduct research in the local area, observing social
phenomena there and considering and expressing characteristics and interactions
among regions (MEXT 2008b). For example, third-grade students visit a refriger-
ator assembly factory in a neighborhood and find out that a lot of components for a
fridge are imported from other countries. Fourth-grade students do research on a
city related to a local municipality or prefecture. If a municipality where a school is
located has sister cities in other countries, having a video conference with a school
there is a popular cultural exchange activity.
All goals for third and fourth grades refer to understanding the hometown, local
area, or Japan. Here, the NCS suggests teachers consider using lessons which make
students find connections between their local areas and other countries particularly
through their daily lives and local industries. Social studies in the fifth grade also
have three goals. Teachers are expected to motivate students: (1) to understand
relationships among the country, environment, and peoples’ lives and consider how
to protect the environment and to protect against natural disasters; (2) to understand
relationships between the industries in Japan and peoples’ lives and to make stu-
dents interested in the development of industrial growth and information tech-
nologies in their society; and (3) to develop thinking and presentation skills through
research activities on social phenomena using maps, globes and basic information
sources such as statistics (MEXT 2008b).
At this grade, global understanding is a focus of some units. Students are
expected to know the distribution of the oceans, six continents, and the locations of
neighboring countries as well as other significant countries in order to be able to
understand the position of Japan in the world. Another unit examines agricultural
and fishery products imported from other countries to understand the importance of
trade and transportation to the manufacture of industrial products in Japan using
raw materials from other countries.
In sixth grade, Social Studies concentrates on the history and politics of Japan in
order to understand the role of the country in global society and the importance of
living together harmoniously with other people in the world. Students conduct
research on social phenomena using maps and statistics.
At this grade level, units focusing on global understanding seek to help students:
(1) understand different cultures and customs so they can better live with people
from other countries; (2) see lifestyles in other countries which Japan has a rela-
tionship with; and (3) know the nature of international exchange and cooperation
schemes such as the United Nations so they can consider the roles Japan can play in
the world.
The NCS recommends activities that students select to learn about countries
having close relations with Japan, so teachers encourage students to understand
cultures in other countries and respect traditions and cultures in Japan and foreign
countries as well.
168 M. Yuda
13.4.2 Global Understanding in Geography Education

in Junior High Schools
The main objective of Social Studies in the NCS is to help students “look wider and
raise awareness of society, think from various perspectives using various data,
understand and love our own nation and history, establish a basis for citizens to live
in a global society, and make a peaceful and democratic nation and society”
(MEXT 2008a).
Social Studies in junior high schools are divided into three fields: geography,
history, and civics. Geography curriculum in junior high school is designed to
prepare students to think about geographic phenomena from multiple perspectives
and consists primarily of regional geography. The curriculum focuses on under-
standing differences and similarities in the world, as well as knowing about and
finding the uniqueness of Japan through learning about the natural environments,
population characteristics, energy resources, and relationships among regions. In
other words, students learn about the world in relation to Japan.
Regarding global understanding, the NCS includes goals with global elements.
Teachers are expected to motivate students: (1) to raise interest in geographical
phenomena in Japan and the world, to consider the regional characteristics of the
land in Japan and regions in the world from wider perspectives, to cultivate the
foundation of a geographical viewpoint and way of thinking, and to acquire a
geographical understanding of the land and regions of the world; (2) to know
various phenomena found in Japan and the world from a locational and spatial
perspective, to understand the environmental conditions and human activities
considering the scale of the area, and to find the characteristics and the issues in
each area; and (3) to understand that various areas in Japan and the world are
mutually related, and the characteristics of each area have uniqueness and com-
monalities but change under the different conditions accordingly (MEXT 2008a).
Typically, these goals related to global understanding are achieved using atlases,
globes, and world maps to help students take a broad view of the regional com-
position of the world through learning latitude and longitude, the distribution of
continents and oceans, the names and positions of major countries, and key world
regions. Next, students study the situation of peoples’ lives and their transforma-
tions around the world considering natural and social conditions. Here, teachers
choose appropriate case studies of geographical phenomena to grasp peoples’ living
conditions in Asia, Europa, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania in
order to understand characteristics of each region. In addition, students do research
on the characteristics of various regions of the world. Through these activities,
students understand the diversity of the ways of life and environments of people
and places around the world.
The term “global perspective” is frequently found in the geography component
of the Social Studies in the junior high school curriculum. This term is used to lead
students to understand how Japan is unique and at the same time similar to other
places through a comparison with other countries. It also helps students to define
Japanese identity in their own words. For instance, a goal of the unit on the natural
environment is that teachers help students “to understand the features of topography
and climate and the characteristics of the landscape surrounded by the ocean in
Japan from the global perspective. (MEXT 2008b)” A target of a unit on population
is also “to understand the population and population density, the issues of an aging
population and the declining birthrate of Japan from a global perspective.” “From
global perspectives” is the important keyword and the point of view to understand
Japan, and this idea is reflected in the actual curriculum at every school and edu-
cational materials, including the textbooks.
13.4.3 Global Understanding Education in Geography

Education in Senior High Schools
In senior high education, geography is taught within the geography and history
subject group, and there are two subjects; Geography A and Geography B.
Geography A is two credits, consisting of 70 lesson hours (two lesson hours a week)
and Geography B is four credits, 140 lesson hours (four lesson hours a week).
The NCS for senior high school, issued by MEXT in 2009, set the common
goals of these two subjects as considering various geographical issues in the world
and cultivating geographical points of view, ways of thinking, and consciousness of
quality of life as a Japanese living responsibly in a global society. Ultimately, the
goal is to educate young people able to proactively live in an international com-
munity while being aware of their responsibilities as Japanese citizens to make a
peaceful and democratic nation and society.
In Geography A, students understand global issues from examples from various
world regions. Geography B takes a systematic approach to geography by using
theories to explain many topics from both physical and human. The notable point in
both Geography A and B is that various phenomena observed in the world are dealt
with to learn geographical theories and principles. Students know differences and
similarities in the world and understand the mechanisms and processes behind
geographical phenomena. Through a selection of learning activities, students are
getting closer to the goal that they acquire the skills to apply knowledge to different
cases observed locally and globally.
13.5 New National Curriculum Standards and Geography

Education
MEXT announced new NCS for primary and junior high schools in March 2017.
Primary schools will introduce this curriculum beginning in 2020 while junior high
schools will begin in 2021. The current NCS for primary and high schools were
170 M. Yuda
published in 2008 and 2009. The Central Council for Education, an advisory
committee of the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
began revisions to the NCS in 2014 and submitted the final report in December
2016. After soliciting public comments, MEXT officially announced the new NCS
for primary and junior high schools on March 31, 2017. Teachers and publishers of
textbooks are now preparing to introduce the new NCS. MEXT will announce the
new NCS for senior high schools in March 2018, which will be implemented in
April 2022.
The new NCS has some notable changes. In terms of global understanding
education, one of the highlights is that geography will return as a compulsory
subject in senior high school education. The Central Council for Education explains
that the common goal of social studies from primary to secondary education is “to
develop the fundamental qualities and abilities of citizens who will form the
peaceful and democratic nation and society living in the global community through
activities to pursue tasks and solve problems using social perspective and social
ways of thinking with wider perspectives.” (Central Council for Education 2016).
Geography education in senior high schools will be restructured in the new NCS.
All senior high school students will study “Chiri Sogo (Integrated Geography)” as a
compulsory subject. “Chiri Tankyu (Inquiry-based Geography),” an advanced and
elective subject will be available for students who would like to study further. In
Chiri Sogo, global understanding and international cooperation will be one of the
core learning themes in addition to Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and disaster prevention.
Understanding international cooperation will lead students to understand the rea-
sons why environmental issues, conflicts, and ensuing refugee situations occur in
the world and to consider what we Japanese can do for the global society as citizens
of this world.
An additional significant change is the distribution of an atlas for students. In the
current NCS, students receive an atlas for the first time in fourth grade. From the
next NCS, an atlas will be distributed to all third graders to improve global
education.
13.6 Conclusion
Geography education in Japan has played an important role in nurturing an

awareness of global citizenship by helping students to learn about foreign countries
and to understand the causes of many geographical phenomena and social issues.
The use of international examples and meaningful comparisons helps students to
better understand their home, Japan.
In order to better understand the world, the government distributes atlases as
well as textbooks to all students; the goal is for students to learn through maps.
Many maps are found in textbooks as well, and international understanding has
advanced in the curriculum through these resources. Instructional materials that use
maps extensively help to foster a global perspective.
The new NCS, to be introduced beginning in 2020, will dramatically change
school education in Japan. Since global understanding is one of the important goals
in the next NCS, geography will play an important role in the development of
globally competent Japanese.
References
Basic Act on Education. (2006). http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?id=2442&

vm=04&re=02&new=1. Accessed 30 May 2017.
Central Council for Education. (2016). Yochien, shogakko, chugakko, kotogakko oyobi tokubetsu
shien gakko no gakushu shido yoryo tou no kaizen oyobi hitsuyo na hosaku tou ni tsuite
(Toshin) (Solutions for improvement of the National Curriculum Standards for kindergarten,
primary, junior and senior high schools and schools for special needs [report]). http://www.
mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo0/toushin/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2016/12/27/1380731_
00.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2017.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2008a). Chugakko gakushu
shido yoryo (National Curriculum Standards for junior high school). Tokyo: MEXT.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2008b). Shogakko gakushu
shido yoryo (National Curriculum Standards for primary school). Tokyo: MEXT.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2009). Kotogakko gakushu
shido yoryo (National Curriculum Standards for senior high school). Tokyo: MEXT.
Yuda, M. (2015). Textbook approval system and geography textbooks in Japan. In Y. Ida, et al.,
(Eds.), Geography education in Japan (pp. 49–62). Tokyo: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-4-431-54953-6_5.
Chapter 14
Global Understanding in South Africa
Christo P. van der Westhuizen and Aubrey Golightly
14.1 General Overview of Geography Education in South

Africa: The Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statement (CAPS) for Geography
Whereas in the CAPS curriculum geography is compulsory in the lower grades

(Grades 4 to 9) and forms part of the natural sciences and social sciences, in the
Further Education and Training (FET) band (Grades 10 to 12), geography is one of
the elective subjects. South Africa went through a few curriculum changes since
1994. The latest CAPS in general narrowed their focus to establish a clear
discipline-specific approach, but such a re-establishment of subject boundaries
(South Africa 2011) unfortunately does not help to promote global understanding.
Although the core themes of human and physical geography stayed intact
throughout these changes, a few modern and necessary global themes have emerged
that give greater prominence to global issues and understanding. The main issues
closely related to global issues covered in the various sub-disciplines of geography
in the FET phase (Grade 10 to 12) are overpopulation, global population move-
ments, urban and industrial development and growth, trade and development (with
examples from around the world), the role of development aid, climate change and
ocean pollution, drought and desertification, resources and sustainability, especially
conventional energy sources and their impact on the global environment, and the
shift towards non-conventional energy sources, as well as HIV/Aids (refer to the
C. P. van der Westhuizen (&) A. Golightly

North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa
e-mail: christo.vanderwesthuizen@nwu.ac.za
A. Golightly
e-mail: aubrey.golightly@nwu.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_14
174 C. P. van der Westhuizen and A. Golightly
complete CAPS document under Geography at http://www.education.gov.za/

Curriculum/CurriculumAssessmentPolicyStatements(CAPS)/CAPSFET.aspx or at
the following link: http://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/CD/National%20Curri
culum%20Statements%20and%20Vocational/CAPS%20FET%20_%20GEOGRA
PHY%20_%20GR%2010-12%20_%20WEB_C9A9.pdf?ver=2015-01-27-154144-
177.
Unfortunately, ecological geography as a sub-discipline and the influence of
humankind on the environment are not as prominent as they were in the previous
geography curriculum. A great concern is that geography teachers will now focus
only on covering geography content and not concern themselves much with
essential higher order discussions that will provide learners with a global under-
standing of this field.
Besides the greater incline towards global themes, the overarching themes still in
place are climate and weather, geomorphology and rural and urban settlement.
Themes that develop geographical skills and techniques as well as Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) are integrated with each theme over the course of 3
years. GIS application includes remote sensing and GIS concepts in Grade 10,
application of GIS to all relevant topics, and data manipulation (data integration,
buffering, querying and statistical analysis) and application of GIS to government
and the private sector in Grades 11 and 12.
14.2 Guidelines and Main Global Issues Covered

in the General and Geography Aims
in the Curriculum
Besides the above-mentioned themes focusing on global issues, the CAPS docu-
ments also contain noble guidelines regarding a global focus on and pursuit of
understanding. The five general aims include sufficient global focus, contexts and
issues, and specifically the first aim: … ensure that children acquire and apply
knowledge and skills in ways that are meaningful to their own lives. In this regard,
the curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while being sensitive to
global imperatives. Thus, it is not surprising that the overarching definition of
geography in the South African CAPS includes important global focuses such as
With the use of geography, we can better understand our complex world…; In
Human Geography, we investigate the activities and impact of people on Earth…;
The concept that unifies geography is space. All geographical phenomena have a
spatial dimension and operate in a continuously changing environment (South
Africa 2011).
More so, the CAPS document for geography is adamant that good geographical
and self-directed learning skills are fostered and promoted through applicable
teaching and learning strategies. It aims, according to the fourth general aim, to
produce learners that are able to
14 Global Understanding in South Africa 175
• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative
thinking, and by working effectively as individuals and with others as members
of a team;
• use science and technology effectively and critically, by showing responsibility
towards the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by
recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
The nine general geography aims in the FET phase are likewise conducive to
honing a global focus and developing problem-solving thinking abilities. Learners
are also guided to cultivate a commitment towards sustainable development, an
awareness and sensitivity to inequality in the world, and sound judgements about
social and environmental issues.
In summary, the CAPS for geography in South Africa provides ample oppor-
tunity and practices of geography that are necessary to empower members of
societies and better equip learners with essential global understandings.
14.3 The Potential and Failure of GIS as a Spatial Tool

for Global Understanding and Solving of Global
Problems
One of the nine general aims of the South African CAPS for geography is to
promote the use of new technologies such as Information Communication
Technology (ICT) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). GIS has the
potential to foster skills in learners that can help them understand and solve global
challenges.
The catalytic ability of GIS to comprehend both the world in general and the
complexity of geographic phenomena in particular (Madsen and Rump 2012) has
revived the importance of and interest in geography in the school curriculum.
Indeed, the swiftness with which GIS can dynamically re-represent the globe can
address each critical issue of our era, for example, limited water resources, biodi-
versity, hazards, agriculture, economics and sustainability. The foremost argument
for including GIS practice in the geography curriculum is to enhance geospatial
thinking skills, which in turn improve learners’ conceptual understanding of Earth
science with specific exercises on how to solve real-world problems and therefore
support exploring capabilities (Madsen and Rump 2012). Furthermore, when
teaching through GIS, it is recommended that an accommodating teaching and
learning strategy such as Problem-Based Learning (PBL) be used to help realise
these skills. GIS education also nurtures the expansion of higher order thinking
skills, such as problem-solving and critical thinking. The South African CAPS for
geography offers great promise in adhering to all the above advantages of GIS
integration.
This inclusion of GIS into the curriculum envisioned technologically empowered

spatial competence of school leavers (Innes 2012). However, South African edu-
cators regarded GIS practice as a twofold challenge: (1) Information Technology
(IT) resources are lacking in most South African high schools and (2) neglected
paper-based map studies have caused low levels of map literacy amongst the
majority of school leavers in the past (Innes 2012). These challenges lead to the
slow implementation of GIS through the South African education system.
Unfortunately, like in most other countries, the slow diffusion of GIS practice
through the local education system suggests that GIS educational policy develop-
ments have outpaced supportive academic research of GIS practice within the South
African context. Furthermore, despite the inclusion of GIS in the FET phase school
curriculum, the Department of Basic Education (DoBE) has failed to offer clear
guidelines regarding GIS implementation in diverse school environments (Eksteen
et al. 2012).
In a national online survey conducted by Fleischmann (2016) in SA with an
availability sampling of 222 FET phase geography teachers in 2015, hardly any
learners were exposed to GIS in digital format and mostly encountered textbook or
paper-based GIS. Also in this survey, the benefits of GIS for the learner were
evaluated. The results from 167 teachers who completed this section of the survey,
displayed in Table 14.1, provide their viewpoint on the value of GIS for learners.
Although the lack of GIS applications in schools is disappointing, teachers in
practise across South Africa still value GIS as highly beneficial for learners across a
range of skills and factors, even though schools face GIS practice integration
constraints.
It should be noted that in order to reap the rich benefits of GIS, the learners need
to experience the GIS software (Fleischmann 2016). The key GIS teaching chal-
lenges in South Africa (i.e. lack of time, money and support) are similar to those in
other countries and remain mainly quantified, undefined and unchallenged. Thus, a
great opportunity to potentially equip learners with essential global understanding is
found wanting.
14.4 Trends and Prospects for Future Geography

Education
14.4.1 Importance of Subject Knowledge and Pedagogical

Content Knowledge in Teaching Global Geography
Issues
From the literature review dealing with the South African context, it is evident that
geography teachers in most schools still have a long way to go in implementing
learner-centred instructional approaches when they teach global issues in the
geography classroom (De Waal and Grösser 2009). Meaningful teaching of global
14
Table 14.1 Percentage frequencies of GIS learner benefits

The extent to which you think each of the following factors (regarding N Strongly Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly Mean Standard
GIS learning) can/does benefit learners? disagree agree Deviation
Enhances learning of geographical concepts 167 2.40 2.40 5.39 44.91 44.91 4.28 0.862
Enhances geospatial-thinking skills 167 3.59 0.60 5.39 41.32 49.10 4.32 0.982
Promotes higher levels of thinking 167 2.99 1.80 5.99 41.32 47.90 4.29 0.894
Global Understanding in South Africa
Promotes problem-solving skills 167 2.99 0.00 8.38 45.51 43.11 4.26 0.850
Promotes critical thinking skills 167 2.99 0.00 7.19 44.31 45.51 4.29 0.845
Provides an exploratory tool for data analysis 167 2.99 2.40 6.59 45.51 42.51 4.22 0.901
Provides employment skills 167 2.40 2.40 9.58 35.93 49.70 4.28 0.911
Provides real-world relevance to subject 167 2.99 2.40 5.39 36.53 52.69 4.34 0.916
Provides integration of different subjects 167 2.99 4.19 11.98 38.92 41.92 4.13 0.983
Provides opportunities to partner with the community and other such 167 2.99 4.79 11.38 40.72 40.12 4.10 0.986
projects
Enhances motivation and student interest 167 2.99 2.99 9.58 40.72 43.71 4.19 0.944
177
geography issues requires the geography teacher to have a solid subject knowledge,
as well as an in-depth understanding of the global geography issues and how to
facilitate student learning with regard to these issues.
Shulman (1986) developed the concept of pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK) to show how important it is to integrate subject knowledge (content) and
pedagogy in teaching. PCK involves the blending of subject content and pedagogy
into an understanding of how particular content knowledge is organised and pre-
sented to instruct a diverse range of learners (Reitano and Harte 2016). In a South
African context, Dube (2017) pointed out that geography teachers in selected
schools in the Western Cape are experiencing conceptual difficulties regarding the
subject matter knowledge pertaining to sustainable development and education for
sustainable development (ESD). According to her, the challenge relates to the
teachers’ PCK for implementing ESD. One way of enhancing geography teachers’
CK and PCK according to Jita and Mokhele (2014) is using ‘teacher clusters’ where
geography teachers from different schools plan and discuss effective ways of
teaching global geography issues.
It is important to focus in the training of South African geography student
teachers and on the development of these students’ subject knowledge and peda-
gogical content knowledge so as to prepare future geography teachers who are able
to deal in a meaningful way with the global issues in the geography curriculum.
It is imperative for practising geography teachers to model good geography
teaching to promote meaningful learning in their classrooms and provide oppor-
tunities for their student teachers to develop effective geography teaching skills
during work integrated learning. Reitano and Harte (2016) argue that opportunities
must be provided for geography student teachers to experiment with PCK in a safe,
supportive environment. Examples of such environments are peer-reviewed
micro-lessons, or the use of technology in micro-teaching to create greater
opportunities for geography student teachers to reflect on their own and fellow
students’ micro-lessons (Van der Westhuizen and Golightly 2015). In another
study, Golightly (2016) used fourth-year geography students to act as tutors for
first- and second-year geography students in problem-based learning activities to
help develop their facilitation skills.
By implementing problem-based learning (PBL) (Golightly and Muniz 2013),
issue-based learning (Wilmot and Norton 2004), cooperative learning (Booysen
2015) and fieldwork (Raath and Golightly 2016) in global issue education, geog-
raphy student teachers will be empowered to practise their skills and learn how and
when to effectively use these strategies when dealing with the global issues men-
tioned in the South African geography curriculum. Interestingly, Traut (2017) also
found in her study at a South African university that geography student teachers’
involvement in a creativity workshop provided the spark that is needed between
content knowledge and pedagogical practice to transform subject knowledge for
enhanced and deeper learning.
It is thus crucial to involve current geography teachers in professional devel-
opment workshops to assist them in the effective teaching and learning of global
issues in their classroom. Anyanwu and Le Grange (2017) studied the influence of
teacher variables on Climate Change Science Literacy (CCSL) of geography

teachers in the Western Cape. They found that teacher characteristics such as
gender, age, teaching experiences and teaching grade significantly influenced the
CCSL of geography teachers while qualification and specialisation did not. These
findings definitely challenge geography lecturers involved in teacher training to
create learning environments and spaces in which student teachers’ content
knowledge and PCK can be developed to have a positive influence on their teaching
of global geography issues. Research shows that PBL, as a teaching and learning
approach, can help to enhance student teachers’ content knowledge and develop
their PCK (Golightly 2016). A starting point in this regard may be to implement
PBL in the various geography education programmes.
14.4.2 Problem-Based Learning in Geography Education
In the South African context, most education students have not yet been exposed to
PBL when dealing with global geography issues (Golightly and Raath 2015). PBL
has the potential to introduce students to real-world global geography issues that
they can solve in their local environment.
In a typical PBL process,
• the teacher creates an ill-structured real-world geography problem;
• students work in small tutorial groups;
• the students formulate specific learning issues in order to solve the problem;
• these learning issues are conceptualised into different learning tasks;
• group members must complete the tasks in their own time;
• students explore various resources (textbooks, fieldwork, maps, etc.);
• students present solutions to the problem; and
• the facilitator/tutor stimulates the discussion, evaluates progress and monitors
the group members’ contribution to the group.
Geography teachers must refer to the global issues prescribed in the geography
curriculum and formulate real-world problems for their learners to solve. In liter-
ature, there are examples of geography educators introducing GIS technology so as
to engage students with real-world, local data about global issues, and provide a
safe environment in which to study and pursue those issues (Liu et al. 2010).
In summary, it is clear that PBL will require both practising and student teachers
to utilise many facets of their CK and PCK of global geography issues in a highly
integrated manner. For instance:
• Geography teachers need to consider their beliefs about teaching global geog-
raphy issues and understand how the philosophical underpinnings of PBL are
aligned with their beliefs.
• Most global issue PBL experiences are interdisciplinary and therefore geogra-
phy teachers should be able to interpret and apply curriculum aims and objec-
tives to classroom practice in their own as well as other disciplines.
• Teachers should create global geography problems to encourage learners to
develop higher level thinking and group collaboration skills.
• In PBL environments, teachers will, in some instances, have to incorporate other
teaching and learning strategies (such as lecturers, demonstrations, cooperative
learning and case studies) when dealing with global issues.
• Geography teachers need to consider how GIS technology can be effectively
implemented in a PBL environment to help solve global geography issues.
• Geography teachers and learners should be actively involved in assessing their
progress as they work towards finding solutions to global problems.
14.5 Conclusion
The South African geography curriculum covers most of the prominent global
geography issues. The authors believe that well-prepared geography teachers are
crucial for the effective teaching and learning of global geography issues in schools.
Thus, both geography teachers and student teachers must have the necessary subject
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of these global issues to ensure
meaningful learning in their classroom. One way to achieve this is to involve
geography student teachers in a problem-based learning environment. The progress
made with geospatial technologies such as GIS can also help teachers to develop
learners’ critical thinking skills and empower them to understand and solve global
geography issues.
References
Anyanwu, R., & Le Grange, L. (2017). The influence of teacher variables on climate change
science literacy of Geography teachers in the Western Cape, South Africa. International
Research in Geographical and Environmental Education https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.
2017.1330039.
Booysen, B. (2015). Toward a cooperative learning process in building social cohesion in a grade
10 geography classroom: Action research approach. Magister in Education: Stellenbosch
University.
De Waal, E., & Grösser, M. M. (2009). Safety and security at school: A pedagogical perspective.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5), 697–706.
Dube, C. (2017). The uptake of education for sustainable development in geography curricula in
South African schools. In H. Lotz-Sisitka, O. Shumba, J. Lupele, & D. Wilmot (Eds.),
Schooling for sustainable development in Africa (pp. 93–106). Cham: Springer.
Eksteen, S., Pretorius, E., & Breetzke, G. (2012). South Africa: Teaching geography with gis
across diverse technological contexts. In A.J. Milson, A. Demirci, & J.J. Kerski (Eds.),
International perspecties on teaching and learning with gis in secondary schools (pp. 225–
232). New York: Springer.
Fleischmann, E. M-L. (2016). A Framework for Interactive-GIS-Tutor integration within FET
phase Geography. Ph.D., Potchefstroom North-West University.
Golightly, A., & Muniz, O. A. (2013). Are South African geography students ready for
problem-based learning? Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 37(3), 432–455.
Golightly, A. (2016). Geography student tutors’ perceptions and experiences in problem-based
learning tutorial sessions. Journal of Communication, 7(1), 20–33.
Golightly, A., & Raath, S. (2015). Geography education students’ approaches to learning in PBL.
Journal of Geography, 114(2), 58–68.
Innes, L. (2012). South african school geography: Underpinning the foundation of geospatial
competence. South African Journal of Geomatics, 1(1):92–108.
Jita, L. C., & Mokhele, M. L. (2014). When teacher clusters work: selected experiences of South
African teachers with the cluster approach to professional development. South African Journal
of Education, 34(2), 01–15.
Liu, Y., Bui, E. N., Chang, C., & Lossman, H. G. (2010). PBL-GIS in secondary geography
education: Does it result in higher-order learning outcomes? Journal of Geography, 109(4),
150–158.
Madsen, L. M., & Rump, C. (2012). Considerations of how to study learning processes when
students use GIS as an instrument for developing spatial thinking skills. Journal of Geography
in Higher Education, 36(1), 97–116.
Raath, S., & Golightly, A. (2016). Geography education students’ experiences with a
problem-based learning fieldwork activity. Journal of Geography. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00221341.2016.1264059.
Reitano, P., & Harte, W. (2016). Geography pre-service teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge.
Pedagogies: An International Journal, 11(4), 279–291.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15, 4–14.
South Africa. Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy
statement. Grades 10–12. Cape Town: Government Printing.
Traut, H. J. (2017). Creativity in initial teacher education: A case study in geography at
Stellenbosch University. Doctor of Philosophy: Stellenbosch University.
Van der Westhuizen, C. P., & Golightly, A. (2015). VideoANT as web-based 2.0 technology in
geography micro-teaching. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 39(2), 420–436.
Wilmot, D., & Norton, S. (2004). Issues-based enquiry at two South African schools. Teaching
Geography, 29, 128–132.
Chapter 15
Spain: Geography Education for Global
Understanding
Rafael de Miguel González and Maria Luisa de Lázaro Torres
15.1 Geography Education and Curriculum in Spain
Traditionally, the Spanish geography curriculum has been based on the regionalist
school model. Some debates in the 1950s and the 1960s proposed to start geo-
graphic education with a study of the local environment or with Spain as a whole in
order to better understand the concept of the “nation-state” in the international
context. Nevertheless, in previous works, geography curriculum in Spain has been
analyzed from this perspective (Valenzuela et al. 2004; Souto 2008; González
2011; De Miguel 2014), underlining the struggle between an interpretative con-
ception of geographical space and a systematic approach to geographical space. As
can be inferred from the table for not-compulsory secondary school found in
Chap. 10, the geographical approach to the latest curricula structures are much
more descriptive and encyclopedic. Successive annual conferences on Geographic
Education held by the Group of Geographic Education of the Spanish Geographers
Association have debated the dilemma between two ways of geography teaching:
learning by heart instead or learning by doing, that is, geography teaching focused
in theoretical contents or geography teaching based on geographical skills and
spatial citizenship (De Miguel 2014b, 2015, 2016).
Geography in elementary education (Kindergarten to Grade 6) doesnot exist by
itself, social sciences is the only school subject. In lower secondary education,
teaching geography and history together continues for three years (G7 to G9). After
two years without doing any geography education (G10 and G11), students can
learn geography in the last course (G12). One way or another, geography is taught
R. de Miguel González (&)

M. L. de Lázaro Torres
National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: mllazaro@geo.uned.es

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_15
184 R. de Miguel González and M. L. de Lázaro Torres
in Spain for the first nine years of school education. From then on, geography
education is not a compulsory subject, but an optional subject for those seniors
studying modality of Arts (Table 15.1).
The overall geography content in basic secondary education (ages 12–15) has
not changed much, rather their organization or distribution from the first to third
years. A somewhat classical outline of physical geography/human geography/
regional geography has been followed. Nevertheless, several cross-curricular con-
tents have been added as the subject is social sciences and it should promote civic
education: the current world, its features and problems, globalization, spatial
imbalances in development, political conflicts, cultural diversity, environmental
challenges and sustainability, social inequalities, migration, etc. For this reason, the
curriculum in lower secondary is based on approach; that allows the psychological
passage of students from the concrete to the formal. Thus, students improve their
spatial thinking from descriptions and locations to explanations and characteriza-
tions and eventually to interpretations of geographical phenomena and processes.
In turn, the geography curriculum in upper secondary education is only studied
in the last year of school, after two years (ages 16 and 17) without learning
geography. As a result, students suffer the same problems as in compulsory edu-
cation, which can be verified after textbook research (De Miguel 2013). First, the
low level of procedural contents (geographical working methods) versus theoretical
ones, excessively oriented toward regional geography, “anchored to a thematic
academicism and a methodological conservatism, expressed in some scholastic
objectives and contents with little space for innovation” (Souto 2011). It has pro-
duced the general perception of geography in schools as being closer to a
descriptive science rather than an explanatory science.
Table 15.1 Geography, history, and social sciences in the Spanish curriculum
School education in Spain
Level Course Geography in curriculum Equivalence K12
Primary education 1º de Primaria Social sciences K and G1
2º de Primaria Social sciences G2
Lower secondary education 1º ESO Geography and history G7
2º ESO Geography and history G8
3º ESO Geography G9
4º ESO History G10
Upper secondary education 1º Bachillerato History (Arts) G11
2º Bachillerato Geography (Arts) G12
History (Arts and Sciences)
15 Spain: Geography Education for Global Understanding 185
15.1.1 Geography and Global Understanding in Middle

School
Following a detailed analysis, it can be observed that the Spanish geography cur-
riculum for lower secondary education (G7 to G10) (Table 15.2) has little con-
nection to global understanding issues. Of the 15 topics in geography education,
two (13%) have no relationship with key IYGU messages or IYGU challenges, as
described at the International Year for Global Understanding web page. At the same
time, six topics (40%) have a weak connection to global understanding issues.
Table 15.2 Geography curriculum contents and global understanding issues, K7-K10
Level Course Equivalence Topics in curriculum Connection to
K12 GU issues
Lower secondary 1º G7 Earth in the solar system N
education ESO Relief: Spain, Europe, and N
world
Hydrology: Spain, Europe, and W
world
Climate, landscapes: Spain, W
Europe, and world
Environmental changes S
2º G8 Population: Spain and Europe W
ESO Human activities and W
environment: Spain and EU
Sustainable development: Spain S
Spanish and European cities as S
ecosystems
3º G9 Population: world S
ESO Human activities and S
environment: world
Sustainable development: S
world
World regions by productive W
specialization
World cities W
Spatial inequalities, S
development, and conflicts
4º G10 History: nineteenth to S
ESO twenty-first centuries
Globalization S
Technology and sociocultural S
changes
Regional conflicts
S Strong; W Weak; N None
However, seven (47%) can be considered geographical content with a strong

connection to global understanding. On the other side, the fourth year of lower
secondary (4º ESO, K10) is a course of Late Modern History from the nineteenth
century to the current times, including ten major units. The last one comprises the
characteristics of the present world through three topics: globalization, technology,
and sociocultural changes, as well as regional conflicts from a spatiotemporal
approach. Ironically, a course and a curriculum in history–and not geography–is
where global understanding issues are being taught. In addition, what also can be
observed is that the older the students, the more important global understanding is.
Thus, in G7 (1º ESO), the geography curriculum is mostly focused on physical
geography, while the presence of global understanding themes increases in G8, G9,
and G10.
Despite this positive view of the geography curriculum, there are other matters
susceptible of being criticized. First of all, the spatial scale on human, economic,
social, and cultural geographies are fragmented. At the G8 level population, human,
and economic activities in Spain and in Europe are taught, but at G8 the same
content is taught at the global scale. What defines global understanding is linking
the global and the local. In the Spanish curriculum, the place, the local geographies
that can be observed and felt by the 12–15-year-old students, are marginalized. The
closest local scale is national and even the national scale is separated from the
global scale one year later. This makes it extremely difficult, and one of the ped-
agogical challenges to developing global understanding: the bottom-up approach of
students raising awareness of their local environment as a part of the global system.
15.1.2 Geography and Global Understanding in High

School
In high school, the context is even worse. After G9, geography is no longer
compulsory for all Spanish pupils. According to the official statistics from the
Ministry of Education, 439,219 people enrolled in Spain for grade G9. However,
only 310,000 reached the G12 level, out of which 155,049 chose Humanities and
Social Sciences subjects, but only around 100,000 students enrolled in geography
for Selectividad exams (equivalent to SAT/ACT (US) or A-level (UK) exams). In
other words, more than 75% of Spanish students in secondary education donot learn
geography after G-9 as it is not a compulsory subject. For the rest of the students
who choose geography at G12, most do not remember basic geographical concepts
three years later and they must update their knowledge.
Besides, at this grade, this subject is focused mostly on the regional geography
of Spain, according to the current curriculum structure, which implies distance from
the global scale. This is one of the biggest criticisms that we have as geography
educators of the Department of Education for curriculum making and learning
outcomes standards: 17-year-old students shouldnot lose too much time studying
in-depth content such as Spanish geology or the names of rivers or population data
by provinces, but they should be deepening their geographical knowledge of Spain
to better understand the world, to increase their global understanding, and, indeed,
to empower them. Pedagogic approaches that develop global understanding such as
problem-based learning and solving, place as a sample of global challenges, and
case studies to verify recent changes are barely used in classrooms.
A national-centered curriculum prevents geography teachers and students from
going beyond their own experience to discover the world’s diversity of environ-
ments, societies, and cultures (Table 15.3).
According to these previous arguments, placing “short-sighted” geography of
Spain in the last year of secondary education (more than 90% of the curricular
content is centered on Spain as a spatial set) makes it very difficult to implement a
real global understanding approach. On the contrary, the last of the 12 topics (or the
first one, depending on sequencing of the curricular content) is by itself the topic of
global understanding. Thus, some key issues for global understanding, which
hardly are expressed in the lower education curriculum, at this level are very
detailed, including environmental and climate change, regional conflicts, global-
ization, and cultural changes. Despite its reduced time in the whole curriculum, it
should be the main topic in which geography teachers could do more activities. This
is in line with the age of the students, their intellectual maturity, and their proximity
to the adult age in order to raise awareness of their own everyday life, practices on
daily activities, and local actions.
Table 15.3 Geography curriculum contents and global understanding issues, G12
Level Course Equivalence Topics in curriculum Connection to
K12 GU issues
Upper secondary 2º G12 Spatial thinking and W
education Bachillerato mapping
Spanish relief N
Climate in Spain and S
climate change
Hydrology in Spain N
Landscape and W
environmental changes
Spanish population N
Rural spaces in Spain N
Energy and industry in N
Spain
Tertiary sector in Spain N
Spanish cities N
Administrative divisions N
of Spain
Spain, Europe, and the S
World
S Strong; W Weak; N None
15.2 Teaching Activities for Global Understanding
Geography education is based on curriculum, but real teaching practices are quite
different than a list of contents of learning standards. In previous papers (De Miguel
2013; Vera and De Lázaro 2010), we have analyzed the usefulness of textbooks for
school education, bearing in mind several surveys have concluded that the textbook
is the main and only instructional material to teach history and geography in middle
schools for 50% of teachers. This percentage rises to 70% of teachers who rec-
ognize that textbooks are used in the classroom in a regular way, at least once a
week, and to 80% for teachers who use textbooks for a main, regular or occasional
use. Another survey (De Miguel 2014c) about the use of geospatial technologies in
geography learning activities confirms those data: 54% of students stated that they
never use virtual globes, WebGIS, remote sensing, etc. for geography learning
activities. According to this, we have selected several teaching activities from the
main geography textbooks used in Spain at the K-12 level focusing on the topic of
Spain, Europe, and the world, due to its connection to global understanding issues.
As geography teacher trainers, we mentor our master’s students in real high school
classrooms, where we can confirm the overwhelming use of textbooks, and so, the
following implementation of global understanding teaching practices (Table 15.4).
Table 15.4 Teaching activities for global understanding in textbooks

Textbook A Textbook B Textbook C Textbook D
Do you recognize any Draft an outline of Problem-based Analyze world map
multinational brand environmental learning: daily on regional conflicts
on your clothes? summits (from practices for saving and search UN
Where is it Stockholm 72 to domestic water peacekeeping
manufactured? Is Paris 15) and check missions where
there any the topics with your Spanish army has
multinational factory local agenda 21 participated
in your region? (recycling…)
Write an essay and Case study: local Inquiry: ethnicity in Inquiry: locate
debate about labor wildfire, your city and country Cervantes Institute
conditions and deforestation, and of origin by headquarters around
human rights in your loss of biodiversity neighborhood. the world to promote
local context and Integration and Spanish language and
compare them with coexistence news culture
other countries appeared in local
press
UNWTO is Inquiry: international Have you ever been Research: local
headquartered in destinations from to any international transportation and
Madrid. Inquiry your nearest airport NGO office in your commuting modes
about their functions. city? Do you know and local actions for
their work in less sustainable mobility
developed countries?
15.3 Discussion on Global Understanding and Geography

Education in Spain
After reviewing several theoretical references for a better global understanding

education (Massey 2004; Robertson 2016), and after analyzing Spanish curriculum
and teaching resources, we propose an initial conclusion in the same way that other
discussions on geography education have: “the glass is half full and it’s getting
fuller” (Bednarz and Bednarz 2004). There are several problems we observe: the
regional and encyclopedic approach of the geography curriculum, as well as a
geography centered in local and regional scales. We observe the extensive use of
master classes, textbooks, and transmissive teaching methodologies, to the detri-
ment of active pedagogies, geospatial technologies, geographical skills, and global
scale topics. This context hinders the use of inquiry-based learning, case study
approaches, and geospatial activities that are central aspects to the renewal of
geographical education through the acquisition of spatial competencies and geo-
graphical knowledge to analyze, explain, understand, and act in the local envi-
ronment and in the global context.
However, there are some lights for geography education. Despite the rigidity of
the official curriculum, innovative Spanish teachers and schools are implementing
new styles of learning as real curriculum leaders, following the geocapabilities
approach (Lambert et al. 2015). A main aspect that is being improved upon is the
replacement of rote learning of geography for a reflective and analytical study of the
world. Some innovative approaches have developed learning assessment criteria
based on understanding, comparing, explaining, and analyzing rather than identi-
fying, defining, describing, etc. Geography education for global understanding
should be regarded as a tool to induce cognitive processes rather than as a program
of academic content. In other words, the challenge is not teaching “space” but rather
teaching how to think about the local and global spatial interactions. It involves
looking into the way students think of space as an abstract cognitive entity allowing
a better understanding and representation of the geographical processes defining the
current world.
During the last National Conference on Geographic Education, we described
new styles of geography learning in two ways: what to teach in geography? and
how to teach in geography? (De Miguel 2016). It is indisputable that some of the
key messages of global understanding are not included in curriculum or teaching
resources such as textbooks, in particular, those related to the six essential daily
activities, including eating, housing, traveling, communicating, preserving, and
recovering (Jackson et al. 2016; Robinson et al. 2016; Robertson 2016). However,
other topics defining the spatial challenges of the world are increasingly present in
real teachers teaching practices: spatial imbalances, human development, sustain-
able development, civil rights, peace versus regional conflicts, cultural and religious
diversity, environmental impacts, climate and landscape changes, urban develop-
ment, housing, water, food and energy supply, demographic growth, transportation,
social inequalities, local development, and unemployment. Practically every one of

the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) has a spatial dimension. In a certain
sense, we could develop a geography curriculum for global understanding struc-
tured in 17 lesson units, each one of the SDG as key challenges for the global future
of Earth.
On the other hand, we could develop a second geography curriculum for global
understanding from the national scale to contextualize Spain in the global system,
including the following topics:
– the position of the Iberian Peninsula as a strategic place in the global interre-
lationships north–south (Europe–Africa), east–west (Mediterranean–Atlantic)
and the historical regional conflicts because of enclaves as Gibraltar, Ceuta, and
Melilla
– the influence of historical cultures on Spain as a territory conquered by Greeks,
Carthaginians, Romans, Germanic tribes (Visigoths), Muslims, and French
– the role of Spain (and Portugal) for the reinforcement of cultural, political,
commercial, and financial exchanges between the European Union and Latin
American countries. In particular, the global decisions of multinational com-
panies headquartered in Spain
– Spain in Europe as a main region of the global economy
– Spain, the European Union and global geopolitics (G-20, IMF, WTO)
– Spain and the global flows of migration and refugees: from Middle East and
Africa to Europe; from Latin America to the United States. Social development,
spatial imbalances, and human rights
– Spain, principal destination of global tourism
– Spanish as a global language, second first language in the world
As to how to teach geography, global understanding is contributing to imple-
ment active pedagogies, inquiry-based learning (Kerski 2003), geospatial tech-
nologies for spatial thinking (Lee and Bednarz 2009), and to raise awareness on
spatial citizenship, global citizenship, critical thinking, etc. (Donert et al. 2016).
Global understanding is helping to disseminate innovative approaches such as
TPACK (Fargher 2013), geo-progressions (Muñiz et al. 2016), and
geo-instructional (Bybee et al. 2006). These approaches help students to learn
geography through relevant skills and methods: collection, treatment, and expres-
sion of geographical information in its four major aspects, literary, graphical, sta-
tistical, and, especially cartographical, thanks to geospatial technologies. In
summary, global understanding is contributing to the renewal of geography edu-
cation in Spain, reinforcing teaching activities such as problem-based learning, case
studies, fieldwork, inductive methods, comparative analysis of different spaces in
the same scale or spatial problems of different scale, etc., i.e., a closer approach of
geography for students shifting classes to a geographical laboratory for simulation
of professional geographers.
15.4 New Trends for Global Understanding Education:

The Digital Atlas for School Education
Despite deficiencies previously explained, very useful geography education projects

are being carried out to teach global understanding through geography education.
The best known with the best reputation in Spain is the Digital Atlas for School
Education (www.atlasdigitalescolar.es) on ArcGIS online, including 91 maps and
363 layers of geographic information. Nationally-awarded for the most innovative
practice in social sciences education, it has been consulted by more than 50,000
users since November 2015. It has been presented at the recent geography edu-
cation conferences, IGU-CGE, AAG, EUROGEO, with the subsequent empirical
research about its use in secondary school geography courses. Geospatial tech-
nologies such as Digital Atlas have come to schools to improve learning quality
leading to acquisition of spatial and digital skills and practices. Digital Atlas serves
multiple purposes. It can be a collaborative tool as well as a personal atlas for each
student. It allows students to consult maps as well as serving as a cartographic
resource to implement inquiry-based learning and learning by doing methods. It is a
local atlas for daily life issues—transportation, housing, and working–at the same
time as it is a world atlas showing issues such as climate change and globalization.
Classroom practices and research on Digital Atlas have proved that it is opening
new and interesting horizons in the field of global understanding education in
Spain.
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Chapter 16
Geography, Global Citizenship
and Global Learning in the UK
John Hopkin and Rebecca Kitchen
The kind of knowledge geography provides—of the world

around us both near and far—is necessary knowledge: … in
order to survive and thrive we need it.
(Bonnett 2012)
16.1 Introduction
In January 2017, The World Economic Forum (W.E.F.) met for its annual
conference in Davos, Switzerland. The W.E.F.’s Global Risk Report identified five
key global challenges, long-term interacting threats requiring solutions from the
global community, which are given as follows:
• Rising income and wealth disparity
• Climate change and extreme weather events
• Increasing polarisation in societies
• Rising cyber dependency arising from an interconnected world
• An aging population.
(W.E.F. 2017)
In part, this thinking chimes with the International Year of Global
Understanding’s key messages (IGYU, online), including that the world’s many
social, economic and environmental problems can only be solved with global
approaches. There are also significant differences in emphasis, notably the latter’s
This chapter represents their own views, rather than those of the GA.
J. Hopkin (&) R. Kitchen

Geographical Association, 160 Solly St., Sheffield S1 4BF, UK
e-mail: JHopkin@geography.org.uk
R. Kitchen
e-mail: RKitchen@geography.org.uk

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_16
194 J. Hopkin and R. Kitchen
emphasis on bottom-up approaches to sustainable change, and on improving global

understanding through education. A group broadly representing the beneficiaries of
free-market capitalism and globalisation is likely to see the world from a rather
different perspective, compared with ‘world-leading … scientists and scholars in
philosophy and the humanities’ (IYGU, op.cit.), or indeed those promoting the
broadly nationalist ideas that led in 2016 to the UK’s vote to exit from the EU
(Brexit) and the election of the US President Trump.
The way that school geography responds to, presents and explains a world
shaped by these complex forces and ideas is challenging and subject to different
values and worldviews, including profound beliefs about the purpose of education.
It is these differing approaches to ‘the global’ in classrooms in different parts of the
UK and the interplay between world, geography and global learning that we
explore.
16.2 The Global Learning Programme
In UK schools there is a considerable tradition of Development Education, today

usually termed global learning. This has had longstanding support from civil
society (including Development Education Centres, NGOs involved in international
development and universities), recently, from UK government (currently from the
Department for International Development, DfID) and international organisations
such as UNESCO and OECD (see OECD 2016). The change to ‘Global Learning’
reflects evolution from an earlier focus on developing countries and aid pro-
grammes towards a more holistic understanding of international development,
global relationships and interdependence and a broader concern for developing
young peoples’ skills and values for global citizenship (see, for example, Bullivant
2010; Bourn 2014).
The UK government’s 2012–2017/8 Global Learning Programme (GLP) is the
latest DfID initiative to support the work of schools. The GLP was established to
embed in the curriculum development education (in England), together with global
citizenship (in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), and to improve its teaching
in Key Stages 2 and 3 (ages 7–14) in half of UK schools. A common objective in all
four UK nations is ‘for more school leavers to have a thorough knowledge and
understanding of global poverty and the ways it can be reduced’ (DfID, online).
The GLPs in the four nations have approached this objective rather differently.
The GLPs in England and Wales (GLP-E and GLP-W) (with the GA as a partner)
published similar detailed curriculum aims on their websites, including to:
• Help children and young people understand their role in a globally interde-
pendent world and explore ways by which they can make it more just and
sustainable;
• Familiarise pupils with the concepts of interdependence, development and
globalisation;
16 Geography, Global Citizenship and Global Learning in the UK 195
• Stimulate critical thinking about global issues, both at whole school and pupil
level;
• Help schools promote greater awareness of global poverty and how it can be
reduced;
• Enable teachers to explore new and alternative ways of teaching about devel-
opment and sustainability in the classroom (GLP-W, online; see also GLP-E,
online).
Both nations offer considerable support through different subjects (including
prominently through geography); support for progression, and a framework of pupil
outcomes focused on knowledge, skills and values.
In Northern Ireland (GLP-NI) the overall purpose is:
The GLP enriches the learning process, connects learning and brings an exciting new
dimension to existing subjects, such as literacy and maths. It develops young people’s
understanding of global issues and empowers them as global citizens to take action for a
fair and sustainable world (GLP-NI, online).
The GLP Scotland (GLP-S) website does not publish curriculum aims; rather it
‘offers support … to develop global citizenship across the curriculum and through
whole school activities’; and outlines benefits for schools including nurturing
personal respect and respect for others, developing interdisciplinary learning and
learning for sustainability and rights (GLP-S, online). Neither the GLP in Scotland
or Northern Ireland publishes subject or progression guidance, or pupil outcomes.
So, given the common objective, why the different emphases in global learning
in the four nations? In part, the explanation lies in value positions in the curriculum,
and beliefs about how to approach the global in education, which we now explore.
16.3 Differing Approaches to Global Learning
It is difficult to imagine a truly educated young person who has not experienced
geography as part of their curriculum, or to imagine an adequate geography cur-
riculum which does not include very significant study of the Earth. Although pupils
gain some knowledge and understanding of the world in other parts of the cur-
riculum, in geography this is central to our discipline. Core ideas central to geo-
graphical understanding and capability, directly relevant to ‘the global’ include:
space, place and location; the processes of change and interrelationships in natural
and human environments; patterns of uneven development and human welfare and
the skills needed to investigate, communicate and think geographically (see
Bennetts 2005; Hopkin 2015, 2017). However, although we argue for a geo-
graphical approach to global learning, it is not the only one.
Global citizenship The global citizenship approach to global learning is influential
in UK schools and is promoted by a variety of actors (see for example Oxfam
2015). A common aim is for pupils to see themselves as or to become world
citizens, ‘engaged, global citizen(s),where lives and the issues that affect them are
interconnected’ (Bourn and Hunt 2011, p. 16). Global citizenship emphasises

learning across the curriculum and through whole-school activities; the develop-
ment of learners’ skills, attitudes and values; and the importance of teachers’
pedagogy, particularly emphasising pupils’ active engagement and participation:
‘how young people learn being as important as what they learn’ (Gadsby and
Bullivant 2010, p. 4). Some perspectives are sceptical about knowledge and sub-
jects, for example, characterising them as ‘reproducing bodies of knowledge’
(Bourn 2014, pp. 5, 8).
Traditional geography The above approach has been the subject of a sustained
critique, most significantly by the geographer Standish (2009, 2012, 2013, 2014).
A key concern is the unbounded nature of global learning in the curriculum and the
classroom: he argues that focusing on global citizenship and contemporary social
and environmental issues engages pupils in fundamentally moral and political
questions, ‘blurring the line between education and social causes’ (2014, p. 246);
whilst encouraging pupils to take action to improve the world involves them in
essentially adult concerns, amounting to indoctrination into a particular set of
(liberal) values.
Rather, Standish advocates that the global should be taught through a curriculum
founded in disciplinary wisdom organised in subjects, centred on teaching objective
facts and theoretical knowledge about the world; in geography: locational and
spatial knowledge, concepts and skills. Standish’s concern for boundaries includes
a belief in the nation as the focus for study, meaning and morality. Thus, global
citizenship aims to replace ‘the national citizen … by a cosmopolitan one’ (2009,
p. 171) and global learning is ‘claimed not only by those who want to surpass the
national framework but also by political and corporate elites seeking to promote
national interests beyond their borders’ (2013, p. 247), a kind of neo-colonial
project.
Geography at the heart of Global Learning Both ‘traditional geography’ and
‘global citizenship’ have some merit as approaches to global learning. Many
geographers will agree with the value of a disciplinary focus for global learning
(although see Huckle 2015, for a robust defence of an engaged global citizenship);
for example, Scoffham finds Standish’s warnings against exploring essentially
predetermined value positions to be apt (2013, pp. 31–32). Similarly, attention to
pedagogy (as in global citizenship)—for instance, making connections between
prior and everyday knowledge and school learning—helps pupils to develop deeper
understanding of complex concepts, such as those involved in global learning
(Roberts 2013, pp. 19–20; 2017).
However, these approaches also have significant limitations in helping young
people learn about the world. A focus on boundaries and the national, and doubts
about the value of studying contemporary issues in geography, risks significantly
limiting pupils’ geographical understanding in a world characterised by intercon-
nections, dynamism and uncertainty—one that many young people also find
interesting and motivating. Moreover, ‘traditional geography’s’ commitment to
passing on authorised knowledge, combined with doubts about the legitimacy of
geographical enquiry, rather contradicts its concerns about exploring ‘approved’

value positions.
In contrast, with the view that subjects are artificial and outdated constructs, or
that knowledge about the world is authorised and fixed, we argue for a disciplined,
knowledgeable approach to global learning whose purpose is to enhance pupils’
understanding of the world (see Hopkin 2015, 2017). Here, the notion of discipline
infers a deep history of ideas, constructed by scholars investigating the world and
applied in schools by a ‘cultured profession’, where pedagogy is deployed in the
interests of understanding ideas with conceptual depth and intellectual challenge.
This disciplinary resource also offers a clear structure to help teachers plan for, and
promote progression. Intriguingly, evaluation of the GLP in Northern Ireland
suggests limits to pupils’ progression early in this programme (GLP NI 2015,
p. 31).
Moreover, because they involve spatial distributions, connections and processes
played out at different scales, it seems difficult not to regard contemporary global
issues as legitimately open to geographical study; geography has a temporal as well
as a spatial dimensions, putting these at the heart of what many young people find
relevant for their present and future lives. Thus we argue that, although pupils’
global understanding may be developed through (and between) disciplines such as
science or history, a ‘Knowledgeable Geography’ approach should have a
pre-eminent role in global learning. This disciplined focus and attention to critical
thinking helps to avoid the investigation of contemporary issues becoming an
imbalanced advocacy of ‘good causes’ (Marsden 1997).
16.4 Value Positions in Global Learning
It is worth remembering that decisions made about the curriculum are not neutral,
rather the selections and priorities made by curriculum developers, school leaders
and teachers are founded in deep values concerning the purpose and form of
education, affecting aims, curriculum content and pedagogy. Neither school
geography nor global learning is immune to these influences (see Rawling 2001;
Morgan 2009). Indeed, the complex curriculum territory they occupy arguably
makes them more contested, subject to diverse geographical and educational
worldviews, which in turn influence pupils’ experiences in the classroom.
It will be apparent that different approaches to global learning occupy particular
positions regarding knowledge and the world. Here, we use Michael Young’s future
curriculum scenarios (Young 2008; Young and Muller 2010). Young critiques the
relativist view that knowledge is socially constructed and that disciplinary knowl-
edge organised in subjects essentially supports tradition, authority and class inter-
ests. This view (Young’s ‘Future 2’ curriculum) has been evident in some UK
schools’ curricula promoting ‘Learning to Learn’, and ‘21st Century Skills’ pro-
grammes, associated by Firth (2012, 2013) with neo-liberalism. In its support for
generic skills and cross-curricular learning, the ‘global citizenship’ approach has
much in common with this scenario. An alternative, absolutism, views knowledge

as an essentially fixed, external reality, handed down from previous generations to
be delivered in schools through traditional subjects, and evident in the ‘traditional
geography’ approach to global learning. In Young’s terms, this ‘Future 1’ scenario
is under-socialised knowledge and associated by Firth with neoconservatism.
In the alternative ‘Future 3’ scenario, knowledge is dynamic and created within
subject communities. Education’s core purpose is to help young people to acquire
knowledge not accessible in their everyday lives, enabling them ‘to move beyond
their experience and gain understanding of the social and natural worlds of which
they are part’ (2008, p. 164), particularly benefiting pupils lacking the means to
acquire this outside school. For Firth, this combines a commitment to disciplinary
knowledge and to education as a means to social justice (2013, p. 71). It is here that
we locate a ‘Knowledgeable Geography’ approach to global learning, aiming to
develop pupils’ understanding of the world through access to disciplinary knowl-
edge and opportunities to engage in critical geographical thought (Roberts 2015),
both in the service of future citizenship (GA 2009).
Returning to the IYGU’s objectives (or the W.E.F.’s five global challenges)
under a ‘Traditional Geography’ approach, exploring these would be largely outside
the limits of geography classrooms. It might be thought that the global citizenship
approach offers better opportunities; however, its inclination towards skills and
values over disciplinary knowledge and the pursuit of deep understanding, together
with the potential to over-emphasise the personal, risks not extending horizons far
into the world beyond pupils’ (or teachers’) experience. In contrast, a ‘knowl-
edgeable geography’ approach is wholly in tune with the IYGU’s Key Message:
‘societies need global understanding to manage change sustainably’.
16.5 The Complex Nature of UK Education
There have always been variations in education across the UK. Scotland, whose
independent education system was protected in the 1707 Act of Union, has long
stood apart, and since 1999 education has been a devolved matter in the now
quasi-federal UK polity. Although the UK government remains responsible for
education in England, the parliaments and assemblies in Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland have developed their own priorities and curricula, reflecting dif-
fering national identities (see Croxford 2011, for an overview). As the political
cultures of the four nations have evolved, a complex curriculum picture has
emerged.
A comparison between the evolution of the ‘National’ Curriculum in England
and the other nations makes the point (Fig. 16.1). The first version of the National
Curriculum for England and Wales, created in 1988 by a Conservative government,
was framed by subjects and strongly traditional with some variation in Wales to
Fig. 16.1 The complex nature of the curriculum in the UK
reflect Welsh language and culture. It was extended to Northern Ireland in 1989.
After a series of reviews, the National Curriculum in England evolved until by its
fourth (2007) version, under a Labour government it had become slimmer, more
flexible and less focused on subject knowledge, rather prioritising cross-curricular
learning and skills with additional guidance for teaching the Global Dimension. The
National Curriculum was reformed again in 2012 by a Conservative/Liberal
Democrat coalition government, producing a sparse curriculum document of
‘essential’ subject content. In Young’s terms, the first English National Curriculum
represented an F1 curriculum, evolving towards F2 in the 2007 version before
returning towards F1 in the latest stage of this process, albeit with possibilities for
teachers to take a different direction (Lambert and Hopkin 2014).
This course was not taken in the other nations, whose curricula have followed
similar paths towards organising around broad ‘curriculum areas’ (Scotland’s
Curriculum of Excellence) and ‘areas of learning’ in Northern Ireland. The Welsh
curriculum mirrored the English for longest, however, the Donaldson report com-
missioned by the Welsh government recommended the removal of key stages and
the introduction of six areas of learning rather than discrete subjects (Welsh
Government 2015). Arguably, these proposals represent a half-way house between
the disciplinary knowledge-driven curriculum of England and the values and skills
curricula of Scotland and Northern Ireland, subjects are visible but subsumed. By
2018, all three devolved nations will have curricula driven by similar aims and
degrees of cross-curricularity, in both aims and organisation they have variously
moved towards a ‘twenty-first Century’, F2 curriculum.
16.6 Global Learning in the Four UK Nations

and in Future
What then does this mean for global learning? As we have seen, the increasingly
distinctive curriculum priorities in the four UK nations are evident in their
approaches taken to global learning. The ‘global citizenship’ approaches taken in
Scotland and Northern Ireland reflect their approaches to the wider curriculum,
prioritising skills, values and cross-curricular learning, in contrast to England (and
to an extent Wales), where a higher priority for subject knowledge and under-
standing, a clearer focus on development themes and a clear role for geography, is
more in tune with a ‘knowledgeable’ approach.
As well as having different aims and curriculum models, the three devolved
nations also actively promote national identity and culture, for example, in lan-
guage, history and geography. Whilst in England the focus remains on Britain and
the UK, Scotland and Wales put greater emphasis on the nations in their global
settings. In Wales, for example, an early initiative by the Welsh Assembly was to
promote the goal of sustainable development for Wales through a framework of
Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship across all sectors of
education (ACCAC 2002; DfCLLS 2008). One of four purposes for the new (2018)
curriculum is to support children and young people to become ‘ethical, informed
citizens of Wales and the world’ (Welsh Government 2015, op. cit.).
Figure 16.2 illustrates how global learning is represented in the geography
curriculum in England and Wales at the time of writing, showing illustrative (rather
than comprehensive) content. The distinctions between the approaches taken by the
English and Welsh National Curricula are clear, as is the change of emphasis in
i i iii iv v vi
Key Stage 1, Key Stage 2 (7-11) Key Stage 3 (11-14) GCSE (14-16) , A level (16-18) ,
i
England, (5-7) ;
Foundation Phase,
ii
Wales (3-7)
England Purpose: A high-quality geography education should inspire in pupils a curiosity and Selected aims; to: Selected aims; to:
fascination about the world and its people that will remain with them for the rest of their • provide the opportunity for students • to develop students’ knowledge of
lives. to understand more about the locations, places, processes and
Aims: Pupils develop knowledge of the location of places, understand the processes that give world, the challenges it faces and environments at all geographical
rise to key features of the world, how these are interdependent and bring about spatial their place within it. scales from local to global.
variation and change over time. • enable young people to become • to analyse and appreciate how
Exemplar content: Exemplar content: Exemplar content: globally and environmentally people-environment interactions
• Locational • Locational knowledge • Locational knowledge informed and thoughtful, enquiring underpin understanding of some of
knowledge • Places: a region of the • Places: similarities, citizens the key issues facing the world
• Places: small area of UK, Europe and in differences and links of a Exemplar content: today.
the UK and small North or South region within Africa and Asia • Global economic development Exemplar content:
area of non- America. • International development. issues: the causes and consequences • Patterns of trade and development,
European country. • Economic activity and of uneven development at global migration, social inequality and
trade. and country level. place identity
vii
Wales Children should … Learners … are encouraged Learners …develop an Selected aims; to: Selected aims; to:
increase their curiosity understanding of why countries
to understand the importance • understand the significance of• develop students’ knowledge of
about the world around are interdependent, how people
of sustainability, develop an values and attitudes to the locations, places, processes and
them and begin to informed concern about the interact with their environments development and resolution of environments, at all geographical
understand people and and the importance of
quality of their environment, issues scales from local to global.
places. … They should and to recognise that they sustainability. They are • develop as critical and reflective
• develop their responsibilities as
learn to demonstrate are global citizens encouraged to develop a sense of global citizens and recognise howlearners, able to articulate opinions,
care, responsibility, responsibility for the environment suggest relevant new ideas and
they can contribute to a future that
concern and respect for and their role as global citizens. is sustainable and inclusive. provide evidenced argument in a
all living things and the Exemplar content: Exemplar content: Exemplar content: range of situations.
environment • living in my world: • tomorrow’s citizens: issues in Exemplar content:
• current issues of local, national and
caring for places and Wales and the wider world of global importance, including• Development in Sub-Saharan
environments and the living sustainably and the climate change and sustainable Africa, international migration,
importance of being a responsibilities of being a development. social inequality and place identity.
global citizen. global citizen.
i
Department for Education (2013) National Curriculum for England: Geography programmes of study for Key stages 1, 2 and 3
ii
Welsh Government (2015) Curriculum for Wales: Foundation Phase Framework, revised 2015; available: http://gov.wales/docs/dcells/publications/150803-fp-framework-
en.pdf (accessed 1/6/17)
iii
Department for Education (2014) Geography GCSE subject content; available:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/301253/GCSE_geography.pdf (accessed 1/6/17)
Fig. 16.2 Indicative global learning in the geography curriculum in England and Wales
England between courses pre- and post-14. It should be emphasised that this is an
unreliable guide to what students experience in the classroom. Not withstanding the
very significant limits to ministers’ powers in determining what is actually taught
and learned through curriculum policy, there are many other influences at play. For
example, the National Curriculum is mandatory in less than half of English state
schools (and barely so where it is); as we have noted the curriculum in Wales will
shortly be reformed; in both nations the choice from a range of GCSE and A level
specifications is an important influence, and considering the position of global
learning and geography in Scotland and Northern Ireland would add further layers
of complexity. In this regard, this is a less than the UK.
At the UK scale, the Brexit referendum of June 2016 has already begun to
change the UK’s place in the world, as well as enhancing tensions between the four
nations. How will these changes in identity affect how young people experience and
value global learning? Brexit was seen as resulting directly from global and
neo-liberal influences leading, for some, to a feeling of dislocation from identity
and society. Yet, it was the young, arguably those most directly influenced by
globalisation, who tended to vote ‘remain’ (Coyle 2016). Similarly, the young are
more likely to connect via social media but are also more likely to be influenced by
media that portray simplistic or negative images of other parts of the world (Cross
et al. 2010). It is our view that engaging young people in a ‘knowledgeable
geography’ approach to global learning is the most effective way to ‘(open up)
minds, ideas and experiences to different viewpoints and perspectives from around
the world’ (Bourn 2016: 191), and so engage with the IGYU objectives.
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Chapter 17
Preparing Global Citizens
in the United States
Osvaldo Muñiz Solari
17.1 Introduction
The evident globalization process that has taken shape several years before the
beginning of the twenty-first century has begun to impact the U.S. citizens in many
forms. One that was immediately obvious has to do with the ability to deal with
international knowledge and skills. Surveys showed that international education
was already important among the general public. Yet, the recognition of a dan-
gerous shortfall of individuals with global competence put the U.S. educational
system on notice to meet the urgent needs for a new global society (American
Council on Education 2002).
Partly in response to a comprehensive national policy on international education,
the National Geographic Education Foundation assessed geographic knowledge
among the youngest generation of adults. Surveys in 2002 and 2006 demonstrated a
consistent difficulty with knowledge and skills. While in the 2002 Roper Report
there is evidence of poor abilities in terms of geographic locations, world issues,
and current events; the 2006 report shows some improvement in skills such as the
use of maps for simple navigation tasks. Still, survey results show cause for concern
when the lack of knowledge is related not only to world locations and geographic
literacy but also cultural perception. On a positive note, however, young Americans
rely on new tools for accessing geographic knowledge (National Geographic 2002,
2006). The latter report is consistent with Farey’s approach to the importance of the
Internet and its influence to create a positive effect on geographic awareness (Farey
2006).
It goes without saying that Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) and more specifically Geospatial Technologies (GST) are playing
fundamental roles in the process of transformation that young generations are
O. Muñiz Solari (&)

Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA
e-mail: o.muniz@txstate.edu

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_17
206 O. Muñiz Solari
experiencing. Perhaps in similar ways to other school children in the world, new
generations of Americans are capable of absorbing and using technologies derived
from the Internet quite rapidly.
The digital natives, as introduced by Prensky (2001), are new generations that
have the abilities to acquire geographic knowledge via different tools and skills. As
a whole, this is a “net generation” that needs to be educated in a different way
(Tapscott 1999). Nevertheless, the obligation by national organizations, govern-
ment, state institutions, policy makers, and school teachers has to be assumed to
find the best strategy in geography education. This plan of action might be inter-
preted as strong curricula, new teaching and learning methods, better techniques,
and resources. Some or all together are critical to prepare good global citizens. We
can rely on the “net generations” for their abilities to use new tools and apps, yet
they require guidance and facilitation to reach the level of expertise as efficient
global citizens.
17.2 Facts and Projections of Geography Education
17.2.1 General Overview of Geography Education
A longitudinal analysis of trends in social studies/geography emphasis on a

state-by-state basis has been conducted by the Gilbert M. Grosvenor Center for
Geographic Education (GCGE) every two years. The most recent version of this
collection shows social studies standards/strand information. Keeping in mind that
the United States K-12 education system is constantly changing, it is also important to
remember that most states have organized their social studies curricula around four or
five social studies subjects. Geography content is organized as a standard, a strand, or
both. A “standard” is defined as a set of content knowledge and skills that focuses
only on geography and geographic thinking. A “strand” represents geography con-
tent merged with other social studies content, which is not exclusively geographic in
nature, yet geographic perspective or skills are emphasized (McClure and Zadrozny
2015). The strand approach is applied in middle and high schools in 28 states and
only three states organize geography content in standards for middle and high
schools. The remaining states either use both or combine some of the three options.
The GCGE 2015 survey demonstrates that geography does not show prominence
among states in the country. Most of the states accept geography as a strand at the
middle school level, while 33 states have geography as a strand within the state of
social studies standards at the high school level. Geography is represented in all
individual standards, yet as a strand in social studies documents. Middle school
geography as a requirement is present in only nine states and a geography course is
not required in twelve states. Geography as a high school graduation requirement is
present in four states and similar to middle schools, no geography course is required
in twelve states (Fig. 17.1).
17 Preparing Global Citizens in the United States 207
Fig. 17.1 Middle school and high school requirement
An analysis of the state social studies revision schedules allows a complete

indirect view of possible improvement of geographic knowledge and skills over the
years. Geography education might benefit from some of the social studies revisions,
but there is no assurance that geography will gain space when sharing teaching time
with other social sciences. In any event, a number of states (27) conducted revisions
in the last five years, while two states extended the time to ten years. Exceeding ten
years to conduct revisions are six states and the District of Columbia. Five of them
have had their last revision before 2006 (Fig. 17.2).
Is geography education an important field among social sciences in the United
States? This question might need a special response from the perspective of teacher
preparation.
Even when there is a generalized recognition of the learner-center approach, the
need for good guidance from teachers is always present. Successful geography
teaching requires good background in spatial analysis supported by adequate car-
tographic knowledge and, more recently, geospatial technology preparation.
Fig. 17.2 Social studies standards revision schedules by states
Consequently, teachers need to guide students through increasingly complex spatial

problems; otherwise, the learner-center approach will be inefficient. Unfortunately,
effective preservice teacher education was a difficult issue in the past, in spite of the
fact that geography was projected as one of the core subjects in Goals 2000:
Educate America Act (Boehm et al. 1994). More recently, current teacher prepa-
ration programs lack emphasis on teaching geography in preparing elementary and
secondary teachers in the United States (Schell et al. 2013; Brysch 2014).
Teachers are the front line of geography education. Any value acquired by this
field among the social sciences and along with STEM education in the United
States depends on the efficient dissemination of geographic knowledge by qualified
teachers. Besides this responsibility lies the divergence of geography in educational
settings propelled by globalization. The authors of the Road Map for 21st Century
Geography Education state: “the amount of geography instruction that students
receive, the preparation of their teachers to teach geography, and the quality of
instructional materials are inadequate to prepare students for the demands of the
modern world” (Bednarz et al. 2013, p. 7). Thus, the Road Map for the 21st Century
also indicates the importance of geography education research. The report con-
cludes with 13 recommendations to improve research in geography education.
There is a consensus among geography education researchers that a new teacher

has to emerge from colleges and universities holding renewed geographical
knowledge to guide new generations for global understanding. This transformation
also implies new skills to deal with new curriculum making in schools. Lambert
et al. (2015) have proposed GeoCapabilities, an innovative international collabo-
rative project that attempts to respond to enduring challenges facing geography
teachers in schools. The long-term goal is to create a platform for the international
development of teachers’ capabilities.
17.2.2 Main Global Issues Covered in Geography

Education
The responsibilities that teachers have to guide new generations for global under-
standing are also shared with policy makers at the state level. To what extent can
students, as informed citizens, develop global understanding from geographic
knowledge and skills they receive in the school system in the United States? This is a
crucial question that can be partially responded to by checking the level of global
issues teachers and students are able to study. In part, the question has to be answered
by checking the new standards presented in the second edition of Geography for Life:
National Geography Standards (Heffron and Downs 2012). Further analysis from
middle school and high school requirements summarized in Fig. 17.1 can be per-
formed by adding elementary school to complete the K-12 system.
For the purpose of this article, a sample composed of four states was selected to
identify geography contents related to global issues. The states were Indiana as a
Type 1 [a stand-alone geography course is required for middle schools and optional
(World History or World Geography) is required for high schools], New Jersey as a
Type 2 (local school districts set all course requirements for middle schools and
high schools), Mississippi as a Type 3 (a geography/other social studies combined
course is required for middle schools and a stand-alone geography course is
required for high schools), and California as a Type 4 (a geography/other social
studies combined course is required for middle schools and high schools).
Global issues are progressively exposed in Type 1 and Type 3 systems. Even
when Type 2 represents relatively good connections to expose topics related to
global issues between middle school and high school, the progression does not offer
increasing complexity of geographic knowledge and skills. Type 4 systems
demonstrate a reduction of geographic conceptualization that affects the elaboration
of global issues. Geographic knowledge is immersed in history, reducing its
effectiveness in exposing global issues in terms of regional context (Fig. 17.3).
Geographic knowledge directly attached to global issues is not evident in ele-
mentary school. There are some topics that can be recognized as basic knowledge to
initiate spatial thinking with a global perspective. However, they are either orga-
nized around the use of tools (maps, globes) or presented as generalizations in
historical context.
Fig. 17.3 Global issues as part of geography contents in selected states
17.3 Trends and Prospects for the Future
How effective is the introduction of global issues in the K-12 system? This
important question can be answered by asking students what they think. In this
regard, the first question should be restated as follows: Are school children learning
to become “global citizens” via global-mindedness? The latter concept is defined as
“a worldview in which one sees oneself as connected to the world community and
feels a sense of responsibility for its members” (Hett 1993, p. 143).
17.3.1 Past Trends
Past experiences in school curricula show evidence that a stand-alone geography

requirement seems more effective in introducing global issues and the positive
responses of students. Yet, the need for better teaching claimed by students is
consistent with the Road Map report for 21st Century Geography Education
(Bednarz et al. 2013).
In a study of ninth-grade world regional geography, students in Utah Forsyth and
Maier (2006) pointed out that students’ affect toward different parts of the world
became more positive as a result of their world regional course. Another case study
conducted in a high school in Texas as a response to the proposition made by
Robertson and Tani (2013) is also consistent with the Utah study.
A total of 63 ninth-grade students composed of 38 females and 25 males with
about 25% representing minority populations participated in the study in Texas.
They were enrolled in two separate Pre-AP World Geography courses, where the
study took place during the regularly assigned class time. The data from the two
classes were combined for analysis. Results from this study indicate that students
have a sense of eagerness to be globally informed citizens, yet they are interested in
a more challenging and interdisciplinary curriculum to learn about global issues,
“…one that incorporates spatial thinking skills and prepares them for success in a
global economy” (Muñiz-Solari and Brysch 2013, p. 196). Furthermore, students
mentioned the need for better teaching that would allow them to increase their
perception and cognition of global issues, showing at the same time their capa-
bilities to think spatially about the world. Nevertheless, students seem less secure
about using technology very often to understand global issues.
17.3.2 Prospect for the Future: Three Converging

Global Trends
A conjunction between better teaching and new learning approaches in geography

education should be a prospect in the U.S. school system. However, an innovative
strategy will only be effective if we also take care of the societal landscape of
geography education. A lack of awareness of spatial thinking and its importance in
our schools and society as a whole still prevail.
Twenty-first century education reform has been heavily influenced by a shifting
process from traditional pedagogy to more learner-center approaches (McComs
2000; Glowa and Goodell 2016). In fact, ICT is the engine behind the curtains that
has given wider space to school environments for the creation of a
knowledge-based student population. By providing an increasing access to ICT in
schools, students might increase opportunities to access technological tools and
techniques, and hence can be better utilized using the basic and advanced principles
of spatial thinking. This should, in turn, be the recipe for better and more efficient
global knowledge.
The pedagogical transformation that Kerski (2015) connects with GST as a true
“transformational technology” varies among countries. The U.S. seems to be
guiding the process along with a few other developed nations. However, it is still
unclear whether this trend might be conducive to develop a more global society in
the U.S. or hampering global understanding. There is a need for special educational
strategies to combine new pedagogies with technological tools and techniques in
order to instill a better understanding of global issues.
One of the key dimensions of global-mindedness proposed by Hett (1993) is
responsibility as a sense of moral control to try and improve conditions in all parts
of the world. The obligation is more emphatic in today’s geo-enabled population,
where everything around the world is known in a few minutes. Perception and
cognition of global issues take also important dimensions. Therefore, I would like
to follow Kerski’s proposition (2015) on three converging global trends to use GST,
which in my opinion pave the way for effective global-mindedness.
Teachers and students, as multiple communities of practice, must get engaged in
educational activities to create knowledge-based environments. First, they may
practice with local problems that are, in one way or another, a mirror of global
challenges. Thus, multiple scales and multiple patterns are the essence of spatial
thinking. Second, they should use geographical tools that are completely digital and
capable of accumulating complex data. Consequently, inquiry-based projects can be
performed. Third, engage in measuring and analyzing geographical information
through multiple geo-enabled devices connected to Cloud-based environments.
Hence, the process of problem-solving takes a new dimension in which speed and
precision should reach a higher level of performance.
References
American Council on Education, W. D. (2002). Beyond September 11: A comprehensive national

policy on international education.
Bednarz, S. W., Heffron, S., & Huynh, N. T. (Eds.). (2013). A road map for 21st century
geography education research (A report from the Geography Education Research Committee
of the Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education Project). Washington, D.C.:
Association of American Geographers.
Boehm, R. G., Brierley, J., & Sharma, M. (1994). The bête noire of geographic education: Teacher
training programs. In R. S. Bednarz & F. Petersen (Eds.), A decade of reform in geographic
education: Inventory and prospect (pp. 89–98). Indiana, PA: National Council for Geographic
Education.
Brysch, C. P. (2014). Status of geography education in the United States. A report for the National
Geographic Society Education Foundation.
California. (1998). History-Social Science Content Standards. California State Board of Education
http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/. Accessed December 27, 2016.
Farey, J. (2006). Survey: Young Americans lack geographic knowledge. GEOWorld, 19(8), 10.
Forsyth, A. S., Jr., & Maier, J. N. (2006). Affective outcomes of a world geography course.
Journal of Geography, 105(2), 59–66.
Glowa, L., & Goodell, J. (2016). Student-centered learning: Functional requirements for
integrated systems to optimize learning. INACOL. http://www.fetc.org/materials/C223.pdf.
Accessed January 12, 2017.
Indiana Department of Education. (2014). Social studies. http://www.doe.in.gov/standards/social-
studies. Accessed December 12, 2016.
Heffron, S. G., & Downs, R. M. (Eds.). (2012). Geography for life: National geography standards
(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Council for Geographic Education.
Hett, E. J. (1993). The development of an instrument to measure global-mindedness. PhD

dissertation. University of San Diego.
Kerski, J. J. (2015). Opportunities and challenges using geospatial technologies for education.
In O. Muñiz Solari, A. Demirci, & J. A. Van der Schee (Eds.), Geospatial technologies and
geography education in a changing world (pp. 183–194). Tokyo: Springer.
McClure, C.,& Zadrozny, J. (2015). Social studies and geography survey for middle and high
schools. The Gilbert M. Grosvenor Center for Geographic Education. Texas State University.
McComs, B. L. (2000). Assessing the role of educational technology in the teaching and learning
process: A learner-centered perspective. In Proceedings, The Secretary’s Conference on
Educational Technology.
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mde.k12.ms.us/docs/curriculum-and-instructions-library/2011-mississsippi-social-studies-
framework.pdf. Accessed December 16, 2016.
Muñiz-Solari, O., & Brysch, C. (2013). Visioning their future as citizens of the United States of
America and the world. In M. Robertson & S. Tani (Eds.), Young people: Cross-cultural views
and futures (pp. 181–198). Melbourne: ACER-Australian Council for Educational Research.
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National Geographic Society.
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literacy study. GfK Roper Public Affairs—National Geographic Education Foundation,
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.
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ACER-Australian Council for Educational Research.
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education: Instructional materials and professional development (A report from the
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century geography education project. Washington, DC: National Council for Geographic
Education.
Tapscott, D. (1999). Educating the net generation. Educational Leadership, 56(5), 6–11.
Chapter 18
India: Global Understanding
in Geography Education
Aparna Pandey
18.1 Introduction
It is true that the school is an institution within society; to a certain extent, it is an

institution of society. Society establishes the school, for it needs the school to do
something to the student who comes to it and stays in it for some formative years of
his/her life. As the student grows up and develops in school, society also benefits,
as the student is being nurtured in school as a future member of society. In India,
education is in the concurrent list of the Indian Constitution which means in the
federal structure of India, states can either adopt or adapt the curriculum which has
been developed at the national level by National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT). There are 36 states and union territories in India, and about
42 school boards in different states have their own examination system. In view of
diverse geographical and cultural scenarios in our country, curriculum developers at
the national level selected the themes in a balanced manner and suitably graded,
simple to complex, and immediate to remote (NCFSCE 2000).
A position paper by the National Focus Group on Teaching of Social Sciences
(NCF-2005) envisages that in a plural society like India, all regions and social
groups should be able to relate to the curriculum. Therefore, it is necessary to work
toward empowering social groups to bring in their own realities to the content of the
subjects. Relevant local content should be part of the teaching and learning process.
As far as school curriculum in India is concerned, the study of geography at the
school level develops sensitivity toward people all over the world and their prob-
lems in the light of their varying environments.
A. Pandey (&)
National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi 110016, India
e-mail: aparnancert@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_18
216 A. Pandey
18.2 Global Understanding Through Geography

Curriculum
NCF-2005 and Standish (2013) have argued that students should be given oppor-
tunities to examine their own values and attributes, appreciate the similarities and
differences between people everywhere, value diversity, understand the global
context of their local lives, and face prejudice and discrimination. Such knowledge,
skills, and understandings enable young people to make informed decisions about
playing an active role in the global community. Keeping this in view in Indian
school geography curriculum, students at upper primary stage (Classes VI to VIII)
are exposed to the life of people living in different parts of the world, as well as in
India, through case studies. These case studies make students understand life in the
Sahara Desert, the Amazon Basin, in a prairie region, and in Ganga–Brahmaputra in
India through exploring human–environment interactions and their impact on the
level of development in these regions.
Topics include agriculture (subsistence and commercial in the Ganga–
Brahmaputra and prairie region, respectively), scarcity of water in the Sahara
Desert, and flood as a regular feature in the Ganga–Brahmaputra region. Uneven
distribution of natural resources and exploitation of natural resources are empha-
sized throughout the case studies. In-text questions included in chapters such as, “If
there is more water than land on Earth, why do so many countries face water
scarcity?” allow students to think critically on issues. Students are given opportu-
nities to analyze technological advancement of a prairie region in agricultural,
industrial, and commercial fields, on the one hand, and to question the indiscrim-
inate hunting of bison on the other. Case studies throughout the globe enable
students to explore the critical condition of endangered flora and fauna and efforts
made by international agencies for their protection and conservation. In India, the
Chipko Movement for conservation of trees by local people of hilly areas helps
them to understand the importance of such initiatives.
A collage of newspaper clippings given in a Class VII textbook on geography
about global warming and climate change shows the most affected areas of global
warming in the world, and news items such as “This winter was warmest on
Record: US, Warming Unstoppable, Global Sun screen Likely Thinned” raise the
question for students whether global warming is really a serious issue in today’s
world. Issues related to encroachment of outsiders and displacement of indigenous
people in the name of urbanization and development is highlighted in the case study
on life in the Amazon Basin. Gradual destruction of rainforests in this region is
shown through visuals. To better understand the relationship between forest cover
and soil conservation, a hands-on activity is suggested that uses local available
resources.
A newspaper collage given in the textbook of Class VIII covers forest fires in
California and asks students to speculate on how they could be avoided. Peoples’
movements like the Chipko movement against forest cutting, and Vanmahotsava,
the planting of saplings in local areas, have found a place in the geography
18 India: Global Understanding in Geography Education 217
curriculum. Under Vanmahotsava, students and teachers are directly involved in

activities related to forest conservation and protection. Visuals, newspaper clip-
pings, and narratives on indigenous methods of conservation of natural resources
like water, forests, and wildlife, movements run by local females and tribes in
different parts of the country, are included in textbooks in order to promote dis-
cussion among students and to make lively teaching–learning experiences. National
level exhibitions are organized at NCERT, New Delhi, every year on
model-making, poster-making, and role-play activities. Competitions on global
environmental issues as well as local issues, such as female foeticide, female lit-
eracy, and drug addiction among adolescents, are organized at three levels, district,
state, and nation.
News reports of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) are used in secondary stage
textbooks to sensitize students toward global issues like the decline in the health of
major rivers in the world because of climate change, pollution, and dam con-
struction. Since students have been sensitized to actively participate in activities to
make society aware about water pollution in local water bodies and rivers from the
primary stage, at the secondary stage such news reports help them to relate the local
to global issue of water scarcity and the impact of climate change and pollution on
sources of water.
Geography is a bridge between natural and social sciences; curriculum at the
elementary level has been envisaged in such a manner that socioeconomic reality of
the world may be seen through the lens of physiographic diversity. Narratives
enable students to link local issues with other parts of the world and encourage
them to find solutions and take initiatives at the local level. Poems in the Hindi
language written by the great scholar Rahim in the sixteenth century are also used in
geography textbooks; the message is clear–save water, as without water, there is
nothing. Without water, pearls, humans, and slack lime cannot exist and lose their
luster. These statements are not specific to any place, community, or country but are
global in a real sense and related to humanity.
NCF-(2005) and Standish (2013) acknowledge that children need to learn about
political, cultural, and social themes in order to obtain a global perspective.
Students should have cross-cultural awareness and respect for other different
viewpoints. Contemporary India is the major area of study for secondary stage (IX
and X) where local, regional, national, and international contexts make the learning
relevant and enjoyable. The objectives of geography at this stage are that students
should be able to understand and appreciate the diversities in land and people of
India in relation to their own place in the larger canvas. Land and people is the
theme for class IX and resources and development for Class X.
In view of diverse physiographic features in India, students are made familiar
with the rich natural resources of the country, for example, the Himalayas; the
fertile plains formed by rivers the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their
tributaries; the Deccan Plateau, one of the oldest landforms on Earth, a storehouse
of minerals; and the long coastal areas rich in a variety of flora and fauna. Analytical
skills are enhanced through map-based activities and graphicacy which engages
students to analyze various factors responsible for the spatial distribution of
218 A. Pandey
population on diverse physical regions of the country. Themes related to agriculture

pose some critical questions such as why an Indian farmer does not want his son to
become a farmer.
Students are introduced to the concept of sustainable development through an
enrichment box given in the chapter about a series of influential reports including
the Club of Rome (1968), Schumacher’s book, Small is Beautiful, the Brundtland
Commission Report (1987), the book Our Common Future, the Rio de Janeiro
Earth Summit (1992), and Agenda 21. This is then related to Mahatma Gandhi’s
philosophy that, “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s
greed”. He blamed greedy and selfish individuals and the exploitative nature of
modern technology as a root cause of resource depletion at the global level
(Contemporary India II 2006, p. 4).
India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of biological diversity. These
diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated into daily life that people take these for
granted. Large-scale development projects such as big river valley projects and
mining projects have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests. A number of
tribes depend on these forests for their livelihoods and have become displaced and,
thus, are at the verge of extinction. The chapter on forests begins with the folk song
in praise of the Forest Deity sung by Lepcha tribe of the North East hilly regions of
the country. The problem of the destruction of forests and wildlife in India is not just
a biological issue; rather, it is related to the loss of cultural diversity of downtrodden
members of society who directly depend on forests and wildlife for food. Indigenous
methods along with modern methods of water conservation in diverse parts of India
are explained along with visuals in the geography textbooks.
Geopolitical issues such as water disputes between States that share rivers, the
displacement of people due to the development of large-scale manufacturing plants,
and the construction of big dams and mining activities are given adequate space in
geography curriculum; this helps teachers to initiate debates and discussion in the
classroom. Students from different regions and socioeconomic backgrounds study
in the same classroom and learn to respect others views and feelings and to develop
empathy.
In India, geography curriculum takes a multicultural approach. Geography
provides the opportunity for students to study other cultures of India as well as the
world and to compare them to their own. This comparison leads to the realization
that cultures around the world use their resources in different ways. They also come
to know that cultural norms are not the same around the world and it promotes
respect and tolerance of other peoples and cultures.
An activity for students is suggested in the textbook to have them find out what
resources are being developed in their surroundings by the community/village
panchayats/world level communities with the help of community participation
(Contemporary India II 2006, p. 4).
The NCF (2005) particularly emphasizes education for peace as one of the
national and global concerns. It aims at equipping students with the values and
attitudes required for living in harmony with oneself and others as responsible
citizens. The framework articulates the need to reaffirm our commitment to the
concept of equality amidst diversity, mutual interdependence of humans to promote

values that foster peace, and humaneness and tolerance in a multicultural society
(NCF 2005, p. 2). Values are inherent in every aspect of schooling (Education for
Values in Schools A Framework, 2012, p. 2); they are promoted throughout the
school years with the help of relevant activities.
Students learn that slash and burn agriculture, also known as Jhoom cultivation
in tribal belts of India, is not only practiced in our country but other parts of the
world as well. Through narratives, the related problems of livelihood, displacement,
and ecology from slash and burn agriculture are discussed in an open-ended
question to promote discussion and critical thinking skills in learners.
Use of non-conventional energy resources is highlighted to emphasize sustain-
able futures for humanity. India has largest number of cattle in the world. In rural
areas, biogas plants provide twin benefits to farmers in the form of energy and
improved quality of manure. It also prevents the loss of trees and manure due to the
burning of fuelwood and cow dung cakes. Due to its location in the tropics and
having a long coastline, India has enormous resources awaiting to be tapped
including wind power, solar power, and tidal power. These resources will lay the
foundation for sustainable development.
Students need to be taught that the environment is common to all whether we are
at the grassroots or at the top of the ladder, an insect, or a ruler. In the world, the life
of people is at stake because of humans’ unmindful activities. For example, water
security is a significant issue; students need to be educated to treat water as a
precious commodity. If we recognize something, we begin to admire it. And if we
admire it, we will care for it. What we care for is what we love.
Using newspaper, clippings in teaching and learning are of particular importance
in promoting an understanding of contemporary events and problems. Issues of
urbanization, migration, and industrialization have been included in the curriculum
to raise awareness of the problems of a growing population and labor force and
competition in the international market. Migration of children from villages to
metro cities in India in search of jobs and international migration both are reflected
through newspaper items like “One immigrant in UK per minute.” Such issues
included in the school geography curriculum encourage students to engage in
questioning and enquiry. They also come to know that Bhutan is the only country in
the world which has proclaimed the Gross National Happiness as the measure of
country’s progress. This encourages learners to think of the spiritual, nonmaterial,
and qualitative aspects of development.
Geography textbooks at the higher secondary stage mention that Mahatma
Gandhi was quite apprehensive about development, particularly the way industri-
alization has institutionalized the loss of morality, spirituality, self-reliance, non-
violence, and mutual cooperation and the environment. Problems of urban settle-
ments, especially in developing countries, including congested housing and streets
and lack of drinking water facilities, electricity, sewage disposal, health and edu-
cation facilities, especially in the Asia Pacific region, are studied. This helps students
to understand that countries with higher Human Development Index (HDI) numbers
are those where a lot of investment in the social sector has taken place.
220 A. Pandey
Field visits have been suggested to help students better learn geography through
both empirical and experiential learning. Visits to slums are one of the activities
recommended to sensitize students toward problems related to the growth of
urbanization and its impact on life conditions.
18.3 Geospatial Technology in School Geography

Curriculum
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) were intro-
duced in the school geography curriculum in the year 2000; they received addi-
tional support at the higher secondary stage in the NCF 2005. Unfortunately, the
schools in India are not able to fully implement RS and GIS in the curriculum even
after 15–20 years because most teachers are not formally trained in these areas.
This is one of the main reasons that teachers are hesitant to take the task of teaching
and conducting practical to students (Pandey 2013). Since 2008 NCERT has
organized training programs in GIS at all levels for geography teachers of central
government, state government, and private schools. Objectives of these programs
are to make geography teachers capable to teach the contents of the geography
syllabus effectively through the help of GIS and to enhance geospatial skills among
students so they may better understand the subject. To reach large number of
teachers and students across the country, an online web portal School
Bhuvan-NCERT (http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/governance/mhrd_ncert/) has been
launched in association with Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). This
portal is linked with the geography curriculum, and students are given opportunities
to develop online neighborhood maps based on satellite images. Geospatial tech-
nologies are included in the geography curriculum at the higher secondary stage but
have not been integrated appropriately with all the themes presented in physical and
human geography textbooks. In this regard, geography curriculum needs to be
revised to properly integrate applications of geospatial technologies with all topics
in order to support global understanding.
18.4 Conclusion
India has a very rich and amazingly complex cultural diversity. The first National
Curriculum Framework (1975) developed in India for schools notes that the
development of national consciousness and of international understanding should
be a simultaneous process. Respect, tolerance, cordial relationships, cooperation,
empathy, and peace among peoples and countries are possible only with a proper
appreciation of each country’s contribution to the world. In India, learners are put in
widely different geographical and cultural contexts. Besides, learners come from
varied social and economic backgrounds. The existing geography curriculum based
on NCF-2005 has been framed keeping in view this varied and stratified learner
profile. Now, the approach to global understanding in geography needs more
emphasis on realistic fieldwork, including theoretical knowledge. Though con-
ceptual understanding of global issues such as climate change, global warming, and
migration is introduced in the curriculum, students need to be involved with more
hands-on activities at all levels of school education. Studies in school geography
education in India have found that students like geography when the teacher uses
other teaching–learning materials beyond the textbook. In this regard, geospatial
technologies may play an important role in making students well informed, sen-
sitive, and skilled toward global issues which also need tolerance and peaceful
co-existence in a civilized world. There is a need to encourage students to cultivate
the tendency to follow their reason beyond the dictates of culture, tradition, com-
munity, and country and also teach them the undeniable values of humanity.
Cultural diversity of the world is one of the greatest gifts of humanity. Future
generations have to learn that to respect and do justice to others is also to respect
and do justice to their respective cultures.
References
Contemporary India II. (2006). Textbook in Geography for Class X, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, India.
Education for Values in Schools A Framework. (2012). National Council of Educational Research
and Training, New Delhi, India.
India: People and Economy. (2006). Textbook in Geography for Class XII, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, India.
National Curriculum Framework. (2005). National Council of Educational Research and
Training, New Delhi, India.
National Curriculum Framework for School Education. (2000). National Council of Educational
Research and Training (p. 63), New Delhi, India.
Our Environment. (2006). Textbook in Geography for Class VII, National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi, India.
Pandey, A. (2013). Role of GIS in school geography. Journal of Indian Education, National
Council of Educational Research and Training, 3(37), 113 (New Delhi, India).
Position paper by National Focus Group on Teaching of Social Sciences. (2005). National
Curriculum Framework (2005), National Council of Educational Research and Training, New
Delhi, India.
Standish A. (2013). What does geography contribute to global learning? In D. Lambert & M. Jones
(Eds.), Debates in geography education (244–256). Routledge.
The Curriculum for the Ten Year School: A Framework. (1975). National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi, India.
Chapter 19
The Study of Global Issues
and Geographic Education in Russia
Alexander Lobzhanidze
19.1 The Problem
Global issues are in fact real-life contradictions that affect the interests of each
individual, different social groups, and states, even the possibility of survival of all
humankind. Their particular complexity lies in the fact that the solution to every
problem requires taking into account the influence of others on it. As one of the
leading theorists of globalistics A. Peccei once said, the issues faced by humanity,
“have grappled each other like the tentacles of a giant octopus, entangling the entire
planet… the number of unresolved issues grows, they are becoming more complex,
their plexus becoming more intricate” (Peccei 1977).
Today, the scale of human activity has reached such proportions that the bio-
sphere is becoming one of the subsystems of the planetary civilization. In other
words, humanity is going through a crucial stage in the development of a global
phenomenon which E. Lerua, P. Teyyar de Chardin, and V. Vernadsky called the
“noosphere” (Vernadsky 2004).
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, held in 1992, which proclaimed the
basic principles of transition to sustainable development, clearly showed that the
continued existence of humankind depends on a radical revision in relation to the
environmental strategy of mankind.
The International Charter on Geography Education (Beijing, 2016) states that
geography is a vitally important subject and a source of knowledge for the people of
the twenty-first century who are living in an interconnected world. Geographical
education helps to achieve the harmonious coexistence of all people alongside
interaction with the environment.
A. Lobzhanidze (&)
Moscow State, University of Education, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: alobjanidze@yandex.ru

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_19
224 A. Lobzhanidze
19.2 Global Issues and Global Education
Global issues that originated in the last century are of most relevance to the field of
education, which, by virtue of their direction for the future, is designed to take into
account not only immediate but also long-term needs of society. Thus, global issues
are the initial prerequisites for building models for future education, with the focus
being on the connection of science and life. But can education take on such
challenges? Which way should it develop and what are its strategic priorities? What
are its most important functions?
In today’s world, global education priorities are:
• the priority of education, which is reflected in the fact that modern education is
intended not only to translate purely pragmatic data of different sciences from
one generation to the next, that is, to simply transfer knowledge and skills, but
also to form in young people’s minds an integrated image of the surrounding
material and spiritual world. The goal is to promote the understanding that each
person belongs to a single human community. It is also necessary to translate
from one generation to another the cultural values in the definition common to
all people. Thus, the report of the International Commission on Education for
the twenty-first century under the eloquent title “Learning: The Treasure
Within” (UNESCO; 1996) underlines that education should play an important
role in the development of the individual and society. Education is one of the
basic means to establish a deeper and more harmonious form of human
development, which will allow fighting against poverty, discrimination, igno-
rance, oppression, and war.
• fundamentalization of education, which accentuates the knowledge and skills
that form the basis of understanding of the world and youth culture, and that are
necessary for the perception of the scientific view of the world. Increasing
backlog of education from science is one of the paradoxical effects of synergy of
the school crisis and crisis of civilization. It is well known that modern edu-
cation is the fruit of Enlightenment, which is a result of the outstanding dis-
coveries of the first phase of the scientific revolution. But if by the twenty-first
century science has radically changed, the school system is stuck in the realities
of a twentieth-century worldview.
• improving quality of education, which provides the mandatory basic content
of public education and its achievement in accordance with the student’s
identity, as well as the high professional level of teachers and pedagogics. Alas,
the modern education system is not ready for this new role. The main function
of education is too often limited to the transfer of knowledge and, therefore,
prepares the person who knows, but does not realize, who is moralizing, but
immoral, disciplined, but not cultured. Modern school globalizes culture by
translating knowledge. Ultimately, the modern education system can not fully
cope with its pioneering mission or implement the mission-wise regulation of
thought and behavior in changing global realities.
19 The Study of Global Issues and Geographic Education in Russia 225
• the democratization of education, which means accessibility for all members

of society, regardless of gender, social status, nationality, race, or religious
affiliation of students. Given the new realities of social life, in a high-mobility
population, a person enters into a new social environment, in which he often
faces a situation of moral choice, when the consequences of his actions may be
very prolonged. In these conditions, democratization of people’s consciousness
is important. Only in this case can citizens make decisions based on social
responsibility, thus, there is an even greater need for education reform.
• the continuity of education, which should enable modern man to acquire new
knowledge throughout their entire life. Continuous education is an important
means of preservation, development, and mutual enrichment of national cultures
and universal values, factors, and conditions for international cooperation in the
field of education and other global challenges in a rapidly changing world.
Today, scientific knowledge is rapidly changing the world, giving it unparal-
leled mobility, which is closely linked with the phenomenon of rapid obsoles-
cence of everyday products. Thus, such human qualities as the breadth of
thinking, cognitive flexibility, and ability to navigate in informational space
have become paramount, along with a deep professional knowledge.
• the introduction to the educational process of school teaching methods that
focus on the development of cognitive and creative activity of students. In
addition to this list, there is the extremely important area, of informatization of
education, which in its essence is revolutionizing it, because information
technologies are changing the very nature of thought, and hence the nature of
the educational process. The use of new information and communication
technologies is, one might say, the scientific and industrial foundation of the
process of globalization of education.
19.3 Geographical Education in Russian Schools
The content of the school geography course is based on the principle of its logical
integrity, developing from general to specific. Therefore, the secondary school
program is structured into two main blocks: “Geography of the Earth” and
“Geography of Russia”, into each of which specific subject areas are allocated
(Lobzhanidze et al. 2014).
The primary course of the secondary school program “Geography of the Earth”
(5–6 grade) forms students’ knowledge about the geographical integrity and
heterogeneity of the Earth as a planet, the general patterns of development of
physical relief, hydrography, climate processes, the distribution of flora and fauna,
and how nature affects the life and work of people. There are four main objectives
for this course: (1) to develop a system of geographical knowledge about the
components of the geosphere and their interaction in natural and human-made
systems; (2) to learn through specific examples about the diversity of geographical
226 A. Lobzhanidze
spaces at a range of scales, from the local to the global, which allows for the
formation of a geographical view of the world; (3) to understand the main char-
acteristics of interaction between nature and society at the present stage of its
development; and (4) to appreciate the importance of environmental conservation
and sustainable development. Important additional elements of the global context of
this course are to understand the idea of the equality of the human races and the idea
of the need to preserve UNESCO natural and cultural world heritage sites.
The course “Geography of Continents and Oceans” (Grade 7) entails the
development of basic knowledge of the geosphere’s integrity and differentiation
through examples from the natural world of the different continents and their major
regions. Students become acquainted with countries and the people who inhabit
them and the particularities of their lives and activities in various environmental
conditions. The main objectives of this course are for students to understand global
patterns of climate and terrain; the characteristics of the hydrosphere and the Earth’s
natural systems; the distribution of population due to environmental factors; and the
dependence of human adaptation on geographical conditions of residence.
Important elements of the global context in this course include understanding of the
idea of equality of people on our planet, as well as the nature of the changes on
continents under the influence of human activities, and the need to preserve natural
and cultural heritage as the habitat of indigenous peoples.
The final course in secondary school—“Geography of Russia” (Grades 8–9)—is
central in the system of Russian education, performing, along with its educational
role, an important educational task. The main objective of this course is to create a
geographical image of the students’ homeland in all its diversity and complexity,
based on an integrated approach showing the interaction and mutual influence of its
three main components: the environment, its population, and its economy.
Important elements in this course include (1) understanding the interaction between
nature and society today; (2) acquiring knowledge about the nature, essence, and
dynamics of major natural, environmental, socioeconomic, geopolitical, and other
processes that occur in Russia and the world; (3) understanding the importance of
environmental conservation and natural resources management; and (4) knowing
about the implementation of sustainable development strategies on a national scale.
Thus, the objectives of geographical education in secondary school for the
purpose of understanding global issues are:
• Formation of an integrated image of the world through knowledge of the
diversity of modern geographical space at its various scales, from local to global;
• Formation of students’ worldview through geographical knowledge based on
core values of the system, as well as identity, social responsibility, and
tolerance;
• Understanding of the relationship between natural and socioeconomic devel-
opment and its impact on human life in order to develop a responsible and
careful attitude toward the environment;
• Understanding of the role of the environment, living space of all humankind, as
an important factor in the formation of society and the individual;
• Awareness of one’s role in the integrated, diverse, and rapidly changing global
world, the acquisition of knowledge and experience for their application and
adequate orientation in the world, and development of methods of adaptation;
• Development of skills to use instruments and tools, information and commu-
nications technology, and learning resources in order to obtain an objective
assessment of results.
The standard level in high school geographical education concludes with the
course “Economic and Social Geography of the World” (Grades 10–11), which is
intended to form the students’ view of the world and provide an understanding of
the main trends and processes of development of the global population and econ-
omy. The program content is structured into three main blocks:
1. A general characterization of the political map, natural resources, population,
and economy of the world;
2. Characteristics of world regions and countries;
3. Global issues of humanity. The final topic especially draws attention to such
global issues as war and peace, population growth and the exhaustion of natural
resources, income inequality and hunger, energy consumption and environ-
mental issues, conservation of biodiversity and ethnic identity, and the explo-
ration of space and the oceans.
Another standard course in high school can be “Global Geography” (Grades 10–
11), focused on the study of the spatial development of planetary processes and
phenomena, including various aspects of the interaction between the environment
and society. This course has been proposed for Russian schools only recently, and it
is very little tested; however, it deserves every right to be implemented in school
practice. The course content is interdisciplinary, as geoglobalistics studies global
issues of humanity from a geographical point of view, the resolution of which is
associated with interdisciplinary relations. The content of the “Global Geography”
course has the following structure:
1. Geography and the global issues of humanity;
2. Global interactions in the environment and society system;
3. Global issues in the individual and society system;
4. Global interaction between countries and systems;
5. Russia in the modern world.
Thus, the main goals of geography education in high school at the standard
level are:
• Development of students’ systematic geographical knowledge about the inte-
grated, diverse, and rapidly changing world; the relationship between the
environment, the population, and economy at all territorial levels; geographical
aspects of global issues and ways to solve them; and methods of studying the
geographical landscape, its diverse phenomena, and processes;
228 A. Lobzhanidze
• Mastering the ability to combine global, regional, local, and approaches to

describe and analyze natural, socioeconomic, geo-ecological processes, and
phenomena;
• Using in practice and everyday life, the various geographical methods and
resources, including maps, statistical data, and geographical information sys-
tems to assess the most important international socioeconomic events, the
geoeconomic, and geopolitic situation in Russia and other countries and regions
of the world and their possible development trends.
19.4 Geographical Education in Russia: Problems

and Contradictions
The development of ideas of globalization in scientific geography serves as the

basis of theoretical and methodological understanding of the importance of a global
approach, which employs the unique characteristics of school geography. Its
complexity allows global problems to be seen through the study of direct, inverse,
and indirect links between the components of global geosystems. Obviously,
geography is considered a “spatial” science, so it is important to realize its
worldview potential based on the disclosure of global issues as a concentrated
expression of the spatial contradictions between the natural and social components
of geographical space (Lobzhanidze 2014).
Thus, geography is an academic discipline with significant potential for inte-
gration by including scientific and socioeconomic content which creates prerequi-
sites for studying the triad: “Environment—society—man.” For this reason, school
geography has unique potential for the study of global issues.
However, in common school practice, despite the active inclusion of the various
aspects of global problems in the content of geographical education, their study is
quite fragmentary. Students’ stereotypes prevail like those of an outside observer
who believes himself unable to change anything. For example, the Unified State
Exam results (2012–2016) show that students find it difficult to name various
environmental problems and explain their interrelations and influence on the sur-
vival of humankind (Lobzhanidze 2015b).
Today’s school teaches knowledge, but not values. Humanism is interpreted as a
focus on an individual’s personal problems. The person himself is seen only as a
causative agent of environmental problems, but not as a victim and the creator,
regulator, and manager in the geosphere at its present state. Spatial ranks of global
problems are studied in isolation, which hinders students’ understanding of Earth’s
integrity as a human life-support system.
Today’s Concept of Geographical Education in Russia (Russian Geographical
Society 2016) and secondary and high school programs geography is seen as the
most important school subject in terms of worldview, and is given a special
responsibility for the formation of an integrated, systematic, and socially oriented
image of the Earth as a people’s planet. Thus, the priority in the field of educational
integration is to provide an interdisciplinary collaboration of sciences and geo-
graphical knowledge to resolve global issues. The development of a global mindset
of future generations in the geographical education system is only possible through
the implementation of a number of approaches to learning.
19.5 The Approaches to the Formation of Global

Thinking in Russian School
The cultural approach is a priority at the present stage of development of edu-

cation. The dominant feature of the new global civilization is the spiritual sphere,
where the main subject is a person with pronounced spiritual principles.
Implementing the cultural approach involves the reorientation of geographical
education goals in the cultural context from a “knowledgeable person” to a “cul-
tured person”, and the content of education itself should be filled with cultural
meaning, with emphasis on problematic and creative techniques that reflect dialog,
tolerance, and empathy as the features of the present stage development of culture.
Russian Academy of Education member V. Maksakovsky formulated the basic
philosophical ideas of geographical culture as a way to harmonize the relationship
between society and the environment aimed at the preservation of our planet, the
conscious social and economic activities of society, and the understanding of its
three principle components: nature, humans, and society (Maksakovsky 1998).
Geographic culture is defined as a type of spiritual culture focused on the
development of the individual student of a system of moral values, experience,
social responsibility, and tolerance (Lobzhanidze 2015a).
The axiological approach is intended to ensure a student’s mastery of the
system of common cultural values that form a humanitarian attitude toward the
world, which is one of the most important tasks of modern education. In terms of
geographical education, we can identify objective values, defined by the diversity of
the environment, and subjective ones, expressed in the form of ethnic and religious
traditions. If students are aware of their role as citizens of the Earth, they can
potentially adapt to the global nature of change as well as change the situation for
the better, making them responsible for the preservation of life in the present and
future. Ethnic values have evolved over centuries and, therefore, continue to be the
most stable type of culture, protecting them from disassociation. Without a deep
understanding of the culture of different peoples, one cannot understand the com-
mon spiritual and moral values of the modern world.
The civilization approach reflects the position of those who support cultural
relativism, which recognizes the originality and uniqueness of national cultures,
each of which has contributed to global culture. Scientists such as N. Danilevsky,
Arnold Toynbee, and Spengler believed that all cultures are equipotent and sig-
nificant and that each enriches global culture and ensures the preservation of ethnic
230 A. Lobzhanidze
groups. Human culture is a mosaic of traditions of the peoples of the world, because
all ethnic groups, according to Russian historian and geographer L. Gumilev, have
different “surrounding landscape” and a different history, shaping their present, both
in time and space. The culture of each ethnic group is unique, and it is this mosaic
of humans as a species that gives it the flexibility that allows them to survive on the
planet Earth. In this regard, strengthening the civilizational component in geo-
graphic education should be viewed through the prism of material and cultural
values, reflecting the experience of various ethnic groups for the purpose of
transforming the natural and social environment in different parts of the world. The
establishment of a civilized worldview can occur through the formation of various
images of the modern world in lessons of geography through acquaintance with the
world cultural heritage and with the traits of the material and spiritual culture of the
peoples of the world (Lobzhanidze 2007).
The ecological approach requires building education while taking into account
the laws of interaction of natural and social environments, and consequently the
development of an ecological imperative. In this sense, requirements for ecological
education are understood as the formation such a worldview, which determines a
person’s behavior, that is substantially dependent on the demands of society and the
corresponding current level of development of science and culture. The modern
school of geography uses the environmental approach to consider geographic,
resource-related, industrial, social, and demographic problems.
The interdisciplinary approach is based on the need to synthesize knowledge
both within geography and in strengthening interdisciplinary ties with other aca-
demic disciplines in order to address global challenges. The interdisciplinary nature
of global education requires that the same issues are dealt with in the various school
subjects, and geography serves as the only school subject that integrates scientific,
social, and economic knowledge. Realization of ideas of integrity by means of
geography is possible through the development of integrated regional geography, in
which the interdisciplinary unity of the two branches of the school of geography is
most fully revealed, thus strengthening its humanitarian and cultural components.
In comprehensive regional geographic courses, diversity of the environment is seen
as the main reason for the differences in the expression of global issues.
Thus, geographical education is intended, first and foremost, to develop a global
consciousness. Global consciousness places the question of humans, their ability to
cope with the aggravation of global issues, and the prospects for survival at the
center of its study. Global consciousness raises the question of how to tackle global
issues in one’s country in cooperation with the international community.
References
Lobzhanidze, A. A. (2007). The ethnocultural paradigm of geography education. Moscow:

Intellect-Center.
Lobzhanidze, A. A. (2014). Today’s school education in Russia: Problems & perspectives.
Moscow: Russian Geographical Society.
Lobzhanidze, A. A. (2015a). The development of geographical culture in students. A reference for

the school principal. Moscow: Action.
Lobzhanidze, A. A. (2015b). Assessment of quality of geography education in Russia and the
World. Geography in School, 1, 44–53. (Moscow: School-Press).
Lobzhanidze, A. A., Barinova, I. I., Vinokurova, N. F., Nikolina, V. V., & Sukhorukov, V. D.
(2014). Geography in today’s school. Moscow: Russian Geographical Society.
Maksakovsky, V. P. (1998). Geographical culture. Moscow: Vlados.
Peccei, A. (1977). The human quality. New York: Pergamon Press.
Russian Geographical Society. (2016). The concept of geography education in Russia. Moscow:
Russian Geographical Society.
Vernadsky, V. I. (2004). The Biosphere and Noosphere. Moscow: Iris-Press.
Chapter 20
Perspectives on Global Understanding
in Geography Education in Canada
Lynn Moorman and Kendra Garbutt
20.1 Introduction
Recognition of the importance of global understanding is evident in curricular

policies across Canada. Better global understanding, particularly through global
citizenship, world geography, and the notion of globalization is considered a means
of helping to situate Canadians’ own identity, arguably the primary goal of geog-
raphy and social studies education in the country. In the middle grades, the juris-
dictions differ substantially in both their geography and global agendas and
priorities, and by secondary levels, there is minimal requirement for global
understanding in a geographic context. This chapter offers insights into how global
understanding education is approached across the country through topics and grade
levels, identifying commonalities, gaps, and trends.
Beyond the curricula content, other elements considered are the capacity and
preparation of the educators to deliver global education content with a geographic
perspective, and the concerns of students wanting to ensure they are best prepared
to be strong global citizens and to understand their local place within the context of
global issues.
L. Moorman (&)
Earth and Environmental Sciences, Mount Royal University, Calgary, AB, Canada
e-mail: lmoorman@mtroyal.ca
K. Garbutt
Mount Royal University, Calgary, AB, Canada
e-mail: kendra.garbutt@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_20
234 L. Moorman and K. Garbutt
20.2 Overview of Canadian Geography Education
20.2.1 Canadian Education
Canada is the second largest country in the world and is highly decentralized, with
thirteen political and educational jurisdictions and two official languages, French
and English. The design and delivery of primary and secondary education falls
under provincial/territorial jurisdiction, each having different curricula, different
definitions of primary and secondary education levels, and different requirements
for graduation. Figure 20.1 identifies the names and abbreviations for the ten
provinces and three territories in Canada. Primary education is often referred to as
elementary, and generally represents kindergarten to grade 6. Secondary education
is generally divided into junior and senior secondary. Junior secondary (also
referred to as junior high, intermediate school, or middle school in different pro-
vinces) ranges from grades 5 to 9. Senior secondary starts in grade 9 or 10 and
finishes in grade 12. Quebec follows a different system, with five levels of
Fig. 20.1 Education in Canada is the responsibility of each of the provinces and territories, with
no formal national framework. Regional similarities in curricula may exist, as in the four Atlantic
provinces (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador)
20 Perspectives on Global Understanding … 235
secondary school starting at the equivalent of grade 7, leading to a secondary

diploma following the end of Sec V (equivalent to Grade 11).
20.2.2 Geography Education
Regional responsibilities for education across a vast country result in inconsisten-

cies for geography education in Canada. Geography is delivered in curricula that
ranges from brand new to 50 years old, and there is no official national and little
current interprovincial coordination. Curricula developers also keep a careful watch
on federal intrusion in matters of education, especially with relation to citizenship
education (Di Mascio 2013). In the case of Quebec, where protection of language
and cultural heritage defines much of the political history and French is the only
official language (though English school boards exist), provincial identity is con-
sidered extremely important, and may take precedence over Canadian identity in the
context of participating in the global community.
Mapping out where geography curricula is taught across the country is a difficult
task in and of itself, exacerbated by the dynamic rewriting and implementation of
curricula at different rates across the country. Curricula in one third of the juris-
dictions are currently being rewritten or are in initial implementation stages.
Geography as an offering is also not straightforward. In some provinces, it is a
stand-alone course; however, it is most commonly integrated into Social Studies
courses, or even Humanities programs, which combine Social Studies and English.
In some regions, Geography is also offered through the international Advanced
Placement (AP) program and the International Baccalaureate (IB) program, though
these programs are not well subscribed across the country. This overview considers
geography in these various contexts. Global issues courses that are not specifically
geography curricula are also mentioned.
In all areas of Canada, geography courses and geography content at all levels
may be taught by an educator with no specialization in geography. Secondary social
studies teaching, at best, requires a university course or two in geography, but
geography courses with a global focus are not required for teaching certification.
For example, to become a social studies teacher in British Columbia, the history
requirements are six courses, including two courses in Canadian history, three in
European history, and one in African/Asian/Latin American history. Only two
geography courses are required—one course in Canadian Geography and one other
in a physical geography. In this case, social studies teachers are generally far better
prepared to consider global understanding with a historical lens than a geographic
one. In Alberta, there are no geography course requirements for social studies
teachers at all, and in Ontario, the geography education program has recently been
eliminated from the Faculty of Education at the University of Toronto. In many
provinces, geography is not currently listed as an admission requirement or as a
teachable subject for education students. Few new teachers in Canada are entering
the profession with a geography background or experience. This has a significant
impact on how geography is both taught and perceived in the K-12 system (Bednarz
et al. 2006; Canadian Geographic Education 2016) and has implications for
teaching for geographically informed global understanding.
20.3 Global Understanding in the Canadian Curricula
Global issues seem a perfect fit for Canadian education. The country was the first to
declare multiculturalism as an official policy, announced in 1971 and formalized in
the Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1988 (Government of Canada 2014). Aligned
with the values of inclusion and multicultural acceptance, the acknowledgement of
global understanding has been increasingly reflected in curriculum policy docu-
ments across the country. However, national identity remains the priority of the
social studies, geography, and history curricula, particularly in the courses required
for graduation across the country.
In many policy documents, global understanding through global citizenship is
declared a primary goal of K-12 education. In Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and
Labrador, graduation requirements include a Global Studies credit (Newfoundland
and Labrador 2017). In Alberta, while the current core concepts of social studies are
citizenship and identity, arguably in a Canadian context, one of the six strands of
social studies supporting and defining the learning outcomes at all levels is “Global
Connections”. The purpose of this strand of outcomes is to expand students’
understandings of perspective, connections, citizenship, identity, interdependencies,
and conflicts at all scales, in order to broaden their “global consciousness and
empathy with world condition” (Alberta Education 2005a). Ontario’s secondary
program, arguably the strongest in geographic education across the country, is
called Canadian and World Studies, acknowledging the importance of the global
perspective. In Atlantic Canada, the four provinces of Prince Edward Island,
Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, have a strong
global emphasis in each of their identified key stages—grades 3, 6, 9, and 12.
Overall, curricula documents across the country declare requirements for global
understanding as part of a student’s educational repertoire and graduation criteria,
but these actual requirements are stronger in the earlier grades, and are rare in
secondary.
Canadian students are often introduced to global understanding in elementary
levels of social studies (K-6) to help shape their identity on a global scale. The
topics and approach are often regional and place-based. In Alberta, for example,
four specific places are the focus of grade 3 social studies—India, Tunisia, Peru,
and Ukraine (Alberta Education 2005b). New approaches are evident, however,
such as the study of global indigenous people as the focus for British Columbia’s
new grade 3 social studies curriculum. This approach aligns with the momentum
across the country to incorporate aboriginal and indigenous histories, perspectives,
and understanding into curricula at all levels, including post-secondary (MacDonald
2016). Other themes in elementary social studies include global issues, governance,
interdependence, children’s rights, and culture. In the Atlantic provinces, social

studies in grade 6 is focused on World Cultures, investigating physical regions,
relationships between cultures and environment, elements and expressions of cul-
ture, and world issues (Newfoundland and Labrador 2007). In Ontario and British
Columbia, global perspective with a strong emphasis on geographic thinking per-
meates the elementary curricula. Learning about the world in Canadian schools is
often approached with an expanding horizons model or a hierarchical method
aligned with Piagetian theory, with investigation starting at the family and local
level, progressing to a provincial, national, and finally global level. The four
Atlantic provinces, however, encourage learning at all scales starting in grade 1 to
facilitate a strong global perspective at all grades. Research into pedagogy and
outcomes in the Canadian context from these different approaches would be helpful
to identify best strategies for global understanding education at this level.
In the middle grades (grades 7–9), the approach and content to geography,
including global understanding, begins to diversify significantly. In some juris-
dictions geography is taught as a stand-alone course, often separated into human
and physical geography, in which global perspectives are offered (ON, QC). In
other provinces and territories, geography concepts are included within a histori-
cally dominated social studies agenda, but the visibility of geography is dependent
on the individual teacher and their preparation and geographic disposition (AB, BC,
YT). In remaining jurisdictions (SK, MB, NT, NU, PE, NS, NL, NB), global
understanding is encouraged within social studies, often with a focused regional
view incorporating learning about cultures, resources, economies, urbanization, and
population.
By secondary or high school, there is only one province (MB) offering a
compulsory global-themed geography course. Students in Alberta (and in the ter-
ritories following the Alberta curriculum; NT, NU) require social studies
throughout their secondary education. In the required grade 10 course, students
study the construct of globalization. Provinces in Atlantic Canada emphasize global
perspectives and topics in key grades, and require a global studies credit for
graduation which can be met with a geography class. Elective geography and social
studies courses provide the best opportunity for learning about global issues and
perspectives, but these are offered inconsistently throughout the country and even
within provinces. Strong globally-oriented courses exist in all of the Atlantic pro-
vinces, including Newfoundland and Labrador, where approximately 79% of grade
12 students are enrolled in the World Geography course (Canadian Geographic
Education 2016). The subscriptions to IB and AP Geography courses are also high
in this region, particularly Nova Scotia. In Ontario there are nine elective geography
courses in grades 11 and 12 and all involve global perspectives and understanding,
with explicit topics including urban population, environment, and resource man-
agement. Two of the courses are dedicated to spatial technologies, in which global
issues may be visualized and analyzed. This offering of spatial technologies courses
is unique in the country. Saskatchewan offers a grade 12 level geography course on
global cultural geography. However, this curriculum was last updated in 1969. Two
provinces (MB, PE) offer an inquiry-based global issues course that encourages
local and global perspectives and student action projects. In Manitoba, this Global
Issues course is well supported by the Global Teachers Inquiry Project (GTIP)—a
network of teachers that provides teacher support, resources, reflection, and
recording, serving as a record of classroom experience (Kornelsen 2016). It is
facilitated by the Manitoba Education Research Network (MERN). This network
forms a bridge between academic and K-12 educators of social studies, one that is
sorely lacking in many other jurisdictions in the country.
Canadian students are also acquiring their global understandings from outside
initiatives. In the 1980s and 1990s, organizations such as the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) and United Nations International Children’s
Emergency Fund (UNICEF) had funding for educational initiatives, resources, and
professional development for teachers across Canada. Though funding has since
declined, and a focus on foundational literacies dominates current curricular efforts,
UNICEF continues to work with pre-service teachers in faculties of education
(UNICEF Canada 2012) to prepare future teachers in global issues and pedagogy,
and to provide assessment of global education in Canadian schools (Mundy et al.
2007). Students are connecting to peers and cultures in other places through pro-
grams supported by TakingITGlobal, the Global Youth Action Network, and the
United Nations Millennium Campaign, and through the curriculum and resources
produced by One World Youth Project. TakingITGlobal for Educators is a com-
munity of support for teachers with three pillars - global citizenship, environmental
sustainability, and youth voice (TakingITGlobal 2016). The Centre for Global
Education provides real-time collaborative programing for high schools and is the
largest provider of its kind in Canada, connecting over 150,000 students in the last
ten years with a mandate of educating through global learning opportunities (Centre
for Global Education 2016a). Through these external initiatives the student voice
regarding their own perceived requirements for global understanding through
curricula is being articulated (Centre for Global Education 2016b).
20.3.1 Discussion
In Canadian curricula, priority for global understanding is strong in the elementary

grades (1–6) but wanes in subsequent grades, and is inconsistent across jurisdic-
tions. There is concern that there is not enough emphasis on the global context in
middle grades, particularly in Alberta and British Columbia, where a historical
perspective dominates the social studies agenda. The Northwest Territories, gen-
erally following Alberta’s program of studies, adjusted their curriculum to include
global education, namely the Circumpolar World (grade 7) and the Changing World
- the concept of a global village (grade 8), to meet the learning needs of their
students. Nunavut has followed their lead. Representatives from these territories
have been invited to participate in the current writing of Alberta’s provincial cur-
riculum to ensure issues and elements important to their residents are incorporated
in the next shared version.
There was hope that the recent revision of the British Columbia (BC) social
studies curriculum, which is also generally followed by the Yukon Territory, would
allow for a greater emphasis on global issues (Mundy et al. 2007). However,
comments regarding the draft curricula for middle grades (6–8) have included
concerns about the loss of global citizenship topics, current Canadian and world
issues, and geographic content (British Columbia Ministry of Education 2016).
Though these concerns have been acknowledged and addressed in the final cur-
riculum documents (some global citizenship topics have been returned back to the
grade 6 content, and there is an infusion of global understanding now across the early
grades curriculum), the lack of explicit original references to global understanding
and citizenship revealed the original low priority given to these topics by the
provincial curriculum leaders. Conversely, the strong feedback provided by teachers
demonstrated their belief that global understanding is a critical element of students’
academic learning. Teachers also suggested that explicit curriculum for global
understanding was an important catalyst for student action projects and activities in
the schools (British Columbia Ministry of Education 2016). Global understanding is
an evident theme in elective geography courses, especially in Ontario, BC, and the
Atlantic provinces, and in IB and AP programs, but these courses are not available
across the country or even offered consistently in province where the curricula is
listed (Bednarz et al. 2006; Canadian Geographic Education 2016). There is a worry
and evidence that existing geography courses are vulnerable to replacement by new
course offerings, particularly in the area of financial literacy, due to time constraints
and curricular priorities (CBC News 2016; Canadian Geographic Education 2016).
What of the student voice? In a survey of Canadian youth on human rights,
social justice and international issues, only 8% of respondents indicated they were
likely to get their information about global issues from school. They identified war
and conflict from a historical perspective as the main world issue learned in school,
but rated current issues such as environment, epidemics, and famine as their chief
concerns (War Child Canada 2006). These findings remain relevant today. In 2016,
students from schools across Alberta participated in a six-month program studying
and engaging in climate leadership, facilitated by the Centre for Global Education.
A full day online town-hall meeting with 800 students and subsequent survey with
nearly 3000 more, resulted in priorities and recommendations to provincial leaders
for education about climate change, environment, and energy (Centre for Global
Education 2016b). Final recommendations from the students included creating and
integrating a framework of climate, environmental, and energy literacy in all
classes, a global focus in social studies, pedagogies for active, hands-on, and
outdoor learning, and time and supports for teachers to facilitate these requests.
These topics are inherently relevant to a geography curricula, particularly physical
geography and geospatial technologies, adding to the argument that there is an
important place and desire for geography in the programs of study. The students
also recognized the requirement for professional development for teachers to build
pedagogical content knowledge to best incorporate this content in their courses,
which speaks to professional development need for existing and future teachers in
the area of geography.
20.4 Trends and Prospects for Future, Recommendations

for Changes or Improvements
There is recognition of the importance of global understanding in Canadian cur-

ricula. Excellent opportunities for learning related to global understanding occur in
elective courses in many provinces, particularly Ontario and the Atlantic provinces.
These initiatives or requirements are generally not appearing as geography offerings
except for in Manitoba and Ontario, traditional strongholds of Canadian geography
education. Recently developed courses in global indigenous studies and global
issues are not identified as geography curricula, despite the natural alignment.
These are examples of excellent opportunities for geography topics related to global
understanding, however, most required social studies related courses are predom-
inantly history and Canadian focused. Students are supported in their global
learning by interactions with external agencies, internationalization efforts, and field
trip experiences, but these do not happen under the academic lens of geography.
This speaks to the first area for improvement, namely increasing geography’s
identity and agency in the curricula. At the same time that geography is shrinking
from curricula and course offerings in schools across Canada, there are calls from
academia, teachers, and the students themselves to strengthen climate, environ-
mental, sustainability, energy, outdoor, and global education. Reconciling and
realizing geography’s relevance to address these needs in the curricula is required.
This concern of geography identity was also noted in Bednarz et al.’s (2006) review
of Canadian geography education, and the continued concern indicates efforts to
improve the awareness of the relevance of the discipline in Canada need to be more
effective. An excellent opportunity exists in the immediate future to link geography
curricula to the new Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
evaluation of global competence, given Canada’s strong performance and com-
mitment to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
educational framework and goals (OECD 2016).
The second area for improvement is in teacher preparation and professional
development. How global understanding is lived and experienced in the classroom
is often up to the individual teacher with their experience, knowledge, and priorities
brought to bear on the proffered curriculum (Mundy et al. 2007; Bednarz et al.
2006; Moorman and Dery 2016). Burnouf (2004) argues that teachers are required
to “develop a global knowledge, to experience cross-cultural experience and to
expand their own perspectives of the world” (para.33) in order to be comfortable
and effective in facilitating global learning. Canadian teachers interviewed by
Mundy et al. (2007) felt incompetent and anxious to teach global education, par-
ticularly to introduce potentially controversial issues. In the past, Nova Scotia
provided global education professional development, but has since reduced or
eliminated those offerings. The reflective and supportive space offered by MERN’s
global education network as a professional learning community (Thompson and
Wickstrom 2016) is an example of the teacher support that is required. Chareka and
Dommelen (2013) also suggest that teaching competencies need to include
contextual knowledge, the exposure to other cultures, and having authentic learning
experiences where knowledge is applied (Bacon and Kischner 2002). Complicating
this potential effort from the geography perspective is the increased loss of geog-
raphy education training in faculties of education. Making space for geographic
pedagogies and supports in the faculties of education is critical, whether or not there
is a geography education program, especially if incoming teachers have little
geography education from their own K-12 experience.
The third area for improvement is in assessment. Systematic assessments pro-
viding a sense of the impact of global understanding learning in the classroom are
few. In Mundy et al.’s (2007) review of global education in elementary classrooms
in Canada, they remarked on the lack of assessment of impact or effectiveness of
global curricula and topics on student learning. While Canadian students perform
well in the OECD PISA international assessments focusing on literacy, math, and
science (O’Grady et al. 2015), Canadian youth are not considered to be as globally
aware as British students (Mundy et al. 2007; War Child Canada 2006), in part
because of the “considerable cross-nation variation in knowledge and attitudes” in
Canada (Mundy et al. 2007, p. 11), unlike the strong national support for global and
geography education in Great Britain. Our sense of whether students are leaving
high school globally literate is often based on anecdotal evidence of the struggle
they face in post-secondary classrooms. A media report of the appalling lack of
global and Canadian geographic knowledge exhibited by sociology students at
Memorial University in Newfoundland and Labrador (Wyatt-Anderson 2013) res-
onated with many other Canadian academics. Concerned geography educators met
to craft the St. John’s Declaration for Advancing Geography Education for
Canadians later that year, identifying priorities for, and articulating the importance
of, geography education, including critical global understanding and perspective
(Boxall et al. 2013). Without action, however, the declaration remains a wish list. It
is clear that a baseline assessment and subsequent measures of student learning are
necessary to support calls for increased geographic education in the area of global
understanding. The new global competence assessments in the PISA evaluations
may provide some insights into the Canadian situation but further research would
be required to substantiate and contextualize the results.
20.5 Conclusion
In Canadian education, world issues are predominantly viewed with a historical

lens, with a lack of contemporary focus despite student interest and concern in
current environmental issues (War Child Canada 2006; Centre for Global Education
2016b). Geography, through its spatial lens and emphasis on connection and
interdependencies, has the potential to serve the global education learning needs of
Canadian students, but it is not typically considered as a driver of curricula with
global understanding outcomes. As fewer students are exposed to geography and
geographic perspectives in the classroom, the incoming teacher population is
similarly unaware of the power of the geographic perspective and the cycle con-
tinues, even while demand for global understanding in the curricula increases.
Without a significant disruption to the decline of geography education in Canada,
external agencies and other subjects will respond to the need for global under-
standing, further crowding the space for geography. Explicit linkages between the
curriculum needs and geographic knowledge and skills are required, and supports
for emerging and continuing teachers increased. Given the emphasis of global
awareness and citizenship at the policy level and the relatively untapped potential
for geospatial technology-mediated learning in Canadian schools, research should
be conducted to better understand the situation at the classroom level. Studies
should seek to uncover teacher efficacy and resources available, the actual enduring
global understandings the students hold, and identification of most effective ped-
agogies to facilitate effective global learning in the Canadian context.
References
Alberta Education. (2005a). Social Studies K—Grade 12 (2005) Program Rationale and
Philosophy.
Alberta Education. (2005b). Social studies kindergarten to grade 6. Retrieved from https://
education.alberta.ca/media/3273004/social-studies-k-6-pos.pdf.
Bacon, N. A., & Kischner, G. A. (2002). Shaping global classrooms. Educational Leadership, 60
(2), 48–51.
Bednarz, S., Bednarz, R., Mansfield, T., Semple, S., Dorn, R., & Libbee, M. (2006). Geographical
education in North America (Canada and the United States of America). Geographical
Education in a Changing World, 107–126.
British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2016). Curriculum 10–12 Drafts, What’s New? https://
curriculum.gov.bc.ca/curriculum/social-studies/whats-new.
Boxall, J., Catto, N., Power Crawley, L., Devillers, R, Donert, K., Duda, D., & Wallace, K.,
(2013). St. John’s declaration, advancing geographic education for Canadians. http://www.
cangeoeducation.ca/programs/declaration/docs/StJohns-Declaration-Nov%2013-2013.pdf.
Burnouf, L. (2004). Global awareness and perspectives in global education. Canadian Social
Studies, 38(3), 1–10.
Canadian Geographic Education. (2016). Regional Reports. Annual General Meeting, Ottawa,
November 2016. Unpublished report.
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financial. Retrieved from education. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-
financial-literacy-rush-teachers-unions-1.3901776.
Centre for Global Education. (2016a). About us. Retrieved from: http://tcge.tiged.org/about.html.
Centre for Global Education. (2016b). Supporting climate leadership in Alberta schools:
Recommendations by students for Alberta’s educational leaders. June 2016. 18p.
Chareka, O., & Dommelen, P. (2013). From a global education ‘idiot’ teacher to a competent
global educator. In Hébert & Abdi (Eds.), Critical perspectives on international education
(pp. 105–120).
Di Mascio, A. (2013). The unofficial federal school curriculum in Canada: issues and implications
for Quebec education. Canadian Social Studies, 46(1), 15–30. Retrieved from http://www.
educ.ualberta.ca/css/Css_46_1/CSSVol-46-1-complete.pdf.
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gc.ca/PDF/C-18.7.pdf.
Kornelsen, L. (2016). A social studies teacher’s search for relevance in a faculty of education
(or) why the global teachers inquiry project matters. The MERN Journal, 13, 1–5.
MacDonald, M. (2016). Indigenizing the Academy. University Affairs, Universities Canada. April
6, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/indigenizing-
the-academy/.
Moorman, L., & Dery, C. (2016). Knowledge, preparedness, and perspectives of K-12 geography
educators in Canada. Presented at the International Commission for Geographic Education,
International Geographical Congress. Singapore. August 13, 2016.
Mundy, K., Manion, C., Masemann V., & Haggerty, M. (2007). Charting global education in
Canada’s elementary schools: Provincial, district and school level perspectives. UNICEF
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curriculum/guides/socialstudies/socstudies_gr6.pdf.
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O’Grady, K., Deussing, M., Scerbina. T., Fung, K., & Muhe, N. (2015). Measuring up: Canadian
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EN.pdf.
OECD. (2016). Global competency for an inclusive world. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/
education/Global-competency-for-an-inclusive-world.pdf.
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concepts of the 13 global issues course (inquiry and action) be effectively implemented in other
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MERN Journal, 13, 13–17.
UNICEF Canada. (2012). Strengthening global education training in Canadian faculties of
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Toronto: War Child Canada.
Wyatt-Anderson, C. (2013, January 18). When it comes to geography are we lost in the world?
Globe and mail. Toronto, ON.
Part IV
Conclusion
Chapter 21
A Road Map to Empower Geography
Education for Global Understanding
Sarah Witham Bednarz, Rafael de Miguel González and Ali Demirci
21.1 A Brief Summary
In these chapters, we have read exciting, inspirational, and significant contributions

from a range of geography education scholars, all focused on the theme of global
understanding. As Professor Werlen noted in the Preface, “Certainly one of
geography’s most important and most noble duties is to prepare the citizens of this
planet for the new geographical conditions of their life, and to not only come to
terms with but also to actively shape new geographical realities without falling into
the traps of backward oriented expectations.” It is clear from this book that
geographers from around the world have taken up this challenge and are making
concerted efforts to shape the next generation through geography, understanding
the, “…global embeddedness of our local actions” (Werlen, Preface). Across the
chapters, there is a shared vision captured by Leininger-Frezal and Gaujal in
Chap. 8, “Geography education should contribute to a process of student emanci-
pation and empowerment.” Whether this is “taking on the world” as explained by
Lambert and Walshe following Doreen Massey in Chap. 7 or the creation of spa-
tially informed citizens as envisioned by Gryl and Jekel in Chap. 4, there is con-
sensus that geography is the discipline and the school subject most appropriate to
nurturing global understanding.
S. W. Bednarz (&)
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
e-mail: s-bednarz@geos.tamu.edu
R. de Miguel González
A. Demirci
Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: dmrc.ali@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77216-5_21
248 S. W. Bednarz et al.
It is also clear from a number of these offerings that there is great concern about
today’s world and the position of geography as a school subject and discipline in it.
Again and again in the chapters recounting efforts in specific countries or regions
(Chaps. 10–20), we see that geography is under-resourced and under-taught. In
many instances, teachers are underprepared or challenged by overly rigid curricular
constraints. We fear that in many places, educators do not feel comfortable
speaking openly about global understanding, particularly in countries with non-
democratic systems or places where nationalism is on the rise and some people in
power do not understand the importance of thinking on a global scale. But as Chang
and Wi point out in Chap. 3, “Indeed, the core element to connect the local to the
global scale is through the everyday knowledge, daily habits, practices, and the way
the natural conditions are transformed to satisfy people’s needs.” We read in
Chap. 9 how Casinader and Kidman frame this as “transculturalism.” And in the
chapters on Ibero-America and China (Chaps. 10 and 11), we see how collaborative
networks of educators are working at a grass roots level to develop resources and
curricula to achieve global understanding.
In many places, the role of geospatial technologies such as GIS and remote
sensing is the focus of attention as a mechanism to create interest in geography and
to better understand pressing global concerns such as impacts of climate change. In
Spain (Chap. 15) de Miguel and de Lazaro describe a digital atlas while in South
Africa (Chap. 14) Golightly and van der Westhuizen recount efforts to use GIS in a
problem-based context to educate both teachers and students. Gryl and Jekel
(Chap. 4) broaden the scope of technologies to include a wider range of geomedia,
defined as tools that enable spatial communication.
21.2 Geography Education Research

and Operationalizing Global Understanding
Several authors, however, note difficulties with the concept of global understanding.
Van der Schee and Beneker, in Chap. 6, raise the very important question of how to
define and operationalize “global understanding.” Based on an analysis of the
International Year of Global Understanding website, they identify 11 key aspects of
global understanding organized around four major ideas: linking the global and
local; peoples’ practices; science and everyday life; and sustainability and global
understanding.
Global understanding seems necessary for managing change from the bottom up and to
solve global problems sustainably. It links local everyday actions to global issues and is
based on research outcomes. But is that it? Educators can ask many questions about the…
11 messages. The understanding part that could be promoted by education is not described
or defined at all. When do people have a global view that reduces the risk of regional
conflicts? How is global understanding based on research? (Van der Schee and Beneker)
21 A Road Map to Empower Geography Education … 249
Tani, Houtsonen, and Sarkela (Chap. 12) echo this question by struggling with
the differences between global understanding and global education. And they raise
a very important point about teachers’ agency and role in teaching, asking, “What
kinds of challenges do teachers face in applying these ideas of curricula in their
everyday work?” Strangely, the voices of teachers are largely silent in these
chapters, with some exceptions.
Existing research in the area of global understanding, however defined, has been
sparse and fragmented, with no clear agenda to provide guidance to researchers. In
these chapters, we have read some small-scale studies that offer views of the role of
geography in achieving global understandings in youth, but they are local, rarely
replicated, or brought to scale. There is much exhortation and general agreement on
the role geography has to play in this important endeavor, as we have summarized,
but little empirical evidence of how to go about this educationally and cognitively.
This is very typical of geography education research, a fact noted in two recent
documents, the International Declaration on Research in Geography Education
(2015) and the United States-focused Road Map for Large-Scale Improvement of
K-12 Geography Education (https://www.nationalgeographic.org/education/
programs/road-map-project/, 2013). Both documents agree that geography educa-
tion research is limited by scarce resources, by small numbers of researchers, and a
lack of “substantive foci,” that is, a clear, prioritized agenda to guide investigations.
The Geography Education Research Committee of the Road Map (Bednarz et al.
2013) concluded that education research in geography and related fields needed to
be better structured, more systematic, attentive to progress and findings in cognate
fields especially the learning sciences, science education, and cognitive psychology,
and coordinated for multidisciplinary approaches. The International Declaration
echoed the Road Map by calling for the “development of lines of research in
geography education” as well as the development of capacity building for research
activity in geography education. And both documents discussed the need for sound
educational research methodologies (National Research Council 2002). Research in
geography education, particularly as related to such a nebulous but important topic
as global understanding, must be evidence-based; link to relevant theory; use
appropriate and effective methods; provide a detailed, coherent chain of reasoning
to link evidence to theory; describe procedures in sufficient detail to allow repli-
cation across cultural, economic, and social contexts; be generalizable in a range of
settings and populations; and exhibit scholarship through dissemination, peer
review, and public scrutiny.
Determining the most appropriate and effective methods of research is particu-
larly important in an emerging field of inquiry such this one. Across all types of
research, the goals of a study should be matched with the most efficacious research
methods. Education research can broadly serve three purposes: (1) foundational,
early stage, exploratory research; (2) design and development research; and (3) ef-
ficacy, effectiveness, and scale up research (Institute of Education Sciences and
National Science Foundation 2013). Each purpose suggests different genres of
research, with varying empirical or theoretical justifications, appropriate research
designs, and expectations for the types of evidence that are valid.
The purposes of research suggest a trajectory to accumulate a body of evidence.

For example, in our context, foundational research will focus on discovering fun-
damental knowledge about defining global understanding, learning about global
understanding, “advancing the frontier” of our comprehension, and developing new
theories of what global understanding is. Early stage, exploratory research will
further examine these findings to investigate relationships and build more elaborate
theoretical constructs. Design and development research will build on previous
work to construct and iteratively test interventions and strategies such as different
curriculum models or teaching methods to contribute to the development of prac-
tical theory and tools (Penuel et al. 2011). Finally, the so-called “impact” research
will examine the question of what works, where, why, and with what supports. Will
a global understanding curriculum, teaching strategy, or intervention that is suc-
cessful in Finland or China be equally effective in India, Singapore, Canada, or
Japan? And within countries, are there differences between rural and urban stu-
dents? Can the strategy be scaled up and not lose efficacy? Education research is not
linear, however, and each type of study can contribute to understandings forwards
and backwards by accumulating rich and detailed evidence.
In the case of global understanding, a key issue is measurement. How do we as
educators know whether it has been achieved? No matter what purpose or research
design is selected, the instruments used in our projects must be reliable and valid.
Not only do we lack a definition of global understanding but we also lack a range of
implicit and explicit instruments and approaches to measuring the construct. This is
needed to avoid the mingling of concepts of space in an ontologically unsound way,
for example, as suggested takes place by Gryl and Jekel (Chap. 4).
21.3 Moving Forward
The Road Map for Large-Scale Improvement of K-12 Geography Education sug-
gested one way to build capacity in geography education was to develop a focused,
concerted, systematic framework to guide research. Four education-related research
questions were proposed, each providing an analysis of a different aspect of
geography education. These questions were thought to be applicable to geography
learners of all ages and educational backgrounds, whether they were engaged
through schools or informal communities, including learners preparing to teach
geography in tertiary institutions. We offer these as clear targets for future research
in global understanding, with some modifications.
Question 1: How do geographic knowledge, skills, and practices develop across
individuals, settings, and time?
This question considers three dimensions of learning: individual differences, set-
tings, and time. Research about how individuals learn, how they learn at different
timescales (e.g., during a single session, a course, or a sequence of courses), and
how they learn across significant life transitions (e.g., from youth to adulthood) is
21 A Road Map to Empower Geography Education … 251
needed. Settings refer to organized activities that offer participants the opportunity
to learn knowledge and skills. Most importantly, research concerning how indi-
viduals in a range of contexts and socioeconomic conditions develop the disposition
to think globally (and geographically) is important.
In the context of global understanding, research concerning this question should
consider the knowledge and skills foundational to learning about the world through
geography as well as the learning progressions in the subject. Are there key con-
cepts that must be addressed before a deep appreciation of larger scale issues can be
grasped? This is an idea proposed by Chang and Wi in Chap. 3.
Question 2: How do geographic knowledge, skills, and practices develop across the
different elements of geography?
Geography is a varied discipline encompassing both physical and social sciences as
well as the humanities and demands different cognitive processes to learn.
Developing a concern about climate change may require different background
knowledge and implies different approaches to problem-solving than does a
question about sustainability or developing an ability to practice ethical geographic
reasoning. Research should illuminate the specific ways content shapes the skills,
practices, and ways of thinking critical to the development of geographic profi-
ciency in varied dimensions and applications. This is particularly relevant in the
case of global understanding which is a complex, multidimensional construct as van
der Schee and Beneker point out. The affective domain is involved as well as the
cognitive.
Question 3: What supports or promotes the development of geographic knowledge,
skills, and practices?
In the course of everyday activities, especially in our hyper-mediated world, young
people develop forms of naïve geographical thinking and reasoning. They have an
understanding of the world and its people gleaned from personal experience,
television, and the Internet. However, such understandings may be rife with mis-
conceptions, stereotypes, and biases. They will not serve well to make decisions in
civil societies. More sophisticated patterns of reasoning require external support.
Curriculum, instructional materials, and teaching strategies, both in classrooms and
in real-world settings such as through fieldwork, create the foundation for learning.
Geography educators must understand how learners acquire the core ideas of the
discipline, what are the learning progressions in geography, and how to support
and achieve them. We recommend a concerted effort to innovate by developing
robust curricula and materials to support educators, based on understandings of the
ways students may learn. We also recommend eliciting student thinking or
orchestrating student discussions on key global issues as a proven means of
addressing students’ misunderstandings and developing their concept knowledge. It
would also be helpful if we had a charismatic advocate or advocates of global
understanding to motivate young people through thinking geographically. Perhaps
we could invite a popular K-pop group to take global understanding on just to raise
awareness.
Question 4: What is necessary to support the effective and broad implementation of

the development of geographic knowledge, skills, and practices?
To sustain new practices and new ways of seeing the world, we must simultane-
ously introduce and sustain strategies to support their implementation. This will
require research concerning teacher preparation and professional development.
Institutionalizing and supporting the implementation of innovations in teacher
preparation may require research about teacher knowledge and the beliefs that
influence their approach to global understanding (including their subject and ped-
agogical content knowledge). Finally, more research about the institutional forces
and policies that shape the role and status of geography in education systems is
required. The chapters from a range of countries are a start on this; we now need a
meta-analysis and cross-case summary.
Together, these research questions may provide a starting place and an agenda
and direction for geography education research on global understanding.
References
Bednarz, S., Heffron, S., & Huynh, N. (Eds.). (2013). A road map for 21st century geography
education. Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers.
Commission on Geographical Education, International Geographical Union. (2015). International
Declaration of Research in Geography Education. Accessed October 11, 2017 at http://www.
igu-cge.org/charters.htm.
Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation. (2013). Common guidelines for
education research and development. Washington, DC: IES-NSF.
National Research Council. (2002). Scientific research in education. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press.
Penuel, W., Fishman, B., Cheng, B., & Sabelli, N. (2011). Organizing research and development
at the intersection of learning, implementation, and design. Educational Researcher, 40(7),
331–337.

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International Perspectives on Geographical Education

Ali Demirci · Rafael de Miguel González

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15101

Sarah Witham Bednarz

Rafael de Miguel González

ISSN 2367-2773 ISSN 2367-2781 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

Globalization is transforming—even revolutionizing—the geographical conditions

To accomplish these tasks, a shift from a space-centered to a practice-centered

Part I The Framework for Global Understanding

Part II Geography Education for Global Understanding

8 From Classroom Practices to Global Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Part III Global Understanding in Geography Education

20 Perspectives on Global Understanding in Geography

Rafael de Miguel González, Sarah Witham Bednarz and Ali Demirci

1.1 Geography Education in a Changing World

R. de Miguel González (&)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 3

The world, in general, and individual countries, in particular, are experiencing

1.2 Global Understanding: A Key Issue

Previous to the 33rd International Geographical Conference in Beijing, other

geography education in achieving it in various countries around the world. We

1.3 What Kind of Geography Content for Education

responsibility so that we all perform climate-conscious behavior like recycling,

1.4 Global Understanding and the Renewal of Geography

Global understanding presents an opportunity to contribute to the renewal of

1.5 A Global Reading from International Perspectives

education practices that the concept of global understanding itself encompasses.

After a description of Canadian geography education and global understanding

Regardless of context or topic, ‘understanding’ demands a degree of effort on the

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 13

2.2 The World in Which We Live Now

On multiple fronts, the geopolitical complexity of the millennial landscape is

2.3 Now in Our World—What Needs to Be Understood?

2.4 Where and How Can Geography Fit in? Whimsy,

Greek times, to Columbus, to settlement of the ‘new world’—all with increasingly

So, understanding complexity is simple for geographers:

2.5 Geography Education Does Make a Difference

knowledge topics for geographical education. In no particular order, they include

2.6 Finally, Geography Education and Global

Fig. 2.1 Solar power for lighting and communication devices

Professional associations and networks help support these overarching docu-

Beck, U. (2005). Power in the global age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Commission on Geographical Education. (2015). International Declaration on Research in

Chew-Hung Chang and Andy Wi

3.1 Introduction—–Geography and the Glocal Citizen

C.-H. Chang (&) A. Wi

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 29

understanding of both Earth systems processes and socio-cultural contexts of

3.2 Understanding the Connection Between Local Action

Using climate change as an example of an issue to connects local action with a

This is where geography knowledge is important. It requires the understanding

3.3 Global Understanding and the School Curriculum

In today’s knowledge-based society, the school curriculum plays a vital role in

3.4 Geography as Powerful Knowledge

3.5 Public Education Programmes and Everyday

3.6 Conclusion—Moving Beyond Knowledge

is whether a curriculum designed from geography powerful knowledge is rigorous

Stern, P. C. (2000). Toward a coherent theory of environmentally signiﬁcant behavior. Journal of

Inga Gryl and Thomas Jekel

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 43

4.2 Today’s Societies and Their Spatial Implications