Urban, Planning and Transport Research

An Open Access Journal

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/rupt20

Sustainable architectural design and land-use

application to civic centres in Ghana: the case of
Damongo

Lukman Kura Abraham Safo, Daniel Yaw Addai Duah & Stephen Biliyitorb
Liwur

To cite this article: Lukman Kura Abraham Safo, Daniel Yaw Addai Duah & Stephen Biliyitorb
Liwur (2024) Sustainable architectural design and land-use application to civic centres in
Ghana: the case of Damongo, Urban, Planning and Transport Research, 12:1, 2290055, DOI:
10.1080/21650020.2023.2290055

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2023.2290055

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group.

Published online: 12 Dec 2023.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 440

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rupt20
URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH
2024, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2290055
https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2023.2290055

Sustainable architectural design and land-use application to

civic centres in Ghana: the case of Damongo
Lukman Kura Abraham Safoa, Daniel Yaw Addai Duaha
and Stephen Biliyitorb Liwur b
a
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; bDepartment of Planning, Faculty of Built
Environment, College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The country’s ever-growing population and numerous administrative Received 8 November 2023
areas and centres for decentralisation, good administration, and effi­ Accepted 28 November 2023
cient use of the country’s resources have allowed for the construction KEYWORDS
of several administrative buildings. However, these spaces are typically Sustainable Architecture;
modified or do not meet the architectural and planning criteria of sustainable design;
administrative centres due to shortcomings in planning standards as sustainable land-use; civic
well as a lack of sustainable design standards and principles. Using an administrative centre;
observational data collection method and qualitative research meth­ Damongo
ods, the results of the study examined the appraisal of the proposed
design. The study proposed a sustainable design that would help
minimise the usage of vast lands for only administrative purposes
and provide developable lands for the fast-growing urban population.
The study analysed three sites for their suitability. Details of the
proposed design are emphasised in the rest of the paper.

1. Introduction
Land and other natural resources are important resources for human and infrastructure
development. The sustainable use of the Earth’s finite land and natural resources is
becoming a matter of life or death for humankind. Since the 1990s, the sustainable
utilisation of land and other natural resources has been addressed continuously through
research in most countries, particularly developing ones (Zinck & Farshad, 1995). In
more recent times, Ghana has experienced rapid urbanisation, especially in the smaller
cities than the large ones, increasing from only nine towns with populations between
50,000 and 100,000 in 2000 to 36 in 2010 (GURR, Ghana Urban Review Report, 2015).
This rapid urbanisation of settlements and regions over finite land areas has propelled
various research into ways of optimising land-use to ensure sustainable and efficient
development. Due to the rapid urbanisation of some of the small towns because of their
location, resource availability, and other factors that could be used as stimulants for

CONTACT Lukman Kura Abraham Safo abimunka@gmiail.com Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built
Environment, College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

development, it will be prudent to plan their administrative structures, especially those of

the new regions, to accommodate and manage their resources efficiently and effectively.
Again, due to rapid urbanisation and ineffective management of urban lands, urbanites
are compelled to develop in the so-called cheaper lands such as the buffers of rivers
(Biliyitorb Liwur et al., 2023; Liwur et al., 2023). Upon developing in these naturally
sensitive areas, they pollute the waterbodies by discharging their liquid waste and solid
wastes into these waterbodies (Ali et al., 2009).
Secondly, most of the buildings acting as administrative centres are retrofitted (have
outlived their periods) and hence do not aid in the effective performances of various
outfits that work out of these administrative centres. This therefore leads to ineffective
decentralisation and a loss of productivity and does not facilitate the development of the
jurisdictive areas of these administrative centres (Boye, 2007). These factors sum up as
the main reasons for low productivity at the local level since there is a disconnect between
the priorities of these administrative centres and their jurisdictive areas. This goes a long
way towards inhibiting the smooth transfer of information and other relevant develop­
mental processes for the physical development of such places, leading to a dichotomy
between communities’ development priorities and their administrative centres’ priorities.
Oduro-Ofori (2011) also suggests that one of the key challenges facing most institutions
(in this case, administrative centres) is that some of the facilities that must address the
infrastructural inadequacies are either dilapidated to the extent that buildings are con­
verted to underserved purposes, resulting in great inadequacies in their infrastructure
provision. Adding to that, aside from the problems of retrofitted spaces (spaces with low
performance) and inconsistent expansion of little towns into urban areas, there are
inadequate comprehensive planning and spatial requirements to help in the siting and
development of new administrative centres. Therefore, administrative centres must be
poised in terms of design, energy efficiency, and sustainable characteristics to be able to
lead and set the example for the emulations of their jurisdictive areas.
Memoranda have long been the sources of guidance for spatial planning and zoning in
Ghana, and they clearly define and outline land sizes, land-use activities, and zoning
guidelines for the establishment of various institutions in Ghana (ZGPS, 2011). The
Town and Country Planning Ordinance, CAP 84 of 1945, and other technical memor­
anda also provide and spell out the considerations that must be considered and the
zoning requirements showing uses that are permitted and prohibited in various land-use
zones (ibid.). These definitions are not clear and objective enough in establishing some of
the various institutions in the country, and for that matter, administrative centres, to
ensure the optimisation of land resources and, most importantly, to reflect sustainable
design principles in their establishment.
The evolution of buildings as administrative centres in the country over the years has made
it very significant to carry out this study. The ever-growing population and division of the
country into several administrative regions and centres for decentralisation, proper govern­
ance, and efficient utilisation of the country’s resources have made it possible for several
administrative buildings to be built. Technological advancements have also played a role in the
ease with which administrative centres can be set up, buttressing the issue of decentralisation
and proper governance systems. Yet these spaces are mostly retrofitted or do not fulfil the
architectural and planning requirements of administrative centres due to the inadequacies of
planning standards as well as the lack of sustainable design standards and principles.
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 3

The town of Damongo, where the base model of this research will be situated, is the
regional capital of the newly created Savannah Region of Ghana. The town also houses
the biggest game reserve in the country and will experience an influx of people and
activities such as civics and administration because of its role as the regional adminis­
trative centre and capital. These influxes of activities and people, urbanisation, and the
natural increase in population will lead to a competing demand for land and other
resources, leading to the destruction of lots of natural vegetation. Hence, it is justifiable
to conduct the study to unearth the various sustainable land-use principles, especially for
the growing civic and administrative activities to preserve the natural environment. The
outcomes of this study will enrich the body of literature and support academic discourse
and general city sustainability discourse.
This study is structured in six broad parts. Part 1 is introductory, and Part 2 explains
the existing theoretical and conceptual literature on sustainable architectural design and
land-use planning and management. Part 3 focused on the research materials and
methods used for this study, including the state of the community, and Part 4 presented
a proposed sustainable architectural design for the study. The final part (5) concludes the
research report.

2. Review of sustainable architectural design and land-use planning

2.1. Conceptualising sustainable land-use planning and management
Land-use planning, also referred to as physical planning, spatial planning, or rarely
referred to as ‘principles of use of land’, has myriad definitions (Cobbinah et al., 2020).
These definitions differ in the context and the discipline in which they are used. Many
researchers (such as Cobbinah et al., 2020) have expressed various schools of thought on
the subject matter. This therefore makes the concept very open in its definition and
application, and most of the definitions and concepts are dependent on the author’s
schools of thought, perspectives, and discipline to which it is applied.
The various schools of thought surrounding this concept admit that it is difficult to box
these concepts into one unified and accepted definition, but they recognise the various
definitions based on the appropriateness and sustainable use of scarce resources through
comprehensive planning. Petersen (2002) explains this concept as the process of reaching
a balance between the complete demand functions of the urban precinct in a limited urban
space. The balance of both the complete demand functions and the limited urban space
could therefore mean that the concept promotes and ensures ‘order in the use of land or the
designation and regulation of the use of land’. This order and regularisation of the use of
land will lead to the appropriation and sustainable use of land for communities.
Mitchell et al. (2004), in their exploration of the concept, state that ‘planning the uses
of land provides the statuary legal means of control over the change of use of land while
allowing land-use appropriateness’. Thus, it offers the opportunity to allocate land-use to
areas best suited for dedicated activities, inevitably leading to achieving a balance
between environmental spatial units. On the other hand, Cullingworth and Nadin
(2006) explain the concept as more concerned with the ‘twin problem of coordination
or integration of uses of land and, however, applying the use of land principles through
a territorial-based strategy using various dimensions of sectorial policies’. AUMA
4 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

(Alberta Urban Municipalities Association), 2007) expands that it is the comprehensive

planning of land using different and diverse processes of planning, which are often linked
to efficiency, equity, and sustainability. They also suggest that it involves the planning of
the use of land, the locations of activities, the concentration of such activities, and the use
of land as a determinant for development.
This explanation of the concept, also substantiated by the UNECE (2008), states that
the concept is an interdisciplinary activity involving planning the use of land, identifying
the measures for improving the existing physical structures, as well as determining the
location of activities and the execution of such physical structures for development. Jha
et al. (2010) define this concept as ‘the designation and regulation of the uses of land to
achieve improvements in the well-being, socioeconomic, and physical development of
a community through public policy frameworks’.. This means that community develop­
ments are dependent on the regulation and designation of land-use.
In light of the above definitions, land-use planning may be explained as a statutory
government instrument for the management of the use of land in the process of urban
development to achieve goals and objectives in promoting a more sustainable, conveni­
ent, accessible, attractive, and equitable pattern of development for the public interest.
The definition summarised is in line with the concept of sustainable use of land
resources, which is ‘to achieve sustainability, convenience, and harmony in the use of
space for all uses of land. Achieve economy and efficiency in the use of resources and
space; enhanced safety and adequate health standards in the space economy; and
enhanced aesthetics and serenity in the built environment’ (Amponsah, 2011).

2.2. Conceptualising sustainable architecture

The rate of depletion of the earth’s finite resources due to the developmental needs of
humankind has negative repercussions for the future generation of man. This has made it
obvious that unless there is a change in the way the earth’s resources are being exploited and
used, the future of humankind is oblique. Sustainable use of our resources should be the
theme of this century to ensure the survival of the next generation (Wu, 2010). Most recently,
the concept of sustainability has become the common interest of numerous disciplines and
organisations due to the urge to ensure the survival of the earth. The concept of sustainability
is broad, as its definitions are varied depending on the authors’ schools of thought.
Brundtland (1987) defines the concept of sustainability as ‘meeting the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs’. The view of human predicaments gradually prompted people to consider
sustainable development and utilisation of their natural resources, leading to the extension
of sustainable development theories to the various developmental strategies for the efficient
utilisation of resources in our societies (Brundtland, 1987). This broad idea has prompted and
led many organisations to initiate developmental strategies such as the Sustainable
Development Goals, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), Kyoto
Protocol, Green Building Challenge (GBC), and the United Nations Habitat conferences
and reports (UN-Habitat,1996). In the built environment, various concepts such as ‘green
architecture’, ‘green design’, ‘ecological design’,, ‘eco-friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable
design’ have been initiated to broaden the scope of sustainability related to buildings and the
built environment.
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 5

The complexity of the concept presents it with no straightforward solution and makes
it open to various ways of reaching the goal. However, the concept has varying benefits,
such as pollution reduction, conservation of natural resources, and the prevention of
environmental degradation while reducing the impact on local infrastructure (Roy,
2008). For this study, the terms green architecture,“‘green design’, ‘ecological design’,,
‘eco-friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable design’ are used interchangeably and mean
the same thing. According to Roy (2008), ‘green architecture’,“‘green design’, ‘ecological
friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable design’ can best be explained as a comprehensive
approach to building that has few adverse effects on human health and the entire
environment, with attempts to safeguard air, water, and the earth by choosing envir­
onmentally friendly practices and energy concerns.
Sustainable architecture can also be explained as the concept of understanding and
employing environmentally friendly practices such as ventilation systems designed for
efficient heating and cooling, energy-efficient lighting and appliances, and water-saving
plumbing fixtures. They may also include landscapes planned to maximise passive solar
energy, minimal harm to the natural habitat, alternate power sources such as solar power
or wind power, non-synthetic, non-toxic materials, locally obtained wood and stone,
responsibly harvested woods, adaptive reuse of older buildings, use of recycled architec­
tural salvage, and efficient use of space (Burcu, 2015).

2.3. Sustainable architecture and building

According to the USGBC U.S (2002), the approach to designing a sustainable building
should satisfy certain criteria, which are sustainable site development, sustainable mate­
rial selection and minimization, energy efficiency, water efficiency, and indoor air
quality. While not all the criteria might be met in a particular building, the highest aim
is to achieve most of the criteria to ensure that the building is sustainable. Similarly, the
World Green Building Council (2014) expands that for a building to be sustainable, it
must satisfy the following criteria:

● The general development of the site must have minimal effects on the natural
environment by employing shading, taking advantage of solar access, shape, and
orientation, as well as the prevailing wind direction, to reduce heat gains in the
building;
● The materials for construction should be locally available, durable, and recyclable to
reduce negative impacts on the environment, as well as encourage the practice of
reuse;
● The building must be energy-efficient to create comfort and economical running. It
must take into account natural technology as well as conserve natural resources;
● Indoor air quality must be high and enhanced to promote a healthy and productive
working environment;
● Water efficiency and usage should be encouraged to ensure its sustainable use.
Water-saving plumbing equipment, rainwater harvesting, recycling of grey and
black water, and minimal use of underground water should be key to ensuring the
preservation of water in the environment.
6 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Additionally, these sustainable principles must be symbiotically related to form the basis
for the approach to sustainable design. Thus, environmental efficiency, efficient use of
materials and resources, water efficiency, energy efficiency, indoor environmental qual­
ity, and sustainable site design should provide the conditions necessary for a building to
be classified as a sustainable building, as shown in Figure 1.
According to Kats (2006), green buildings are not simple developments but rather an
approach to designing a building that meets the needs and demands of a particular time
and setting with numerous benefits. Some of the benefits include enhanced comfort,
a lower operational cost of building, enhanced aesthetics, and environmental respon­
siveness to both site and setting. The implication of sustainable architecture cuts across
a range of activities that relate to the environment, social lifestyle, and the economics of
saving and high costs. Some of the enumerated benefits include an increase in produc­
tivity, improved health, a reduction in the cost of running and operating a building,
minimization of resource waste, better use of materials, and environmental protection
(Amany et al., 2015). The benefits of sustainable architecture can be summed up into
three arms, thus linking social, economic, and environmental factors, as shown in
Figure 2 below.

2.4. Civic architecture and its characteristics

Administrative centres are necessary for the execution of various government tasks,
including those of decentralisation and local government, and hence must exhibit
roles of public interest. The peculiar development of such buildings as adminis­
trative centres is most often monumental in style, reflects the aspirations of the
people, has a traditional style, and encompasses the spirit of the community

Figure 1. The conditions of a sustainable building. Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 7

Figure 2. The three arm benefits of green architecture. Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)

(Conway & Roenisch, 2005). Expressively, Conway and Roenisch (2005) suggest that
such administrative centres must be subject to good design principles that reflect
proper planning and designed spaces, forms, and auras of ambience that reflect on
three key principles. These principles are:

● Functional (facility must provide for ample spatial requirements that are functional
and dynamic);
● Aesthetics (the building must provide the opportunity for a sense of pleasantness
and coherent and intrusive spaces); and
● Symbolic (the building should define a geographical area identity).

Various theories have arisen as to the establishment of these administrative centres over
the past centuries. These theories are widely related to the definite purposes of architec­
ture and democracy, architecture and power, and civic architectural concepts explored
over the various periods of change in our societies (O’Connor, 2016). In contrast,
Kinuthia (2011) suggests that, unconcerned with the social ideologies, ideas, and philo­
sophical nature of societies, architectural modes and styles, together with trends in
fashion, take over societies with the neutrality of technology.
Symbolically, societies have tried to establish their form of administrative architecture,
ranging from the ideals of the society in which they evolved to the construction of town
halls in Great Britain and Scottish towns in Europe to Washington, Chicago, and New York
in America. In establishing the relationship between architecture and democracy, archi­
tecture and power, and civic architecture as concepts that embody the prime soul, ideals,
and ideologies of a society, as explained by O’Connor (2016), Valentine and Jencks (1987)
expand that architecture was a key element in the design of the Agora and Piazza civic
grouping of buildings in ancient Greece. This, he explains, represents the power of the
people as the emblem of democracy. This stresses the fact that modern-day democracy,
which became the beacon of power for modern-day democratic nations and a mechanism
8 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

for strengthening local government, was invented in the ancient Greek cities of Agora and
Piazza. ‘Architecture played an important role at the Agora, the Civic Centre of the City,
which housed the government buildings where democracy was first invented’. Civic
buildings should be deliberately monumental, and decorated while retaining their formal
look to portray the sense for which they have been put up and remain the focal point of
development. Even though older cities and districts have continued to scatter and spread
buildings that perform government functions, civic buildings should be situated close to
each other to ensure administrative efficiency (Kinuthia, 2011; Vale, 2006).
Additionally, Charles Goodsell’s book ‘The Social Meaning of Civic Space’ comprehen­
sively details how public administration buildings act as civic spaces, though the study
concentrates much more on internal space configurations. This examination, even though
parallel to the establishment of town hall systems in the United Kingdom, only details the
internal layouts and designs of chambers for public admiration in American cities. The
examination points out four distinct characteristics of administrative centres: ownership or
control by the state or by agents of the state (vested in the interest of the citizens of
particular jurisdictive areas), accessibility to outsiders, function, and degree of enclosure.
The design of administrative centres took on a much broader function than just being
spaces of broader administrative function by assuming the function of the scope of
central governments’ commitment to extend services local authorities provide on behalf
of them in the later parts of the 20th century. This new outlook redefined the change in
the function of these local administrative centres from being mainly occupied with the
physical and economic development of their jurisdictive areas to a more sophisticated
one of ensuring the well-being of all citizens in their jurisdictive areas. On the contrary, in
Ghana, the development of
Administrative centres developed on the lines of ‘indirect rule’ established by the
British Colonial masters, maintaining the chief palaces as the administrative centres of
the various jurisdictive areas. Fast forward to post-independence, when successive
governments redefining the unitary states of government established new administrative
centres parallel to the chief palaces for the administration of jurisdictive areas.
In addition to providing the space needed for governors or leaders to conduct the
community’s affairs and transact business, administrative centres serve multiple pur­
poses and are multi-functional. They serve as centres of a community’s political life and
the primary symbol of the whole community, and they aid in improving the relationship
between the government and the public. The role and functions of administrative centres
have resulted in more or less development, and hence, the type of buildings’ layout,
environmental quality, and characteristics of showing administrative services have put
forth new requirements for their setting up. Today, in many towns in Ghana, the location
of government offices and residential quarters for public officials is quite distinguishable
from the surrounding neighbourhoods and settlements.

3. Research materials and methods

3.1. Study setting
The geographical scope of the research is in Damongo. Damongo is the capital of the west
Gonja district, one of the seven districts in the newly created Savannah region. It also
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 9

doubles as the capital of the newly created Savannah Region. The Savannah Region is
bordered on the north by the Upper West region, on the west by the Ghana-Côte d’Ivoire
international border, on the south by the Bono and Ahafo regions, and on the west by the
North East and Northern regions (GSS, Ghana Statistical Service, 2019).
The natural environment, namely vegetation, relief and drainage, location and size,
and social and cultural structure, are the main physical features that affect the lives of
the people living in Domongo Township and the entirety of the West Gonja District.
The physical features are therefore essential elements or factors affecting the socio-
economic development of the district (GSS, Ghana Statistical Service, 2019). Damongo,
which doubles as the district capital of West Gonja and the capital of the newly created
Savannah Region, is located to the west of Tamale, the capital of the Northern region. It
has bearings of 10 5’and 20 58’ to the west and 80 321 and 100 2’ north. Damongo is
bordered by the Central Gonja District to the south, to the west by the Bole and Sawla-
Tuna-Kalba Districts, to the northwest by the Wa East district, and to the east, north
Gonja Districts. The west Gonja District is partially occupied by the Mole National
Park and Kenikeni Forest Reserves (ibid.). Figure 3 shows the map of Ghana with newly
created regions and the location of Damongo in reference to the newly created
Savannah Region.
Damongo has an undulating topography with an altitude of 150–200 metres above
sea level, with the escarpment to the north of it as the only highland. Two rivers (the
White Volta and the Mole River) run across the region, joining Tuluwe (Central Gonja
District). The White Volta serves as the boundary between the south and southeast of
the district (ibid.).

Figure 3. Damongo in the regional and national context, Ghana. Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)
10 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Temperatures in Damongo (West Gonja District) are generally high during the dry
season (harmattan) between March and April and lowest in December and January. On
average, monthly temperatures rise to 27 degrees Celsius. The dry season is mainly
characterized by dry season is characterised by the Harmattan winds, which are dry,
dusty, cold in the morning, and very hot at noon, with high evaporation causing soil
moisture deficiency. During harmattan, dry skin and cracked lips occur in humans.
Rainfall is bimodal, with the average annual precipitation being 1,144 mm. The rainfall
pattern is erratic, beginning in late April and ending in late October. The peak of rainfall
is in June or July, with a prolonged dry spell in August. The rains are stormy and
torrential, up to 300 mm per hour, causing erosion and floods (ibid.).
The housing stock of West Gonja District is 6,369, with 6,255 households, the majority
of which are rural. Rural households account for 2,976; the rest are in urban areas. The
district has a population of 6.5 people per household, compared to 9.6 in the region.
Single-story buildings form a majority of 95% of all dwellings in that jurisdiction, with
only 5% being single-story. The predominant building form is rectangular or square
compound housing, with 65%; the ‘L’ shaped buildings constitute 20%; the ‘I’ shaped
buildings constitute 10%; and the remaining 5% of the buildings are circular (ibid.).
Mud is the main material for the construction of the outer walls of dwelling units in the
district, with over 70.5% of buildings made up of such materials. With more than eight in
ten (83.1%) outer walls of buildings in rural localities constructed with mud bricks or earth
blocks, more than eight in ten (80.2%) floors are constructed with cement or concrete in
the district. The predominant material for roof construction is corrugated aluminium
roofing materials, accounting for over 58.7% of dwelling units in the district (ibid.).
Feeder roads form a major chuck of the trunk’s road in the district. The main trunk
road in the district, which is the Sawla-Damongo-Fufulso road, is constructed with
bitumen surfacing. The total feeder road length is 154.1 km. 81.2 km are engineered,
and 72.9 km remain non-engineered (ibid.).
Waste disposal is an issue in the district as it is evolving from a rural to an urban or
peri-urban locality. Dumping is the most widely used method of solid waste disposal,
which is done indiscriminately and accounts for 33.7%. About 33% of households also
dump their solid waste by publicly dumping it in the open space, with only about 8.7% of
households accounting for organised refuse collection by waste management companies.
For liquid waste disposal, throwing waste onto the compound (46.0%) and throwing it
onto the street or outside (40.9%) are the two most common methods used by house­
holds in the district (ibid.).
GSS, Ghana Statistical Service (2019) states that 71% of total households in the locality
use borehole, pump, or tube well water for other domestic purposes, while 7% of other
households use river or stream water for the same purposes. In both urban and rural
areas, boreholes, pumps, and tube wells remain the dominant sources of water for
domestic purposes, with shares of 87% and 54%, respectively. In urban areas, unprotected
wells, rivers, streams, dug-outs, ponds, and dams account for 4%, 3%, and 2% of the usage
by residents. On the other hand, the rural areas have unprotected wells; river/stream and
pond/dam also account for 5%, 12%, and 16% of usage, respectively. Hence, the next
largest source of water for domestic use in rural areas apart from boreholes is dugouts,
ponds, dams, and lakes, compared to the next best for urban areas, which are unprotected
wells (ibid.).
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 11

3.2. Research methodology

The study used multiple sources of relevant literature on sustainable architecture and
sustainable land-use planning and management to help achieve the study objective of
designing a model regional administrative centre to address the dispersed nature of civic
administrative centres in Ghana to meet 21st-century requirements. Data for the study
was grounded on direct observation by the researchers. This was to add the researcher to
be abreast with the situations on the ground. A ground truthing of the review on the state
of the study community was conducted.
The study employed a qualitative technique to collect data, which included site
documentation and analysis, observation, and interviews with city planners, architects,
and staff from similar administrative structures. Reference projects were also consulted to
determine the project’s brief and spatial requirements. The collected data was synthe­
sised, and inferential spatial requirements and standards, such as ‘Architects’ Data”
(Ernest Neufert’s handbook), ‘The Architect’s Handbook’, edited by Quentin Pickard,
and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards of Ghana (2016), as elaborated by
Groat & Wang (2013), were used to gather data for architectural research purposes. For
the selection of various sites and the evaluation of sites, the growth pattern of the town
was studied, and situational analysis was performed on all three possible sites to select the
best site for the simulated design project.
Various tools are employed in the design of structures in the built environment
industry. Data was synthesised using content analysis to determine the frequency of
spaces required and their relevance in a 21st-century office design by architects and
spatial users of similar office structures in local case studies. The project was modelled
using Revit Architecture 2019 software, and the same software was used for simulating
spaces and creating the draft concept. Basic AutoCAD was employed for the production
of floor plans. Additionally, Lumion 11 was used to render the project, providing
a realistic view, while CorelDRAW was used for post-rendering purposes of the project.

4. Sustainable architectural design for civic centres

The Model Regional Administrative Centre was designed as an office space for workers
in the public sector working at the regional scale. It is expected to accommodate all
critical decentralised departments of regional status co-located within a radius of 200
metres, which will optimise land size. It captures 21st century spatial requirements as
a form of setting standards on office capacities, worker’s welfare, building heights, and
spatial planning development to cater for public sector officers on a regional scale.

4.1. Site selection criteria, site inventory, and analysis

In the site selection criteria for the Model Regional Administrative Centre, three sites
were identified to be analysed based on their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats. Sustainability, size of land, and locational considerations were factored
into the selection of the site. One very critical factor was the need for the site to fall
along the growth pattern and expansion of the town. The growth pattern along the
settlement is to ensure that the administrative centre falls in the core of the town and
12 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

not on the fringe. While considering the permitted and prohibited spaces stipulated in
the Town and Country Planning spatial planning document, Fig. 4(a,b) illustrate the
sites to be developed for the scheme. A comparative study and analysis of the three
sites were rated and awarded marks. The rating was based on ten (10) key considera­
tions, with 5-point criteria for ranking and a 5-point weighted factor rating system.
The total results, which are the sum of the products of the 5-point criteria, the
5-point weighted system, and the 10-point selection criteria, must not exceed 250-
points. The site with the highest score is the best of the three. Ultimately, site- 3 was
chosen because it satisfied all criteria and was more ideally located. The results point
towards the study of Handayanto et al. (2017), which enumerates the use of a land
use optimisation strategy as a method for achieving sustainable urban form and
design of public areas, and Jenks et al. (2000), who stipulates the acceptability of
urban intensification in achieving sustainable urban form.
The site chosen (site three) is undeveloped and not occupied. The site stretches and
elongates from the Damongo-Fufulso road to the north and the Damongo-Canteen
(hospital) road to the west. Inventories in and around the site include trees and shrubs.
Analysis on site revealed the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and threats that were
present to find solutions. The site was assessed to help with building orientation against

Figure 4. Site selection criteria. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 13

Figure 4. (Continued).

solar ingress, harsh weather conditions, and local construction techniques and materials
to use in terms of soil viability to support the facility. The site slopes gently from west to
east and north to south, making possible considerations for a workable topography for
a good drainage system.
The site is visible from all angles, thus being found at a node easily identified on the
Damongo-Fufulso road and the Damongo-Canteen (hospital) road. One intervention
required to improve the site and its surroundings was to propose a dual-carrier road on
the Damongo-Canteen (hospital). Figure 5(a,b) illustrate the inventory and analysis of
the site.

4.2. Brief development and accommodation schedule

Findings from the survey indicated the absence of facilities within public sector offices.
There was a need to identify these facilities to accommodate 21st-century office demands.
The brief development was obtained from literature, several case studies, and the views of
the respondents as they selected their aspiration for a future office they would like to work
in. The model administrative centre containing these broad areas is explained in detail.
They include:
14 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Central Administrative Block: This area contains the typical coordinating council
offices and its traditional departments. It houses both the political head, his deputies,
and the chief director and his deputies, with segregated break rooms, syndicate rooms,
and conferences, and it is the tallest and chief building.
Central Block: The central block contains the main entry point, information desk,
security screening points, security and fire posts, and an infirmary. It also contains the
ICT centre and other virtual rooms serving as temporary office spaces. The social areas
serve as interactive spaces for people and the main point of contact for workers, as well as
outdoor discussion areas.
Departmental Blocks: These are decentralised departments of the regional coordinat­
ing councils. These house all the regional heads of the various decentralised departments
at the regional level that the regional coordinating council will need to supervise,
coordinate, and assist in delivering development to the people. These departments are
linked together, respecting both vertical and horizontal colocation principles.
Recreational Areas/Open Courtyards: These areas provide workers with the opportu­
nity to take time off to have leisure and interact with nature. Aside from the usual break
rooms, it is important to link workers to nature.

Figure 5. Site inventory and analysis. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 15

Figure 5. (Continued).

In accordance with the findings of Oduro-Ofori (2011), Vale (2006), and Kinuthia
(2011), this is one of the most significant obstacles administrative centres must sur­
mount: inadequate infrastructure at certain facilities. Consequently, administrative cen­
tres must be predisposed with regard to design, energy efficiency, and sustainable
attributes in order to serve as models for the imitation of their respective jurisdictions.

4.3. Design philosophy and concept

The architectural design philosophy employed in the design was archi-decentralisation,
derived from the three broad concepts of architecture and democracy, architecture and
power, and architecture and politics. The philosophy ensures location-specific distribution
of administrative centres where administrative centres with their decentralised depart­
ments are not more than a 200-metre radius of the Central Administration with shared
ancillaries and shared collaboration. The design proposal in the setting is integrated into
the site to harmonise with its surroundings. The architectural design concept incorporated
in the proposal is “critical regionalism, which considers the surrounding vernacular
architecture. It involves a critical synthesis of a region’s history, traditions, and architecture
and their reinterpretation of these in modern terms, as shown in Fig. 6(a,b).
16 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Scholars such as Conway and Roenisch (2005), Vale (2006), and Kinuthia (2011)
provide support for the formulation of the philosophy of design. They contend that
administrative centres should incorporate well-planned and designed spaces, shapes, and
ambiance auras that embody functionality, aesthetics, and symbolism. Furthermore, this
design philosophy adheres to the recommendations put forth by Post (2001) and
Gyampo (2018) that administrative centres in Ghana ought to possess enhanced and
cohesive coordination. This stands in contrast to the present state of dispersed admin­
istrative and civic centre establishments.

4.4. Site planning

The site planning for the proposal considered functional relations, access, possible site
entry points, parking areas, and service routes. The spatial planning concept dealt
with the facilities that had to do with the vertically sprawling developments. Several
landscape options and zones were developed to consider private, public, and semi-
private areas on the site, taking note of accesses and slopes in the form of conceptual
sketches as shown in Fig. 7(a,b). The results of site planning align with the assertions

Figure 6. Design philosophy and concept. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 17

Figure 6. (Continued).

made by Oduro-Ofori (2011) that the effectiveness of planned administrative centres

in Ghana is not accurately reflected in the status of dispersed centres from their
respective departments. This is due to the considerable distance that these adminis­
trative centres have from the central administration, which complicates coordination
and monitoring.

4.5. Structure and construction of proposed design

The structural optimisation of the building is made up of a double hydroponic
column system with plants to serve both aesthetics and reduce radiation from the
sun and heat gains. The makeup of the floor system is a waffle slap system to
minimise numerous internal columns and to help host ceiling air conditioner
chillers. The make-up of the building façade is specified with stabilised earth or
bricks. Major features of the design include a green roof that serves as an
interactive space for workers and discussions. The façade general holds
a ventilated-faced system hoisted to buttress (columns) to reduce solar ingress
into the building (see Figure 8(a,b).
18 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

4.6. Sustainable consideration of the proposed design

The design employs an alternative water supply in the form of boreholes and an
alternative power supply in the form of photovoltaics. A ventilated façade treatment
system is employed to cut down on heat emissions entering the building. This proposal
included the use of sustainable materials found in the area (brick, stabilised earth, and
stone) and also the use of passive design principles, as shown in Fig. 9(a,b). Andrea
(2011) and the World Green Building Council (2014) cite these environmentally con­
scious design elements as characteristics that contribute to the sustainability and pro­
ductivity of contemporary workplaces.

4.7. Services of proposed design

Provision of Electricity for Proposed Design: Electricity in the entire facility was provided
using a centralized voltage stabilizer to ensure that a stable voltage is maintained despite
the fluctuations caused by the power flows. The alternative power used in the design is
solar panels. It converts solar radiation into electric energy that is stored and used (see
Figure 10b).

Figure 7. Conceptual sketches. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 19

Figure 7. (Continued).

Water Provision for Proposed Design: Boreholes have been dug to provide water that
is pumped and distributed to overhead water tanks for use by the facility. The design
incorporated rain-harvesting strategies that were stored underground and filtrated in the
substation that houses the pumps and filtration tanks (see Figure 10b).
Fire Safety for Proposed Design: Management of fire in the design proposal,
assembly points in every facility, and major areas of the site are provided, especially
open spaces like courtyards, parking areas, and civic parks. These are the possible
escape areas to go to using paths directed to the open public areas. Fire alarms were
indicated in the design and located throughout the entire facility on the site. Fire
extinguishers are located inside and outside the building at a vantage point that is
visible. Hose reel standpipes that are connected to water are located near entrances
and exits. The location of fire hydrants is located at a distance of 120 metres and
connected to the fire monitoring unit.
Sewage Management for the Proposed Design: Bio-fill digesters were used to manage
the sewage on site. Living organisms that are found in the bio-fill chamber decompose
the sewage. Affordably, the sewage treatment is suitable for all soil conditions with less
maintenance, and solid waste management systems for waste such as paper will be
20 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Figure 8. (a) Structure and construction details. (b) Structure and construction-ventilated façade
details. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 21

Figure 9. (a) Sustainable interventions of Proposed design. (b) Sustainable consideration of Proposed
design. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)
22 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Figure 10. (a) Sewage management for the Proposed design. (b) Electricity and water Provision for
Proposed design. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 23

collected regularly (see Figure 10a). This is supported by writers such as Amany et al.
(2015), Andrea (2011), O’Connor (2016) as sustainable design strategies for modern civic
buildings in general.

4.8. Phasing plan for proposed design

This section deals with how the design will be constructed in stages due to the scale of the
project in terms of cost, function, and technique. The phasing makes it easier for the
client to understand and plan for the project’s construction. Phase 1 consists of the
central administration block; Phase 2 is the canteen and public transport block. Phase 3
consists of a central block, departmental blocks, power, and sewage management hubs.
Phase 4 is the civic park, while the external works component falls under Phase 6, as
shown in Figs. 11a–f.

4.9. Costing for proposed design

This section deals with how the design is costed concerning construction. Phase 1,
costing Gh¢ 53942,169.6, contains seven levels with other complementary supporting
facilities for that particular phase. The cost implications for faces 2 and 3 are Gh¢ 540,000
and Gh¢ 161,826,508.8, respectively. While phase 2 consists of the canteen, taxi ranks,
and bus stops, phase 3 consists of the central block, departmental blocks, and service
blocks.
Phase 4 consists of a civic park that can contain 3,200 people while costing Gh¢
6,000,000. The external works for the whole project cost Gh¢ 2,475,628 and consist of
gardens, soft landscaping, and hard landscaping while finishing bitumen on the access
roads to the facility. The total cost of the project standards is Gh¢ 224,704,307, as shown
in Figure 12.

5. Hypothetical reflections, conclusion, and recommendations

The development of buildings as administrative centres in the country throughout time
has made this topic extremely important. The country’s ever-growing population and
numerous administrative areas and centres for decentralisation, good administration,
and efficient use of the country’s resources have allowed for the construction of several
administrative buildings. Also, technological improvements have contributed to the ease
with which administrative centres can be established, bolstering the problem of decen­
tralisation and adequate governance systems. However, these spaces are typically mod­
ified or do not meet the architectural and planning criteria of administrative centres due
to shortcomings in planning standards as well as a lack of sustainable design standards
and principles.
Against this, the results of the study examined the appraisal of the proposed design by
unearthing the various sustainable land-use principles, especially for the growing civic
and administrative activities to preserve the natural environment. Given this, the study
proposed a new sustainable design for civic administrative uses that helps conserve land
for other urban land uses. This design is applicable to both local and international
geographies, as its design procedure follows the generic architectural design process.
24 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Figure 11. (a) Phasing layout. (b) Proposed design-perspective one. (c) Proposed design-perspective
two. (d) Proposed design-perspective three. (e) Proposed design-perspective four. (f) Proposed
design-perspectives five. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 25

Figure 11. (Continued).

26 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Figure 11. (Continued).

 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 27

Figure 12. Costing for Proposed design. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Ultimately, to improve the capacity and working conditions of public offices in sub-
Saharan Africa, it is suggested that guidelines be developed specifically for green admin­
istrative structures. The establishment of such criteria should encompass the following:
(i) integration of sustainable design principles to mitigate operational expenses of
structures; (ii) support for vertical expansion and development through site and land
management practices; (iii) utilisation of locally sourced materials to reduce construction
costs; and (iv) alignment with the community’s functional, aesthetic, and symbolic
aspirations. The aspirations of the communities ought to be mirrored in public admin­
istrative agencies and civic centres.

Acknowledgments
The authors greatly appreciate and acknowledge the value of the authors and participants of the
study.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
28 L. K. A. SAFO ET AL.

Funding
The full cost of carrying out the research was borne by the authors.

ORCID
Stephen Biliyitorb Liwur http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9415-5905

Ethical statement
We submit the manuscript of our article for review and consideration for publication in your
esteemed journal. With the submission of this manuscript, we certify that we directly participated
in the planning, execution, or analysis of this study; we have read and approved the final version
submitted; the contents of this manuscript have not been copyrighted or published previously; and
the contents of this manuscript are not under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Informed consent
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the
authors.

Data availability statement

Data of this manuscript will be made available upon request

References
Ali, I., Singh, P., Aboul-Enein, H. Y., & Sharma, B. (2009). Chiral analysis of ibuprofen residues in
water and sediment. Analytical Letters, 42(12), 1747–1760. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00032710903060768
Amany, R., Hisham, E., & Ghada, R. (2015). Green architecture: A concept of sustainability. Urban
planning and architecture design for sustainable development, UPADSD 14- 16 October 2015.
Amponsah, M. (2011). Dynamics of land use planning and its effects on socio–economic develop­
ment. Case study of Sunyani Municipality and Odumasi in the Brong Ahafo region. KNUST.
Andrea, G., (2011). London city Hall “A holistic design approach”. Emerging Technologies. http://
www.scribd.com. Date Retrieved August 11th, 2019.
AUMA (Alberta Urban Municipalities Association). (2007). Sustainable land use planning:
Analysis and recommendations. Retrieved from https://www.scr.ibd.com
Biliyitorb Liwur, S., Takyi, S. A., Amponsah, O., & Kwesi Quagraine, V. (2023). Spatio-temporal
analysis and level of awareness of Ghana’s buffer regulations on ecologically sensitive areas:
Lessons from the Kumasi Metropolis. African Geographical Review, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.
1080/19376812.2023.2250329
Boye, B. (2007). Paper presented by dr. Boye Bandie, NDPC, at the Best Practices Conference on
Decentralization in Ghana Held at the Institute of Local Government Studies, Madina, Accra on
May 8, 2007.
Brundtland, G. (Eds). (1987). Our common future: The World commission on environment and
development. Oxford University Press].
Burcu, G. (2015). “Sustainability” education by sustainable school design. Procedia - Social &
Behavioral Sciences, 186(2015), 868–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.199
 URBAN, PLANNING AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH 29

Cobbinah, P. B., Asibey, O. M., & Gyedu-Pensang, Y. A. (2020). Urban land use planning in
Ghana: Navigating complex coalescence of land ownership and administration. Land Use Policy,
99, 105054. Retrieved October , 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105054.
Conway, H., & Roenisch, R. (2005). Understanding architecture; an introduction to architecture
and architectural history. NY Routledge.
Cullingworth, B., & Nadin, V. (2006). Town and country planning in the UK (14th ed.). Routledge.
GSS, Ghana Statistical Service. (2019). Population and housing census, district analytical Report.
GURR, Ghana Urban Review Report. (2015). Rising through cities in Ghana, urbanization Review
overview Report, the World Bank.
Gyampo, R. (2018). Creating New regions in Ghana: Populist or rational pathway to development?.
Department of Communication Studies, Ashesi University.
Handayanto, R. T., Tripathi, N. K., Sohee Minsun Kim, M. S., & Guha, S. (2017). Achieving
a sustainable urban form through land use optimisation: Insights from Bekasi city’s land-use
plan (2010–2030). https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020221.
Jenks, M., Rich, P. J., Rhodes, D., Ashwort, E. N., Axtell, J. D., & Din, C. K. (2000). Leaf sheath
cuticular waxes on bloomless and sparse-bloom mutants of sorghum bicolor. Phytochemistry, 54
(6), 577–84. In K. Williams, E. Burton and M https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9422(00)00153-9
Jha, A. K., Barnestein, J. D., Phelps, P. M., & Sena, S. (2010). Safer homes, stronger communities:
A handbook for reconstruction after natural disasters. The IBRD/The World Bank.
Kats, G. H. (2006). Greening America’s schools costs and benefits. Capital E.
Kinuthia, M. H. (2011). Civic buildings exterior transition spaces a study of city Square.
Liwur, S. B., Takyi, S. A., Asibey, M. O., & Amponsah, O. (2023). Sustainable functional roles of
ecologically sensitive areas in the Greater Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana: Exploring local percep­
tions and attitudes from a socio-economic purview. Urban Ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11252-023-01422-z
Mitchell, D., Buxton, M., & Budge, T. (2004). Assessing the role of land use planning in natural
resource management. TS14 spatial planning for sustainable development.
O’Connor, S. (2016). Architecture, power and ritual in Scottish town Halls, 1833-1973.
Oduro-Ofori, E. (2011). The role of local government in local economic development Promotion
at the district level in Ghana a study of the Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly.
Roy, M. (2008). Dept. Of architecture, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India, “importance of green
architecture today”.
UN-HABITAT II. (1996). UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
(HABITAT II) Istanbul (Turkey) 3-14 June 1996. Distr. General A/Conf.165/14,7 August 1996
English Original: Arabic/English/Spanish.
UNECE. (2008). Spatial planning, key instrument for development and effective governance with
special reference to countries in transition. United Nations.
USGBC U.S. (2002). Green building Council, Inc. “Green building and LEED core concepts Guide”
(First ed.).
Vale, L. J. (2006). The urban design of Twentieth Century capitals. Routledge Taylor and Francis
Group.
Valentine, M., & Jencks, C. (1987). The architecture of democracy: The hidden tradition.
Architectural Design, 57(9–10), 10–11.
World Green Building Council. (2014). Health, Wellbeing & productivity in offices the next
chapter for green building. September 2014. https://www.scribd.com Accessed 19 October 2019.
Wu, J. (2010). Urban sustainability: An inevitable goal of landscape research. Landscape Ecology,
25(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-009-9444-7
ZGPS. (2011). “Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards”. Ministry of Environment Science and
Technology Town and Country Planning Department November 2011.
Zinck, J. A., & Farshad, A. (1995). Issues of sustainability and sustainable land management.
Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 75, 407–412. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjss95-060