VMC ASIAN COLLEGE FOUNDATION, INC.

28 National Highway, Tacurong City, Sultan Kudarat

Tel No. 064-200-6466/ Fax No. 064-477-0354
officialvmcacfi@gmail.com

BACHELOR OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

(BAT III)
AGRICULTURAL
MECHANICS II
1st SEMESTER

_________________________________
Name of Student

______________________

1
 Course and Year

I. Preface
II. Learning Objectives
III. Introduction
Module 1
1. History of Agricultural machinery
2. Agricultural Machinery and Equipment
Different machinery and equipment
Types of agricultural machinery and equipment are used in
producing crops
Importance of Agricultural Machinery and Equipment
Module 2
1. The Industrial Revolution
Important technological developments
Steam Power
Internal combustion engines
2. Agricultural Machinery Types
Combines
Planters
Sprayers
Balers and other Agricultural Implements
3. Forage equipment
Sowing and tillage equipment
Fertilizer spreaders
Module 3
1. Crop-machinery management system for field operations
And farm machinery selection
Machinery Management
2. Why Mechanization is Important
Module 4
1. 6 Safety Tips When Using Metal Fabrication Tools
Metal working hand tool
2. Shop Safety and Etiquette

2
 Preface

Over the years, individuals and institutions have developed numerous designs of
agricultural equipment and machinery in various parts of the country, depending upon
the local demands. For increasing production and productivity from the limited extent of
agricultural and available in the country, it is of paramount importance to manage the
available resources efficiently.

This is possible only by having comprehensive information on the extent, nature and
properties of various agricultural machinery and technologies available for production
and processing. The sources of availability of these machines provided in a user-
friendly manner is expected to go a long way in fulfilling the needs of the users spread
all over the country.

This Directory of Agricultural Machinery and Manufacturers is an attempt to make

available a comprehensive source of information on various agricultural machinery and
their manufacturers in one place. The items have been categorize on the basis of
chronology of farm operations and arranged on the basis of the power source used for
operating them. These are, seed bed preparation, sowing, planting and transplanting,
weeding and intercultural, plant protection, harvesting and threshing, straw
management, irrigation pumps, horticultural equipment, post-harvest equipment, power
units, equipment for renewable energy and miscellaneous equipment.

During the course of this work, the information provided by research workers and
manufacturers through their publication, pamphlets, and personal correspondence have
widely been adopted and edited for brevity and relevance. It is hoped that this
compilation on agricultural machinery and manufacturers would be welcome by the
farming community, extension workers, scientists, students, engineers, manufacturers
and teachers resulting in the increased awareness about these items and pave the way
for early adoption. The list of manufacturer provided in the end is aimed at creating a
useful interface for direct interaction by the prospective users to further their knowledge
and benefit by adopting them.

The information provided in this work has been drawn from various sources and every
effort has been made to make it as comprehensive as possible without favor or
prejudice. However, the inadvertent omission of some of the manufacturers does not
imply their exclusion and they are requested to kindly bring it to our notice for inclusion
in a future edition of this compilation.

The Editors

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GENERAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
To develop proper working attitudes and provide practical skills and knowledge in
fabricating relevant farm equipment that can be used in farming, products processing
and for business.

 Explain why agricultural machinery and equipment are important;

 Identify different areas of agriculture where machinery and equipment
are used;
 Describe some of the different types of agricultural machinery and
equipment used for crop production;
 Perform and apply the knowledge and skills needed in the operation of
agricultural machinery;
 Select the appropriate machinery for a specific farm, including hand-
operated, animal-powered and engine-drive equipment; and
 Service and minor repair of agricultural machinery.

SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the successful completion of this subject, the students must be able to:

I. Practice safety measures in using the different shop tools and

equipment;
II. Identify basic metal working tools and equipment for an identified
project;
III. Prepare a project plan for a metal works project and select the
appropriate materials, tools, and equipment;
IV. Compute appropriate price and perform simple financial analysis of
fabricated projects;
V. Fabricate the identified metal work project(s); and
VI. Make use of this experience as a possible economic venture.

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 Introduction

Farm machinery refers to hand tools, animal drawn implements and power-operated
equipment used for performing various field operations in the production of agricultural
crops. For a machine to function, it must be provided with an input of physical work by a
source of power: human, animal or mechanical power.
Human labor is characterized by a limited power output counterbalanced by versatility
and judgment. Animal power is of enormous importance in Asia, Africa and South
America.
The use of farm machinery helps to achieve improved timeliness of farm operations and
efficient use of inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilizers, chemicals and irrigation water to
enhance productivity of land and labor. The use of farm machinery also reduces
drudgery on the farm.
Agriculture is the human management of photosynthesis-based solar energy collection
and conversion processes. Historically, throughout the world, all agricultural operations
were performed manually using simple hand tools.
Even at present there are large areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and
limited areas in Asia where human labor is still the only power source used in field
operations, especially in hilly areas. These regions practice shifting cultivation, which
was prevalent many centuries ago in Europe and Asia.
The shifting cultivation has a very low labor requirement per unit of output. Population
growth gradually forces a reduction in the period of fallow. As population density
increases, fallow is entirely eliminated, and annual cropping systems emerge.
With suitable climate and the availability of water (from rainfall and/or irrigation) these
systems develop into multi-cropping systems.
There are limitations on the work and operational capabilities of persons engaged in
farming. These limitations are on the physical energy output rate as well as on the
number of decisions that can be made with resulting manipulations.
Labor input in annual or multi-cropping systems is higher than in shifting cultivation and
labor input per hectare rises as cropping intensifies.
The labor input increases occur because certain operations have to be performed more
often and more thoroughly, i.e. land preparation and weeding and some new operations
need to be performed, i.e. maturing and irrigation.

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Activity 1.
Answer the following questions
1. What is Agricultural Machinery?

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2. What are the types of farm machinery?

________________________________________________________________
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3. What does agricultural machinery consist of?

________________________________________________________________
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History of Agricultural Machinery

The agricultural machinery industry or agricultural engineering industry is the part of

the industry that produces and maintain tractors, agricultural machinery and agricultural
implements. This branch is considered to be part of the machinery industry.
Agricultural machinery is machinery used in farming or other agriculture. There
are many types of such equipment, from hand tools and power tools to tractors and the
countless kinds of farm implements that they tow or operate. Diverse arrays of
equipment are used in both organic and nonorganic farming. Especially since the
advent of mechanized agriculture, agricultural machinery is an indispensable part of
how the world is fed.

19th century
The agricultural machinery industry emerged in Britain and the United States in the 19th
century. Until then the common tools of farming were the plough and the sickle. These
iron agricultural implements were often made by blacksmiths in the local village, who
regularly also acted as farrier.
In the first part of the 19th century some of the early agricultural machine manufacturers
arose from these blacksmith workshops, such as John Deere who started up with the
production of ploughs in series in the 1840s.
Other companies arose from the introduction of horse drawn reaping, which replaced
the type of hand reaper in use since biblical times. A company as the McCormick started
up with building these kind of harvesting machines around the 1840s. And another
origin of agricultural industry was the introduction of combined harvesting, threshing and
cleaning in the 1830s.The Case Corporation for example started building those in 1842
as the Racine Threshing Machine Works. Until early 20th century most of those
machinery were powered by horses.
Mid19th century the portable steam-powered plowing engines were introduced. They
were used in pairs, placed on either side of a field to haul a plow back and forth
between them using a wire cable. These portable engines were also used to power
threshing machines, mills and pumps. The portable steam engines were produced by
specific agricultural machinery maker, such as Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies who had
started as brass and iron-founder making casting ploughshares late 18th century.
Late 19th century in Britain more companies such as Richard Garrett &
Sons and Mann’s Patent Steam Cart and Wagon Company developed steam
tractors for direct pouching, but the heavy, wet soil of England meant that these designs
were less economical than a team of horses. In the United States, where soil conditions
permitted, steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows.

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20th century
In the beginning of the 20th century in the UK the Agricultural machinery industry
"although composed of many hundreds of firms, was dominated by a few large ones,
chiefly in the eastern counties of England. The total output of the industry was estimated
to be worth 6.5 million pounds in 1913, or about 5 percent of the total value of the output
of the mechanical engineering industry at the first Census of Production in 1907."[6]
In the first decennia the internal combustion engine; first the petrol engine, and later
diesel engines; became the main source of power for the next generation of tractors.
Early companies expanded into the tractor business, such as John Deere which bought
the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company in 1918, which manufactured the popular
Waterloo Boy tractor. In the 1930s new technologies as rubber ties and hydrologics
were introduced in tractors and other farm machinery.[7] The diesel engines also
contributed to the development of the self-propelled, combined harvester and thresher,
or combine harvester (also shortened to 'combine'). Instead of cutting the grain stalks
and transporting them to a stationary threshing machine, these combines cut, threshed,
and separated the grain while moving continuously through the field.

21st century
A 2013 report by the VDMA gave the following preview of the current developments in
the agricultural machinery industry:
"The general trends in society, agriculture and technology allow conclusions about the
future requirements profile for agricultural machinery... The depicted dominating topics
for the agricultural sector are
 Precision & automation
 Efficiency & user friendliness
 Communication & networking
These topics are today already central components of the specifications for new
developments.

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 Agricultural Machinery and Equipment

Agricultural equipment is any kind of machinery used on a farm to help with farming.

The best-known example of this kind is the tractor.
Agricultural machinery and equipment help farmers produce the goods that consumers
want and need. Without the proper machinery and equipment, farmers would not be
efficient enough to provide the food, clothing, and shelter that we need.
Hundreds of years ago, the population was made up of primarily farmers and ranchers.
Now, a very small percent of the population is responsible for producing the food and
fiber used today. Machinery and equipment allow this to be possible.
Because of the high technology with machinery and equipment, in some countries one
farmer produces enough food to feed over 100 people. Using power only from humans
or horses would not produce nearly this amount.
Machinery and equipment reduce the amount of hard labor needed for farmers to do
their work. Jobs are easier and take less time when machinery and equipment are used.
Machinery and equipment also help farmers produce larger amounts of higher quality
livestock and grain products.
Tractor and power
 Tractor / Two-wheel tractor
 Tracked tractor / Caterpillar tractor
Two-wheel tractor or walking tractor - are generic terms understood in the US and in
parts of Europe to represent a single-axle tractor, which is a tractor with one axle, self-
powered and self-propelled, which can pull and power various farm implements such as
a trailer, cultivator or harrow, a plough, or various seeders and harvesters.
Continuous track is a system of vehicle propulsion used in tracked vehicles, running
on a continuous band of treads or track plates driven by two or more wheels. 
Modern continuous tracks can be made with soft belts of synthetic rubber, reinforced
with steel wires, in the case of lighter agricultural machinery. The more common
classical type is a solid chain track made of steel plates (with or without rubber pads),
also called caterpillar track or tank tread, which is preferred for robust and
heavy construction vehicles and military vehicles.

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Different machinery and equipment are used in every area of the
Agricultural Industry

 Livestock production — Machinery and equipment can be used to help

producers care for and manage their livestock.

Milking machines, automated feeding and watering systems, incubators, egg

candles, tractors, computers, and many other types of machinery and equipment
can be used by the producer to improve efficiency and quality of products.

 Horticulture — Machinery and equipment are very important in the horticulture

industry.

Lawnmowers, tillers, sprayers, spreaders, irrigation systems, wood chippers,

lawn rollers, leaf blowers, computers, and tractors are all vital pieces of
machinery and equipment used by horticulturalists.

 Forestry — the forestry industry relies on machinery and equipment to function.

Log trucks, skidders, loaders, cutters, harvesters, chainsaws, computers, and
surveying equipment are all necessary for efficient forestry operations.

 Crop production — without the proper machinery and equipment, large scale
crop production would be impossible.

Tilling, planting, applying pesticides and fertilizers, and harvesting all require
specialized machinery and equipment. Plows, planters, drills, sprayers,
spreaders, combines, balers, computers, tractors, grain trucks, and many other
types of machinery and equipment are necessary to produce crops effectively.

10
Some of the different types of agricultural machinery and equipment are used in
producing crops

A tractor - is a motorized vehicle that is used to pull heavy loads and to provide power
to operate implements. A tractor can be used for many different jobs.
1. The first types of tractors ran on steam and were hard to maneuver.
2. Before tractors were invented, farmers would have to use horses to pull heavy
equipment.
3. Because of their powerful engines and large tires, tractors are able to pull
other pieces of machinery through fields.
4. Tractors can be used to pull and power some implements. An implement is a
tool or piece of equipment used to do work.
5. There are two main types of tractors—wheeled and crawler.
a. A wheeled tractor is a tractor that usually has four or more wheels that turn
and move the tractor.

b. A crawler tractor is a tractor that has steel or rubber tracks fitted around the
wheels that make the tractor move.
Tillage equipment - is equipment used to plow or till the soil. It slices, breaks, or cuts
the soil in order to prepare the ground, control weeds, or create mulch. The tillage
equipment used depends on the type of soil and the crop that is to be grown. Tillage
equipment includes plows, harrows, and cultivators.
1. A plow - is an implement used to cut, lift, and turn over soil. It is commonly
used to prepare the soil for planting. There are various types of plows and the one most
commonly used in many countries is the moldboard plow.
2. A harrow - is an implement with spikes or disks that is used to cultivate the
soil by pulverizing and smoothing it.
3. A cultivator - is an implement used to loosen the soil and control weeds
between rows of growing crops.
Planting equipment is equipment used to place seeds in the soil for germination. It
must be properly adjusted so the right amount of seed is planted at the proper depth in
the soil. Planting equipment includes planters and drills.
1. A planter is an implement used to place seeds in the soil at the proper rate,
depth, and spacing.

11
 a. The planter opens a small furrow, drops and covers the seeds, and lightly
compacts the soil over the seeds.
b. Corn, cotton, and many vegetable crops are planted with planters.
c. Before this machine was invented, farmers would have to dig rows and plant
the seeds by hand.
2. A drill is an implement used to plant seeds for germination.
a. The drill opens the soil, places the seeds, and covers the seeds.
b. Drills can be used to plant seeds in plowed or unplowed land.
c. Soybeans, wheat, oats, and rye grass are examples of crops that are
commonly planted with drills.
Application equipment is equipment used to apply fertilizer, pesticides, growth
regulators, and other materials to crops. It must be properly calibrated and operated
so the right amount of material is delivered. The equipment may use dry or liquid
materials. Application equipment includes sprayers and dusters.
1. A sprayer is a piece of equipment that uses tanks, pumps, and nozzles to apply
liquid materials.
2. A duster is a piece of equipment used to apply dry powder materials.
Harvesting equipment is equipment used to pick, reap, or otherwise gather crops.
Different types of crops require different types of equipment. Harvesting equipment
includes combines, pickers, balers, and mowers.
1. A combine is a machine used to harvest crops as it moves across a field.
a. The head of the combine runs through the crop rows and cuts the stalks of the
plants. The plants are then pulled through the machine and the grain is separated
from the plant material.
b. Corn, soybeans, wheat, barley, and rice are typically harvested with combines.
2. A picker is a machine used to harvest crops by picking. Cotton is the most
common crop harvested with a picker.
3. A mower is a piece of equipment used to cut standing vegetation. Mowers are
used to harvest forage crops, such as grass and alfalfa. After mowing, the crop may
be left in rows to dry and be picked up by a baler.
4. A baler is a piece of equipment used to harvest forage crops that have been cut,
dried, and placed in rows. The baler is pulled behind a tractor and picks the dried
vegetation up off the ground. Inside the baler, the material is tightly packed or wound
into round or rectangular bales. When the bale reaches the proper size, the machine
wraps the bale with wire or twine to secure it

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 A Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system that uses satellites and
computers to tell a farmer his or her exact location in a field.
1. The earth is continually circled by 24 GPS satellites. At least four of these
satellites are visible from any one point on Earth.
2. GPS uses three satellites that are connected by an electronic signal with a
receiver on the ground. (A fourth satellite is used to verify that the information is
accurate.)
3. Distances from satellites to the receiver can be quickly measured. Computers
calculate the exact location of the receiver.
4. GPS receivers are generally located on equipment that moves over a field.
5. GPS systems can precisely guide tractors and equipment through a field and
program computers to deliver precise amounts of seed, fertilizer, or herbicide to
plants in variable amounts.
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system used with GPS to make maps or
grids of a field. These maps give a farmer data about soil conditions, crop yield, and
other information so he or she can make decisions needed to improve the crops in the
field.

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Activity 2. Sample Test
Machinery and Equipment

Name: _____________________________________ Course and Year: _________

Matching: Match each word with the correct definition. Choose your answer in
the box and write it on the blank provided.

a. Implement d. cultivator
b. Harvesting equipment e. tractor
c. Global Positioning f. sprayer

________1. An implement used to loosen the soil and control weeds between rows of
growing crops.
________2. A tool or piece of equipment used to do work.
________3. A motorized vehicle that is used to pull heavy loads and to provide power to
operate implements.
________4. Equipment used to pick, reap, or otherwise gather crops.
________5. A system that uses satellites and computers to tell a farmer his or her exact
location in a field.
________6. A piece of equipment that uses tanks, pumps, and nozzles to apply liquid
materials.

Fill in the blanks: Complete the following statements.

1. Machinery and equipment reduce the amount of hard ________________ needed for
farmers to do their work.
2. A (n) ___________________ is a machine used to harvest crops as it moves across
a field.
3. _______________ ________________ is equipment used to plow or till the soil.
4. A (n) _______________ is a piece of equipment used to cut standing vegetation.
5. _______________ _______________ is equipment used to apply fertilizer,
pesticides, growth regulators, and other materials to crops

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Activity 3
Short Answer
Answer the following question.
List three examples of machinery and equipment that can be used in each of the
following areas of agriculture:

1. Livestock

2. Production

3. Horticulture

4. Forestry

5. Crop production

15
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
• Because of machinery and equipment, only 1 to 2 percent of the population is able to
produce all of the food and fiber used today.
• Because of high technology with machinery and equipment, in some countries one
farmer produces enough food to feed over 100 people. Using power only from humans
or horses would not produce nearly this amount.
• Machinery and equipment reduce the amount of hard labor needed for farmers to do
their work. Jobs are easier and take less time when machinery and equipment are used.
• Machinery and equipment also help farmers produce larger amounts of higher quality
livestock and grain products.
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Automated feeding system Incubator

Milking Machine Loader (hauling manure)

Egg Candler Automated watering system

16
Activity 4
HUNT FOR MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Directions:
Machinery and equipment are used all around us. They help us get our work done more
quickly and efficiently than if we had to do the work by hand. Without the machinery and
equipment, we would not be able to accomplish nearly the amount of work that we do!
Keep track of the machinery and equipment that you see being used around your
house, neighborhood, and school for a day. This might include machinery and
equipment used for construction, transportation, lawn care, business, and/household
use. Record all of your citing in the table below. For each piece of machinery and
equipment, also list what the alternative would be if the machinery and equipment were
not available. Compare your list with the rest of the class and discuss what you found.

Machinery and Equipment Where used Alternative

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Activity 5
MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION KEY

1. Baler

2. Cultivator

3. Sprayer(s)

4. Combine

5. Drill

6. Duster

7. Planter

8. Plow

9. Tractor(s)

10. Mower

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The Industrial Revolution
With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the development of more complicated
machines, farming methods took a great leap forward. Instead of harvesting grain by
hand with a sharp blade, wheeled machines cut a continuous swath. Instead
of threshing the grain by beating it with sticks, threshing machines separated
the seeds from the heads and stalks. The first tractors appeared in the late 19th
century.
Important technological developments
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of
innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following
gains had been made in important technologies:
 Textiles – mechanized cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the
output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the
output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of
removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. Large gains in productivity also
occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great
as in cotton.
 Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used
between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary
steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high
pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for
transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.
 Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost
of pig iron and wrought iron production. Using coke also allowed larger blast
furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The steam engine began being used to
pump water and to power blast air in the mid1750s, enabling a large increase in
iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power. The cast iron
blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double
acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures.
 Invention of machine tools – The first machine tools were invented. These
included the screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine and the milling
machine. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal
parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques.

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Steam power
Power for agricultural machinery was originally supplied by ox or other domesticated
animals. With the invention of steam power came the portable engine, and later
the traction engine, a multipurpose, mobile energy source that was the ground-crawling
cousin to the steam locomotive. Agricultural steam engines took over the heavy pulling
work of oxen, and were also equipped with a pulley that could power stationary
machines via the use of a long belt. The steam-powered machines were low-powered
by today's standards but, because of their size and their low gear ratios, they could
provide a large drawbar pull. Their slow speed led farmers to comment that tractors had
two speeds: "slow, and damn slow."
Steam-powered agricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century until
reliable internal combustion engines had been developed.
Collins (1987) recalled that the impact of the agricultural machinery industry in the 19th
century was still limited. He stated: "prior the third quarter of the nineteenth century the
impact of machinery in agriculture was slight compared with that in manufacturing
industry. Some operations such as barn work and hay and corn harvesting had been
largely mechanized by 1880 but, up to the Second World War, many were still
performed by hand labor and large numbers of workers were still required for seasonal
tasks such as hop- and fruit-picking and vegetable cultivations."

What machines are used in agriculture?

Steam-powered:
 Stationary steam engine.
 Portable engine.
 Traction engine (e.g. Agricultural engine, Ploughing engine, Steam tractor)
 Hog oiler.
 Reaper (replaced by the Stripper and Reaper-binder)
 Winnowing machine/Winnowing-fan.
 Threshing machine (replaced by the combine harvester)
 Drag harrow.

20
Internal combustion engines
The internal combustion engine; first the petrol engine, and later diesel engines;
became the main source of power for the next generation of tractors. These engines
also contributed to the development of the self-propelled, combined harvester and
thresher, or combine harvester (also shortened to 'combine'). Instead of cutting the
grain stalks and transporting them to a stationary threshing machine, these combines
cut, threshed, and separated the grain while moving continuously through the field.

21
Agricultural Machinery Types

A John Deere cotton harvester at work in a

cotton field.

From left to right: John Deere 7800 tractor

with Houle slurry trailer, Case IH combine
harvester, New Holland FX 25 forage
harvester with corn head.

A New Holland TR85 combine harvester

22
Types of farm machinery and their uses
It’s a well-known fact that different types of machinery and modern farming is constantly
developing throughout the world.
Experienced machinery engineers are always trying not only to improve the traditional
types of farm machinery but also to come up with entirely new ones that can be even
more efficient.
The agricultural machinery industry produces agricultural machinery, machinery used in
the operation of agricultural areas and farms. Main types are:
 Tractors and power.
 Machinery for tillage or soil cultivation.
 Machinery for planting, seeding, fertilizing, pest control, irrigation.
 Machinery for harvesting, haymaking, and post-harvest, such as produce sorters,
and machinery for loading
 Machinery for milking
 Other agricultural machinery, for example grinder mixers, wool presses
and windmills.
In developed countries overall the largest segment of agricultural equipment sales is
tractors.
Types of farm machinery
Modern farmers use a vast range of equipment for their activities. The more diversified
the technical stuff and farm manning, the higher is the yield.
Basically, farm equipment performs:
 land processing
 soil and plant fertilizing
 harvesting and transportation
 harvesting machinery
 tractors
 sprayers
 forage equipment
 sowing and tillage equipment
 fertilizer spreaders
 trailers

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  loaders

Harvesting machinery
Among all the types of equipment that can be used for harvesting grain crops, the
combine harvester always occupies the highest position due to its efficiency and the
amount of crop that it can harvest.
It is worth noting that for a farmer it is essential when choosing a combine to pay
attention not only to the power of his engine but also to the type of threshing apparatus,
the volume of the container for collecting grain, as well as the separation system.
Combines
Combines might have taken the harvesting job away from tractors, but tractors still do
the majority of work on a modern farm. They are used to push/pull implements—
machines that till the ground, plant seed, and perform other tasks.
Tillage implements prepare the soil for planting by loosening the soil and
killing weeds or competing plants. The best-known is the plow, the ancient implement
that was upgraded in 1838 by John Deere. Plows are now used less frequently in
the U.S. than formerly, with offset disks used instead to turn over the soil,
and chisels used to gain the depth needed to retain moisture.
Planters
The most common type of seeder is called a planter, and spaces seeds out equally in
long rows, which are usually two to three feet apart. Some crops are planted by drills,
which put out much more seed in rows less than a foot apart, blanketing the field with
crops. Transplanters automate the task of transplanting seedlings to the field. With the
widespread use of plastic mulch, plastic mulch layers, transplanters, and seeders lay
down long rows of plastic, and plant through them automatically.
Sprayers
After planting, other agricultural machinery such as self-propelled sprayers can be used
to apply fertilizer and pesticides. Agriculture sprayer application is a method to protect
crops from weeds by using herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Spraying or planting
a cover crop are ways to nix weed growth.
Balers and other Agriculture Implements
Planting crop Hay balers can be used to tightly package grass or alfalfa into a storable
form for the winter months. Modern irrigation relies on machinery. Engines, pumps and
other specialized gear provide water quickly and in high volumes to large areas of land.
Similar types of equipment such as agriculture sprayers can be used to
deliver fertilizers and pesticides.

24
Besides the tractor, other vehicles have been adapted for use in farming,
including trucks, airplanes, and helicopters, such as for transporting crops and making
equipment mobile, to aerial spraying and livestock herd management.
A baler or hay baler is a piece of farm machinery used to compress a cut and raked
crop (such as hay, cotton, flax straw, salt marsh hay, or silage) into compact bales that
are easy to handle, transport, and store. Often, bales are configured to dry and preserve
some intrinsic (e.g. the nutritional) value of the plants bundled. Different types of balers
are commonly used, each producing a different type of bale – rectangular or cylindrical,
of various sizes, bound with twine, strapping, netting, or wire.
Industrial balers are also used in material recycling facilities, primarily for baling metal,
plastic, or paper for transport.
Round baler
The most common type of baler in industrialized countries today is the round baler. It
produces cylinder-shaped "round" or "rolled" bales. The design has a "thatched roof"
effect that withstands weather.
Grass is rolled up inside the baler using rubberized belts, fixed rollers, or a combination
of the two. When the bale reaches a predetermined size, either netting or twine is
wrapped around it to hold its shape.
The back of the baler swings open, and the bale is discharged. The bales are complete
at this stage, but they may also be wrapped in plastic sheeting by a bale wrapper, either
to keep hay dry when stored outside or convert damp grass into silage. Variable-
chamber large round balers typically produce bales from 48 to 72 inches (120 to 180
cm) in diameter and up to 60 inches (150 cm) in width.
The bales can weigh anywhere from 1,100 to 2,200 pounds (500 to 1,000 kg),
depending upon size, material, and moisture content. Common modern small round
balers (also called "mini round balers" or "roto-balers") produce bales 20 to 22 inches
(51 to 56 cm) in diameter and 20.5 to 28 inches (52 to 71 cm) in width, generally
weighing from 40 to 55 pounds (18 to 25 kg).

25
Forage equipment
In modern farms, forage for various types of animals is harvested using forage
harvesting equipment.
There are different types of this farm machinery:
 balers self-propelled and
 trailed mowers
 rakes
 tenders

The most widely used machinery for collecting and shaping of hay in the so-
called bales are balers. Their main task is to collect grass, pressing and tying
it with the rope.
Sowing and tillage equipment
Various types of sowing technology are used to obtain the highest yield
results in modern farming. Among the main types of sowing machinery are:
 seeders
 hoppers and storage tanks

The primary advantage during the sowing is the use of seeders, which, along
with the accuracy of sowing, provide the desired thickness and a lower
percentage of crushing (deterioration) of the grains.
Fertilizer spreaders
Farmers use this type of machine to distribute fertilizer as well as to enrich a
ripening crop.

26
Crop-Machinery Management System for Field Operations
And Farm Machinery Selection

The main objective of this study is to develop a computer system for farm management
and selection of required farm machinery to perform field operations in time for crops
grown in rotations. Excel and Visual basic software were used to develop the program.
The input data included 4 crops (sorghum, sesame, sunflower and cotton), 3 field
operations (seedbed preparation, seeding, and weeding operations) and 3 farming
systems (zero-tillage, conventional, and heavy machines farming systems).
In addition, tractor and 6 implements (wide level disk, disk harrow, chisel plow, row crop
planter, inter- row cultivator and sprayer) were also used. The system estimates the size
and number of machine, power requirement and fuel consumption for the implements
and operations.
Verification showed that, the system has the ability to estimate the required parameters
as soon as input data was entered. System validation indicated no significant
differences between predicted results and actual data. The sensitivity analysis showed
that, changing of input variables affects the output parameters and consequently
selection is possible.
The system was applied to estimate the required output variables in the mechanized
rained agriculture in Gedarif, Sudan. It can be used for proper crop and machinery
management as pre-season decision making with great confidence.

Key words: Crop production, machine selection, farm management, computer

system.
Farm mechanization is the use of machines for production process. Crop production
involves sequence of actions, operations and other factors that affect production. A
good farm management plan has to analyze the whole farming system for maximizing
production and minimizing risks.
The farm manager has to study the relationships between machines, weather and crop
combinations. Management can more or less control machine capacity (machine width,
speed, and field efficiency), as well as selection of implement, operation and crop.
Computer systems can facilitate the examination of these relationships.
Many computer systems were developed elsewhere to analyze the factors that affect
field operations and machinery performance.
27
The purposes of these systems varied from power selection and implement matching
(Dahab and Mohamed, 2006; Alam et al., 2001; Bol et al., 2006; Yousif and Dahab,
2010), to systems incorporate farm size, cropping patterns, soil properties and climatic
conditions to calculate tractor power, machine width and estimating costs (Isik and
Sabanci, 1993; Ismail and Burkhardt, 1994). Other systems deal with special crops
(Parmar et al., 1994; Dahab and O’Callagham, 1998).
Management of rained agriculture is a complex process. The complexity is due to the
nature of various and interrelated factors involve in crop production process.
These factors include; selection of crops and agricultural machinery (tractors and
implements), the expected working time for field operation, inputs cost and outputs
prices. It is believed that, promotion of farm management can be realized by the use of
modern techniques like computer and software’s. Computer systems can facilitate the
process of planning and decision making.
Therefore, a computer system was developed to be used as a tool for crops -machinery
management. The goals of the system were to select the number and size of machinery
(tractor and implement) required to perform timely seedbed preparation, seeding and
weed control operations for 4 crops; sorghum, sesame, sunflower and cotton grown in
1, 2, 3, and 4 crops combination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Characteristics of the study area
The study was conducted in Gedarif State, which lies in the Eastern part of the Sudan
between latitudes 12.67 and 15.75°N and longitudes 33.57 and 37.0°E, where about
more than 3 000 000 ha are put under cultivation.
The soil is heavy cracking clay soils (Vertisols), which was characterized by shrinking
when dried and swelling when moistened. The clay content ranged between 65 and
75%.
Crops grown and field operations Sorghum is a dominant grown crop, constitutes about
85% of the cropped area, followed by sesame, while sunflower and cotton are sown in
limited areas where rain amount is sufficient for their growth.
Land preparation and seeding operations usually start when the accumulative rainfall
reaches about 100 to 125 mm, which is sufficient for establishing crops.
This usually occurs during the second and third week of July. The wide level disk plow
is the main machine used for seedbed preparation and seeding operations. However,
deep plowing (chiseling) and shallow plowing (disk harrowing) and row crop planter are
sometimes practiced in limited areas. Weed control usually starts 2 to 4 weeks after
crops germination.

28
Hand weeding is the common practice, however, due to shortage and high expense of
labors, mechanical weed control (Sarwala operation) by WLD as well as herbicides
application are recently adopted. Tractors of 75 to 80 ha are the main source of farm
power; however, big tractors were recently introduced to operate large and heavy
implements for improving timeliness of agricultural operations. According to the used
machinery and cultural practices there are three farming system practiced; namely
conventional, zero-tillage and heavy machinery farming systems. The mechanized
farming system consists of large commercial farms 210 to 420 ha or more.

Data collection and analysis

The required input data to run the developed system is collected from many sources,
such as agricultural engineers, Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) Reports,
Mechanized Farming Corporation (MFC), field observations, ASABE standard, John
Deer publications, and agricultural machinery dealers. The collected data include; crops
and their operations and type and size of machine, field efficiency, speed, draft
requirement, machinery capacity, fuel consumption rates. Statistical measures
employing mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum, correlation analysis were
used as data analysis tools. Also, T-test was used to compare and test the significance
between the predicted and actual data. Moreover, the Root mean square error (RMSE)
criterion was used to compare the values of the predictions and actual data. The RMSE
was calculated as follows:

Where: n = number of observation, i = different, predicted = unit predicted values and

actual = actual values.

Computer system development

System structure
The system was developed in Excel and Visual basic computer software. Data entry is a
step by step process in specifically designed cells. The user is always given the
freedom to use site specific data or use built-in data. Data input can be corrected done
directly on screen. The system output can be displayed on the screen or as print out.
System description
The crop production and farm machinery combination management system was
designed to work with a sequence of procedures, crop and implement procedure, farm

29
machinery management procedure and farm costs analysis procedure. All procedures
work collectively. The system flow chart was described in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Crop and machinery
START
Management unit flow chart.

Crop and implement selection procedure

Calculations
-Select crop operation
and implement

-Enter are for operation

and implement

Farm machinery management procedure - EFC, W, hrs/yr,

____
___-_ No of implement
Speed, efficiency, - Db-power, PTO
days, hrs, Power and fuel
MAWW, unit draft, consumption - machine
soil factor, and operation costs

Farm cost analysis procedure

Show results
Crop input cost,
administration cost,
crop yield, crop value
and by product value
End

30
Crop and Implement Selection Procedure
This is the basic procedure for the whole system, which allows the user to choose crops
and required field operations. The designed options of crops were 1, 2, 3, or 4 crop
combinations. The designed crops were sorghum, sesame, sunflower and cotton. The
system deals with 3 operations; seedbed, seeding, and weed control; via 6 implements
namely; chisel plow, disk harrow, wide level disk, row-crop - planter, inter-rowcultivator
and sprayer.
The wide level disk with the seeder box may be used for seedbed, seeding and weed
control (Sarwala) operations. The user has to enter the area (ha) to be cultivated across
each crop, operation and machine.
The system computes the total cultivated area for each crop according to the selected
seedbed preparation methods. Also, the system computes the total area of each
implement for all crops or operations.

Machinery Management Procedure

This procedure deals with machinery (implements and tractor). It uses the intended
operations, area to be covered and implement type that had been specified in the crop
production procedure. It consists of 3 sub procedures; machinery selection, power
requirement and machinery costs.
The machinery selection sub-procedure computes the size and the number of
implements and power units required to complete field operations during specific period
of time by computing effective field capacity (ha/h). The required input data include:
speed of field operation, field efficiency, available working days, and available working
hours per day.
The machinery power requirement sub-procedure determines the required drawbar
power (kw), tractor PTO power (kw) and fuel consumption (L/h) for the selected
implement. The required input data include: unit draft (kn/m) and soil condition factor.

31
Implement selection calculations
Field capacity
The effective field capacity (EFC) (ha/h) is calculated using total area and total available
time as follows:
EFC (ha/h) = A/(D × h)
Where: A = area under operation (ha), D = available working days and hr = available
working hours per day.
Required width
The required working width (W) (m) of a machine is calculated as follows:
W = (EFC × C)/Se
Where: C = conversion factor = 10, S = field speed (km/hr) and e = field efficiency of the
machine, decimal.
Number of machine(s) required
The number of the machine(s) required is calculated as follows:
Number of M = W/MAWW
Where, Number of M = number of machine required and MAWW = maximum available
working width (m).
Machinery power requirement
Drawbar power
The drawbar power (DBHP), (kw) for an implement is calculated as follows:
DBHP = (S × D × W)/ 3.6
Where: D = Unit draft (kn/m)
Tractor take – off shaft power
Tractor PTO required power (TPTO) is calculated using implement drawbar power and
soil condition factor as follows:

32
TPTO = DBHP × soil condition factor × 1.25
Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption for diesel engine is calculated according to the method described by
(FMO, 1976) as follows:
Fuel consumption (L/hr) = DBHP (kw) × 0.226
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
System verification
The system was verified for the implement width, effective field capacity, drawbar
power, required PTO power and fuel consumption by using published data from Sumner
and William (2007) as shown in Table 1. It was observed that, as soon as entering input
data the unit displays the results. The predicted results were identical to that obtained
by Sumner and William (2007). This means that, the unit is able to calculate the
required parameters correctly.
System Sensitivity analysis
Effect of changing cropped area on number of implement
Increasing cultivated area from 420 to 3780 ha, the number of machines changed from
1 machine to 3, 6, 9, 9, 5, and 3 machines for wide level disk, disk harrow, chisel plow,
row crop planter, inter-row cultivator and sprayer, respectively (Table 4). The results
demonstrated that, chisel plow and row crop planter are highly sensitive to the changes
in area. This may be due to their effective width, working speed or available working
hours per day.
Table 1. Verification of the unit with published data.
Input variable Input data for Sumner and William
(2007) and the model

Implement name Disk harrow

Area, ha 49
Days 5
Hours/day 8
Speed Km/h 8.1
Efficiency, decimal 0.82
Maximum available width, m 1.8
Unit draft, kn/m 5.37

Output parameter Summer and William Model prediction

(2007)
Implement width, m 1.82 1.80

33
 Effective field capacity, ha/h 1.21 1.20
Drawbar power, kw 21.94 21.75
Required PTO power, kw 46.12 46.00
Fuel consumption. L/h 10.00 10.00

Machinery Management
Machinery management is recognized as being important in reducing the cost of crop
production.
For example, Ozkan and Edwards (1983) state that “in Iowa, owning and operating
agricultural machinery comprises 31 and 43 percent, respectively, of the total non-land
costs of corn and soybean production” (p. 2).
Von Bargen and Cunney (1974) suggested that over one-third of crop production costs
can be attributed to machinery operation. There are, however, obvious difficulties
inherent in any proposal to determine machinery requirements.
The selection of farm machinery, and decisions relating to replacement will be based on
some economic criteria, and yet the absolute cost of a machine can only be determined
after its replacement.
This means that although we cannot be specific in presenting machinery selection
criteria, reasonable estimations can be made.
FIXED COSTS
The costs of owning farm machinery can be divided between fixed and operating costs.
Fixed costs generally are those not affected by the amount of use of the machine, for
example, interest, depreciation, shelter (housing), or insurance. Ownership costs can be
considered as those that vary with the amount of use of the machine, and would include
items such as fuel, tires, labor, lubrication, and repairs.
A number of methods for calculating the costs of owning farm machinery are available.
Of importance to this text is not the method of calculating, but how this information is
then utilized to assist in farm machinery decisions. Hunt (1973) uses a fixed-cost
percentages factor in determining the annual cost of operating a machine. He lists the
value of the fixed-cost percentage as a function of service life, where service life is
defined as the length of time (in years) until the machine is only of value for salvage.
The fixed-cost percentage is then applied (as a product) to the purchase price of the
machine, thus providing a relatively simple method of determining fixed costs.

34
Why Mechanization is Important
Mechanization is a crucial input for agricultural crop production and one that historically
has been neglected in the context of developing countries. Factors that reduce the
availability of farm power compromise the ability to cultivate sufficient land and have
long been recognized as a source of poverty, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
Increasing the power supply to agriculture means that more tasks can be completed at
the right time and greater areas can be farmed to produce greater quantities of crops
while conserving natural resources. Applying new technologies that are environmentally
friendly enables farmers to produce crops more efficiently by using less power.
Sustainable agricultural mechanization can also contribute significantly to the
development of value chains and food systems as it has the potential to render
postharvest, processing and marketing activities and functions more efficient, effective
and environmentally friendly.
Increasing levels of mechanization does not necessarily mean big investments in
tractors and other machinery
Farmers need to choose the most appropriate power source for any operation
depending on the work to be done and on who is performing it. The level of
mechanization should meet their needs effectively and efficiently.
Women play an important role in many farming based communities, and in some
countries, up to 80 percent of the total farm labour comes from women. This implies that
power sources (human, animal or motor-based) need to be adapted to such necessities
from an ergonomic, social, cultural and economic point of view.
The reduction of drudgery is a key element of sustainable mechanization and
contributes to reducing women's hard workload by taking into consideration
technologies apt to their needs and improving their access to appropriate forms of farm
power.

Sustainable mechanization can:

- increase land productivity by facilitating timeliness and quality of cultivation;
- support opportunities that relieve the burden of labour shortages and enable
households to withstand shocks better;

35
 - decrease the environmental footprint of agriculture when combined with adequate
conservation agriculture practices; and
- reduce poverty and achieve food security while improving people's livelihoods.

FARM MACHINERY SELECTION

Putting together an ideal machinery system is not easy. Equipment that works best one
year may not work well the next because of changes in weather conditions or crop
production practices. Improvements in design may make older equipment obsolete.
And, the number of acres being farmed or the amount of labor available may change.

Because many of these variables are unpredictable, the goal of the good machinery
manager should be to have a system that is flexible enough to adapt to a range of
weather and crop conditions while minimizing long-run costs and production risks. To
meet these goals several fundamental questions must be answered.

Machine Performance
First, each piece of machinery must perform reliably under a variety of field conditions
or it is a poor investment regardless of its cost.

Tillage implements should prepare a satisfactory seedbed while conserving moisture,

destroying early weed growth and minimizing erosion potential. Planters and seeders
should provide consistent seed placement and population as well as properly apply
pesticides and fertilizers. Harvesting equipment must harvest clean, undamaged grain
while minimizing field losses.

The performance of a machine often depends on the skill of the operator, or on weather
and soil conditions. Nevertheless, differences among machines can be evaluated
through field trials, research reports and personal experience.

Machinery Costs

Once a particular type of tillage, planting, weed control, or harvesting machine has been
selected, the question of how to minimize machinery costs must be answered.
Machinery that is too large for a particular farming situation will cause machinery
ownership costs to be unnecessarily high over the long run; machinery that is too small
may result in lower crop yields or reduced quality.

Ownership Costs
Machinery ownership costs include charges for depreciation, interest on investment,
property taxes, insurance and machinery housing. These costs increase in direct
proportion to machinery investment and size.

36
Operating Costs
Operating costs include fuel, lubricants and repairs. Operating costs per acre change
very little as machinery size is increased or decreased. Using larger machinery
consumes more fuel and lubricants per hour, but this is essentially offset by the fact that
more acres are covered per hour. Much the same is true of repair costs. Thus,
operating costs are of minor importance when deciding what size machinery is best
suited to a certain farming operation.

A detailed procedure for estimating machinery ownership and operating costs can be
found in AgDM Information File A3-29 Estimating Farm Machinery Costs (PM 710).

Labor Cost
As machinery capacity increases, the number of hours required to complete field
operations over a given area naturally declines. Estimates of time requirements for
completing machinery operations are found in AgDM Information File A3-24 Estimating
the Field Capacity of Farm Machines (PM 696).

If hourly or part-time hired labor operates machinery, it is appropriate to use the wage
rate paid, plus the cost of any other benefits which may be provided, as the labor cost. If
the farmer-owner or a hired worker who is paid a fixed wage operates machinery, then it
is proper to value labor at its opportunity cost, or the estimated return it could earn if it
were used elsewhere in the farm business, such as in livestock enterprises.

Timeliness Costs
In many cases, crop yields and quality are affected by the dates of planting and
harvesting. This represents a “hidden” cost associated with farm machinery, but an
important one nevertheless. The value of these yield losses is commonly referred to as
“timeliness costs.”

37
Total Machinery Costs
Figure 1 illustrates the effect that changes in machinery size have on each type of cost
in a typical situation. For very small machinery (relative to crop acres), a slight increase
in machinery size can lower timeliness and labor costs significantly, enough to more
than offset the higher fixed costs. However, as machinery size continues to increase,
the timeliness cost savings diminish, and eventually total costs begin to rise. One
objective of machinery selection, then, is to select machinery in the size range where
total machinery costs are lowest.

Factors That Affect the Size of Machinery Needed

Machinery recommendations must be based on the characteristics of each individual
farm. The following factors influence machinery selection, and are discussed in order of
importance.

Number of Crop Acres

As more crop acres are farmed, larger-scale machinery is needed to ensure that
planting and harvesting are completed in a timely fashion. An alternative is to acquire a
second unit of some machines, if an additional tractor and operator are available.

Labor Supply

The number of acres that can be completed each day is the most critical measure of
machinery capacity, more than machine width or acres completed per hour. Increasing
the labor supply by hiring extra operators or by working longer hours during critical
periods may be a relatively inexpensive way of stretching machinery capacity. In
addition, the cost of additional labor only needs to be incurred in those years in which it
is actually used, while the cost of investing in larger machinery becomes “locked in” as
soon as the investment is made. On the other hand, extra labor may not always be
available when needed, and working long hours over several days can present a safety
hazard.

Tillage Practices

The number of field days needed before planting is completed depends partly on the
number of separate operations completed on each acre. Reducing the number of tillage
practices performed or performing more than one practice in the same trip effectively
decreases the amount of machinery capacity needed to complete field operations on

38
time. Of course, machinery cost savings from reduced tillage must be compared to
possible increased chemical costs and effects on yields.

Crop Mix

Diversification of crops tends to spread out the periods when timely completion of field
operations is critical. For example, yield reductions due to late planting begin later for
soybeans than for corn. Harvesting can also be completed over a longer time period.
Thus, growing more than one or two crops reduces the machinery capacity needed for a
given number of crop acres. However, it may also require purchasing additional types of
machinery, especially for harvesting.

Weather

Weather patterns determine the number of days suitable for fieldwork in a given time
period each year. Although actual weather conditions cannot be predicted far enough in
advance to be used as an aid to machinery selection, past weather records can be used
as a guide. AgDM Information File A3-25 Fieldwork Days in Iowa (PM 1874) lists the
number of suitable field days expected for different periods of the year in each of the
nine crop reporting districts in Iowa.

As a rule of thumb, weather is suitable for field work about 60 percent of the time in the
spring and about 75 percent of the time in the fall. This does not take into account time
off for holidays, Sundays or other occasions.

Machinery selection should be based on long-run weather patterns even though it

results in excess machinery capacity in some years and insufficient capacity in other
years.

Risk Management

Fluctuations in the number and occurrence of suitable field days from year to year
cause timeliness costs to vary even when the machinery set, number of crop acres and
labor supply do not change. Investing in larger machinery can reduce the variability of
net machinery costs by ensuring that crops are planted and harvested on time even in
years in which there are few good working days. Machinery fixed costs would be higher
with larger machinery, but they would not fluctuate as long as the machinery set did not
change. Farmers with high fixed cash flow needs, such as land mortgage payments,
may be willing to pay more (in higher fixed machinery costs) than other operators for the
“insurance” of not suffering substantial yield losses due to late planting and harvesting
in certain years.

39
Planting and Harvesting Dates

Long-term studies indicate that corn yields typically start to decline significantly when
planting occurs after May 10 to 14, as shown in Figure 2.

The exact dates will vary from year to year. About 50 percent of Iowa’s corn is normally
planted by this time. One reason for the decline in yield for late-planted corn is that
fewer “heat units” are available during the growing season, and this influences the rate
of crop development.

How early to start planting requires considerable judgment. Ideal conditions would be a
soil temperature of 50°F (10°C) or above at planting depth and a favorable five-day
weather forecast. In most of Iowa, if soil conditions and temperatures are favorable,
starting to plant the last ten days of April should be advantageous. In May, the major
consideration should be the condition of the seedbed.

There is some risk with early planting. Replanting may occasionally be required, but the
long-term benefits far outweigh this cost. An added benefit from early-planted corn is
lower grain moisture levels at harvest and reduced drying costs.

Most of the same things can be said about planting soybean varieties. The ideal time for
planting adapted soybean varieties is between May 1 and May 15. Yields can be
expected to decline in most years if planting occurs after May 20, as Figure 3 shows.

40
Timeliness losses at harvest are due primarily to more dropped ears, field shattering
and cracked beans. These losses must be balanced against the cost of artificially drying
grain harvested at a moisture level higher than that required for safe storage. Some
harvesting losses occur because combining speed is too high or the machine is poorly
adjusted.

How Large Should Machinery Be?

One way to measure the capacity of a set of machinery is by the number of work days
required to complete field operations. This depends on the number of crop acres,
machinery operations performed, size of the machinery in use, and availability of labor.

In research conducted recently at ISU, total machinery costs for Iowa grain farms,
including the value of timeliness losses, were estimated for a number of different
machinery combinations. The effects of variations in the number of crop acres and labor
supply, were compared.

Under each set of circumstances the machinery set for which total costs were lowest,
including yield losses due to poor timeliness, was identified. In some cases, several
machinery sets gave nearly identical minimum costs.

In approximately 80 percent of the cases tested, the least-cost machinery sets were
able to complete all tillage and planting operations in about 20 to 25 field days. A
good rule of thumb for farmers who wish to have sufficient machinery capacity to reduce

41
risk, as well as maintain total costs at a low level, is to be able to complete tillage and
planting in about 20 field days.

Where less than one full-time person is available to operate machinery, a goal of 25 to
30 days for completing planting and tillage will most often minimize costs. On the other
hand, farms with 2 or 3 full-time machinery operators available could aim to complete
this work in less than 20 days.

The machinery sets which minimized total machinery costs were most often able to
complete harvesting of corn and soybeans in 25 to 30 field days. As with spring work,
operators for whom risk reduction is important should use the lower end of this range as
a goal, although yield losses from late harvesting are generally not as severe as from
late planting.

A number of different machinery combinations may allow fieldwork to be completed in

the same number of days. In putting together a machinery set, it is also important to
correctly match machinery sizes and tractor power. Using tractors with horsepower in
excess of that required for the implement being pulled results in excessive depreciation
and interest costs, while using too little horsepower may cause faster engine wearout.

Some farms may not have enough crop acres to justify owning a full line of machinery,
particularly for harvesting. Custom hiring or leasing certain machinery operations may
lower total costs as well as provide more flexibility in the amount of machinery capacity.
For a detailed discussion of custom hiring, leasing, and renting farm machinery see
AgDM Information Files A3-33 Self-Propelled Harvesting and Spraying: Machinery
Ownership Versus Custom Hire (PM 786) and A3-21 Acquiring Farm Machinery
Services (PM 787).

Field Capacity

To project the number of field days required, it is necessary to know the field capacity
for each implement. Field capacity usually is measured in acres accomplished per hour,
and is affected by three variables: width, speed and field efficiency.

Width refers to the effective working width of the implement, excluding overlapping, and
is measured in feet. Speed, which is measured in miles per hour, refers to a safe
operating speed under normal working conditions. This does not take into account
slowing down to turn at the end of a field.

Field efficiency is the actual field capacity that can be achieved as a percentage of the
maximum theoretical capacity without overlapping, slowing for turning or stopping to
adjust machinery, fill containers, empty hoppers, and make minor repairs.

The formula for estimating field capacity (in acres per hour) is:

42
The factor 8.25 is a conversion factor calculated by 43,560 sq. feet per acre / 5,280 feet
per mile.

For example, assume a 24-foot tandem disk can be pulled at 6 miles per hour with a
field efficiency of 80 percent. Its estimated field capacity is:

Suggested values for estimating field capacities can be found in Table 1, and in AgDM
Information File A3-24, Estimating Field Capacity of Farm Machines (PM 696).

To estimate the field capacity needed to complete a certain field operation in a set
number of field days, use the following formula:

For example, to combine 900 acres of corn in 10 field days, harvesting 12 hours per

day, would require a field capacity of:

The minimum implement width then can be found by inverting the formula for field
capacity:

For the example, if the combine operates at 5 miles per hour with 82 percent field
efficiency, the minimum width is:

The minimum width is about the size of a six-row, 30-inch corn head.

43
AgDM Decision Tool A3-24, Estimating the Field Capacity of Farm Machines, can be
used to estimate the acreage capacity of a machinery implement.

Matching Tractor Power and Implement Size

For tillage and planting implements the size of the machine that can be used is often
limited by the size of the available tractor. The horsepower needed to pull a certain
implement depends on the width of the implement, the ground speed, draft requirement,
and soil condition. The general formula for estimating the required horsepower
measured at the power take-off (PTO) is:

The soil factors are as follows:

44
Table 1 shows estimated draft requirements for various implements. For example, a 24-
foot tandem disk being pulled at 6.0 mph by a 4-wheel drive assist tractor in firm soil,
with a draft requirement of 200 pounds per foot of width, would need the following PTO
horsepower:

For some implements the width and the draft requirements are measured in terms of the
number of teeth, shanks or rows rather than feet.

45
AgDM Decision Tool A3-28, Matching Tractor Power and Implement Size, can be used
to match the size of a tractor to the size of an implement.

Estimating the Number of Field Days Required

The following worksheet can be used to estimate the number of field days required for
tillage, planting and harvesting for a particular farming operation.

Column 1. List all the field operations to be done before planting. Include fall and spring
tillage, application of chemicals, and sowing of small grain or forages. Do not include
custom hired operations.

Column 2. List the total acres to be covered by each operation. Remember, if some
acres have the same operation performed on them more than once, multiply the number
of acres by the times over.

Column 3. List the sizes of the machines used for all operations.

Column 4. List the field capacity of each machine in acres per hour. Suggestions can be
found in Table 1 or AgDM Information File A3-24 Estimating Field Capacity of Farm
Machines (PM 696), or by using the following formula:

It may be more convenient to skip directly to column 6 and enter the number of acres
covered per day, if this is known.
Column 5. Enter the number of labor hours available per day in the field to perform each
tillage and preplant operation. Do not count time spent on repairs, transportation of
machinery, livestock activities, etc. For planting and harvesting, enter the number of
hours per day the planter or combine can be used.

Column 6. Multiply column 4 by column 5 to estimate the number of acres covered per
day for each operation. Decide if this is a reasonable figure based on experience.

Column 7. Estimate the number of field days needed for each operation by dividing
column 2 by column 6. Then find the total for each group of field operations.

Use extra lines to estimate how the number of field days required can be adjusted.
Adjustments can be made by changing machinery size, number of field operations,
number of acres covered, proportion of acres in each crop, hours available for fieldwork,
or by custom hiring some operations.

This worksheet can also be used to estimate the number of field days required for
harvesting forages. This can be compared to the expected number of field days
available in the appropriate period, as shown in AgDM Information File A3-25 Fieldwork
Days in Iowa (PM 1874).
46
AgDM Decision Tool A3-28, Estimating Field Capacity of Farm Machinery, can be used
to estimate the number of field days required to complete field operations.

47
48
Answer the following questions (10pts each)
1. What are the machines used in farming?

2. What are the tools and equipment used in agricultural crop production?

3. How do you select farm machines for production of crops?

4. How do machines help in farming?

5. What is Farm Machinery implementation?

49
6 Safety Tips When Using Metal Fabrication Tools
When using sheet metal fabrication tools, some safety precautions should be followed.
Tools like English wheels can be hard to manage if you are not proficient at using them.
Hence, some basic rules should be followed by all amateurs. If you are a professional
sheet metal fabricator, read on, you might find something useful. Also, we will be
discussing common metal fabrication injuries.

Areas of Concern for Metal Sheet Fabrication Projects:

Before proceeding with safety tips for metal sheet fabrication projects, here is a list of
injuries, which can occur if proper safety measures are not taken:

Injuries from Material Handling: Improper material handling is one of the main
causes of injury in a workshop. Most of these injuries lead to musculoskeletal
problems, which can range from minor sprains to invertebral disc injuries.
These injuries result due to ignorance of proper lifting practices, avoiding
established lifting protocols, long working hours, etc.
Injuries from Hand Tools Usage: Various types of hand tools are used in metal
fabrication projects to give finishing touches. There are various reasons for
injuries from hand tools such as improper tools for the project, poor
maintenance of tools, excessive use of tools, and inappropriate design of work
area. For instance, long-term use of a welding machine can cause
musculoskeletal Also, a welder may be exposed to toxic substances or carbon
monoxide, if there is poor ventilation in the work area.
Injuries from Poor Barriers: Usually, the areas where metal fabrication projects
take place are specially designed to avoid injuries. The area is closely
protected with various types of barriers. Poor barrier protection is a major
reason for injuries. For instance, various guarding mechanisms are adopted to
protect a worker’s finger from getting entrapped in the machine. If these
guarding barriers are not properly installed, there are all chances that a worker
may lose a finger, or the hand.

Safety Tips When Fabricating Metal Components/ Instruments

The following steps can be employed when using metal fabrication tools:

1. Proper Training: This is a very important step in any metal fabrication project. A
detailed training session regarding the equipment, occupational hazards, and
working conditions should be given to the personnel. Also, the personnel should be
informed about proper safety protocols to prevent accidents.

2. Inspecting Tools: This is necessary before starting the project. The tools should
be checked for malfunctioning, and inspected to ensure that they are in good working
condition. This is because sheet metal fabrication workers use various types of

50
 manual or hand operated tools. For instance, if there is a pair of shears with blunt
edges, your workers may have a hard time cutting with them.

3. Precaution: Attention is the key to a successful and injury-free metal fabrication

project. Large machines are used during metal fabrication projects. It is very
important for sheet metal workers to take some precautions before they start
working. Workers that are required to push and pull metal sheets into a machine
should avoid wearing loose clothes, or jewelry. They should be aware that sheet
metal gets very hot during the fabrication. Hence, the workers should always wear
protective gloves when handling the sheet metal.

4. Tool Usage: When using hand tools or presses, it is important to maintain the
right amount of security. Presses and other large machinery are equipped with
guards and other safety features. Generally, these are fit by the manufacturer.
Ensure that you are well versed with these features and utilize them regularly.

5. Handling Products: This point encompasses handling raw materials, tools, and
finished products. You can utilize the right material handling equipment to transport
big or heavy products.

6. Protective Clothing and Equipment: Any person handling sheet metal

fabrication tools should be equipped with safety gear. They should wear hard hats,
goggles, gloves, and safety shoes at all times. Make sure that when working or
handling any product, your back and neck are supported adequately. An injury to the
back could result in long term pain. You must protect yourself from possible injuries.

We hope these tips helped you. We believe that safety comes first; hence, we fabricate
our tools with utmost care. They are designed ergonomically with maximum importance
given to safe usage. Ensure that the metal fabrication tools you use help you maintain a
strong grip. Make sure that you adopt these rules in order to maintain safety in your
workplace.

51
Metalworking hand tool

Metalworking hand tools are hand tools that are used in the metalworking field. Hand

tools are powered solely by the operator.

Slapper
Both metal and wood slappers are used for metalworking. Generally wood slappers are
covered with a leather-face.
Slappers can be used to shrink, contour, and plains (smooth) the panel without leaving
rough marks to clean up. The slapper controls more surface with each blow than a
hammer can and is very easy to use because it has the same angle of attack as a body
hammer. This means the user does not need to change their arm and hand position
when moving from hammer to slapper.
The slapper can be far more effective than the hammer for shrinking because its
leverage gives greater mechanical advantage over the rough spots. The slapper is great
for working metal over a T-stake or for gouging and planishing.
A good slapper can make radius bends and crowns quite well. A slapper works well with
forming stakes and post dollies for lightly planishing and pulling cold shrinks.

Spoons
One of the finest finishing tools ever designed is the spring steel spoon. It is widely
known for its wide variety of uses, and exceptional durability.
When striking directly on thin or polished sheet while backing up with another contoured
tool (dolly, spike, etc.), the spoon will provide an accurate contoured surface.

Dollies
Dollies can be hand-held or mounted on a stake or post. Metal dollies come in a variety
of sizes and shapes and are used for all types of hand-forming and planishing,
shrinking, etc.

Forming bags
Also referred to as "soft dollies." Forming bags are usually filled with sand or lead shot
and sewn very tightly out of a top-grade canvas or leather.
A forming bag will allow you to "shrink" the metal without marking it if used correctly.

Mallets
Mallets used for metalworking usually have either wood or plastic faces. These "faces"
come in a variety of shapes, such as flat, torpedo, hemispheric, or square in shape.
The different faces (and material the mallet is made of) allow you to work and/or shrink
different metals. For instance, the flat face can be used for planishing and smoothing
and for hand shrinking thicker soft metals.

52
Whereas a large hickory "torpedo mallet's" striking weight makes it best suitable for
shaping soft metals such as aluminum or copper, but a similar torpedo mallet made
from heavy black rubber has a striking weight which is best used for shaping steel.

Hammers
A wide range of body hammers are used in metalworking. Hammers range from small,
lightweight "pick" hammers (that provide stubby pick point and high-crown peen-type
faces that will dig out small dents in high fins), to specialty hammers and heavy-duty
"bumping" hammers for heavy gauge truck fenders and panels.
There are dozens of hammers that are designed for specific tasks or metal thicknesses.

Files and rasps

These tools are used to provide a smooth finish for detail work, and are often used in
metalwork done for the aircraft and aerospace industry.

Snips and shears

Snips and shears are used for cutting metal. Various types of snips and shears are
used for different metals and thicknesses.
Some shears allow longer or shorter cuts depending on the shear's style. Certain types
of snips and shears are recommended for aviation metalworking.

Marking and layout tools

Marking and layout tools are essential to metalwork. A profile gauge is frequently used
by metalworkers to copy curves.

Automatic center punch

An exploded view of an automatic center

punch
53
An automatic center punch is a hand tool used to produce a dimple in a work piece
(for example, a piece of metal). It performs the same function as an ordinary center
punch but without the need for a hammer. When pressed against the work piece, it
stores energy in a spring, eventually releasing it as an impulse that drives the punch,
producing the dimple. The impulse provided to the point of the punch is quite
repeatable, allowing for uniform impressions to be made.

Applications

The automatic center punch mechanism has been used for a wide variety of other
applications. These include

 Marking and starting a hole for drilling without the bit "walking" out of alignment

 Letter stamp sets

 Glass-breaking tools used in rescue work

 Impact tool for hardness testing

 Pin presses for electronic assembly

In many applications, such as hardness testing, the mechanism does not have an
adjustment for impulse strength, and may require periodic calibration checks.

Common elements

All designs have several elements in common:

 A spring to store energy

 A mass to provide the impulse (a hammer)

 A release mechanism that releases the stored energy at a consistent point in the
travel of the body

 A provision to reset the device after actuation

Ball-peen hammer

A ball-peen or ball pein hammer, also known as

a machinist's hammer,[1] is a type

54
of peening hammer used in metalworking. It has two heads, one flat and the other,
called the peen, rounded. It is distinguished from a cross-peen hammer, diagonal-
peen hammer, point-peen hammer, or chisel-peen hammer by having
a hemispherical peen.

Die grinder

Die grinders and rotary tools are

handheld power tools used
for grinding, sanding, honing, polishing,
or machining material (typically metal, but
also plastic or wood). All such tools are
conceptually similar, with no bright dividing
line between die grinders and rotary tools,
although the die grinder name tends to be
used for pneumatically driven heavy-duty
versions whereas the rotary tool name
tends to be used for electric lighter-duty
versions. 

Hacksaw

A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and mainly

made for cutting metal. The equivalent saw for cutting
wood is usually called bow saw.

Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped

walking frame that holds a blade under tension. Such
hacksaws have a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins
for attaching a narrow disposable blade.

ACTIVITY
METAL WORKING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, THEIR USES AND SAFETY PRACTICES
Time allotment: 5 hours

55
Materials/Resources Needed
a. Tools
Steel tape
Hacksaw
Ballpeen hammer
Paint brush
Anvil
Riveter
Clamps
Vise-grip
Try/farming/combination square
Center punch
Scratch awl/scriber
b. Equipment

Grinder
Drill press/ electric drill
Bender
Arc welding machine with accessories
Oxyacetylene set up
Flat bar cutter
Learning Activities
1. Based on your experiences/activities in Agricultural Mechanics. List down at least
three fabrication works and activities involved in the fabrication of agricultural and
non-agricultural products (window frames, beds, tables, and etc.) and their
corresponding tools/equipment and their uses. Fill in the table provided below.

Fabrication Work Activities Hand Tools Equipment/Power Use

Tools

1. a.

56
 b.

c.

d.

e.
2. a.

b.

c.

d.

e.
3. a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

2. Tools classification

a. Your facilitator will present different metal working tools and equipment.
Write down the name of each tool/equipment in row 2A in the table below.
b. Visit a nearby farm shop and observe the different tools and equipment
used. Name other tools and equipment which are not found in the farm
mechanics building and list them down in the row 2B in the table.

Cutting Boring/ Equipment Holding/ Fastening Driving Finishing Marking Measuring

Tools Drilling and Power Clamping
Tools
2A

57
2B

3. Safety Measures

Based on the above activity fill-in the table below.

Metal Fabrication Injuries/Damages Causes Safety

Works Precautions

58
Questions:
1. Do you consider safety important in your work? Why?
2. What do you think will happen if a tool is used other than for its intended
purpose. Why?

Shop Safety and Etiquette

Looking out for each other in the shop and the labs and considering the importance of
other people's safety while you, or they, work is very important. If you see someone
working in an unsafe manner, advise them that you think they are being unsafe and
offer advice if you can. There are not necessarily lifeguards in this pool, but you can and
should act as one when you can.

59
Safety is not just about physical injury.
The Asylum's two main safety priorities, in order of importance, are:
1. Ensuring the safety of people, including renters, tool operators, and bystanders;
and
2. Ensuring the safety of the Asylum's equipment.

Safety Equipment
First Aid Kits
Emergency Eyewash Stations
There are four emergency eyewash stations located in the building. Two are large
units that use cartridges and two are small units which use bottles. Both cartridges and
bottles are sealed and must be replaced after use. Please familiarize yourself with these
eyewash stations before you need to use them by watching this training video. There is
no cost associated with using eyewash stations in an emergency, so do not hesitate to
use them if necessary. After use, please e-mail maintenance@ so the cartridges/bottles
can be replaced as soon as possible.
Having a nonworking eyewash station is more dangerous than having no eyewash
station at all. For this reason, if you trigger an eyewash station for anything other than
emergency use, you will be charged for replacement cartridges.
Basic Shop Rules
 You must always wear safety glasses when in or near shop areas.
 You must always wear closed-toed shoes when in or near shop areas.
 You must always wear tight-fitting clothing, secure long hair, and remove jewelry
or dangling accessories when in or near shop areas.
 Hearing protection is recommended, as many of the tools generate sound
above 90 decibels which will cause short- and long-term hearing damage.
 You must pass a certification test on most tools you want to use before you use
it, even if you are already experienced in using that tool.
 Hand tools and soldering irons are the only exceptions, as we do not offer
testing for these tools.
 Tool Testing Calendar
 You must always be trained on and comfortable using a tool. If at any time you
are unsure of what you are doing, stop immediately and ask for help.

60
  You must always use a tool as it is designed to be used.
 You must always ensure a tool is in good working order before using it. If you
begin using a tool and it is somehow unsafe, stop immediately, leave a note on
the tool that it is unsafe, and notify maintenance@artisansasylum.com.
 Make sure you know the locations of safety equipment and use this equipment
only for its intended purpose.
 When using tools (including handheld power tools):
 Wear tight-fitting clothing.
 Remove objects on hands and wrists, such as rings, bracelets, and
watches.
 Restrain long hair and remove dangling necklaces, hair ornaments, and
earrings.
 Know whether or not to wear gloves.
 Do not leave tools running unattended.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
 Proper PPE should be worn at all times when in or near shop areas or when
working with tools. Information on PPE can be found on the Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) page.
User responsibilities
This is not limited to members, but day pass and corporate associates users as well!
 Know the current operation procedures for the equipment. This includes reading
the manual on new equipment you may not have used IE (You trained on the
Powermatic 15hh but want to now use the Powermatic 22” planer) This
information can be found on the wiki. Ignorance is not an excuse.
 Know the current operation procedures for any related equipment. This includes
dust collection, ventilation, feed tables, etc.
 Don’t leave projects out in the shop. Especially don’t leave projects out without
labels on it. See our Tidy Space Policy for how to tag your in progress projects to
avoid them being discarded.
 If you are going to consume things, bring things to consume. Saw blades, drill
bits, sand paper etc all have a service life. Bring your own if you are going to be
doing a bunch of volume.
 Bring your own PPE. You should have your own Safety glasses, hearing
protection, welding gloves, etc when you come to work. If your PPE is not

61
 comfortable you will not wear it. Don’t buy the cheapest possible when it comes
to keeping your eyes intact. Rx-safety.com can do prescription safety
glasses. http://amzn.to/1UfnM5n for hearing protection is a popular choice.
Having your own PPE will be more comfortable for you and encourage you to
use safety equipment.
Ready to use
 Know what the “Ready to Use” state should be. This includes a clean tool that
can be used as expected by the next user. This is a Pay it forward type of
environment. There is a saying “Leave this world a little better than you found it”
This should apply to the shops. The majority of users do their best to leave
equipment ready for the next member.
 The space is cleaned and maintained by you (the members of the space). It is
the responsibility of each member to clean up after themselves. You should
always leave the space in better shape than you found it.
 Plan time accordingly. You know you need to clean up. A project is going to take
1.5x what you think it will. Clean up will take 20% of your time. You should also
be spending time giving back to the asylum volunteering based on the time you
use the shop. This can be a completely self-serving task. If you spend 20 hours
in the wood shop a week, you should be giving back two hours in some way.
Cleaning and taking out the trash is easiest choice. Organizing, updating
documentation, testing others are also great ways to accomplish this. If you are
an employee of a member company and are in the shop 40 hours a week, this is
not just a service you are using. This is a community and you have a
responsibility to give back to make this work. This means on top of doing the
expected clean up after yourself you should also be improving the space. If you
as a member bring contractors in, you are responsible for this. You should either
put in the time yourself, or have your contractor take care of it.
 If you are going to take off after a big project and travel, pay someone to clean up
after you.
 If someone is leaving a mess and breaking tools, they may not fit with our
model and should go elsewhere.
Cleaning up after yourself looks like:
 sweep the area you're working in when you're done
 leave all tools, equipment and surfaces in ready to use condition
 wipe down and clean surfaces (don't leave food, glue residue, shavings or fluids
on surfaces)
 throw out trash and empty full trash cans to the dumpster

62
  put tools and supplies away
When something breaks…
 If you break equipment or find something broken report it to the Maintenance
Team, a group of members interested in maintaining tools at
maintenance@artisansasylum.com. In addition, either CC or send a separate
message to the mailing list for the shop. The faster it’s reported the quicker it’ll be
fixed.
 Send as many details as you can including observations, a diagnosis and
links to replacement parts when available
 If you break a tool doing something you know to be wrong best practice is to pay
for the repair parts and help with the repair. You may not know how to do the
repair, but hanging out with someone more experienced is a great way to learn!
The more you know about the inner workings of the tool, the better your projects
will become.
 We have a ticket tracking system that will update our wiki in real time if you tag
the tool as broken using the QR code on the tool.

References
UNESCO – EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION AND
AUTOMATION – Vol. I - Farm Machinery - Gajendra Singh ©Encyclopedia of Life
Support Systems (EOLSS)
Agricultural engineering Britannica Online. Retrieved 2012-12-25.

63
Tractor (vehicle) Britannica Online. Retrieved 2012-12-25.
"How to Manage Prevent Plant Weeds". Successful Farming. 2019-12-06. Retrieved
2020-08-13.
"New High-Tech Farm Equipment Is a Nightmare for Farmers". Wired. 2015-02-05.
Lee, Jasper S., et al. AgriScience Discovery. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall Interstate, 2003.
https://www.legit.ng/1210943-types-farm-machinery-uses.html
Alam M, Hossain MM, Awal MA (2001). Selection of farm power by using a computer
system. AMA (32)1:65-68.
Bol MB, Mohamed HI, Ali MA (2006). Development of a Computer
Model for Machinery Selection and Management. University of Khartoum. J. Agric. Sci.
14(2):135-149.
Dahab MH, O’Callagham JR (1998). Simulation Model for Crop
– disease Spraying Management. AMA (29)3:27-32
AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, 6th edition

64
Prepared by: Reviewed by:

DANNY T. KAKA REBECCA T. SUMAYLO, Ph.D.

BAT INSTRUCTOR Vice President for Admin, Finance and
Dev’t.

Recommending Approval: Approved by:

ENGR. STELLA D. MUYCO, DIT BONIFACIO E. VALDEZ, M.D., Ph.D.

Vice President for Academic Affairs President and Chairman of the Board

65