J/Orient/02 03.1.

17 1:26 PM ページ 137

Environmental Ethics in Mahayana Buddhism:

The Significance of Keeping Precepts (ߥla-påramitå) and
Wisdom (prajñå-påramitå)

Shuichi Yamamoto

Introduction

I N today’s world we face a range of environmental problems, such as

global warming, ozone layer depletion, deforestation, and a reduction
in biodiversity. The problems caused by a reduction in biodiversity are
regarded as some of the greatest challenges facing humanity today. This
is because a reduction in biodiversity affects our ecosystem, which in
return also affects the life of human beings. Based on a consideration of
the consequences of biodiversity reduction, a proposal for accepting the
right to life of all living things has been made in recent years.1
In this paper, I appeal to upholding the dignity of human life, and
regard loss of life as of gravest consequence. It is for that reason that in
the field of medical science, bioethics entails investigating what affects
the life of human beings. In Buddhism, human life and other forms of
life are regarded as being of the same matter.2,3 Therefore, since they are
always related to living things, Buddhism regards environmental prob-
lems as essentially an issue of ethics.
The ultimate purpose of the practice of Buddhism is to attain Bud-
dhahood, which in modern terms means to become as ideal a human
being as that of a Buddha. Representative practices in Buddhism are the
six kinds of practices by which a bodhisattva attains Buddhahood (∑a†
påramitåh). The six kinds of practices consist of giving donations
(dåna-påramitå), keeping the precepts (ߥla-påramitå), being forbearing
(k∑ånti-påramitå), being assiduous (v¥rya-påramitå), practicing medita-
tion (dhyåna-påramitå), and cultivating wisdom (prajñå-påramitå).
These six virtuous practices are required to become an ideal human
being. It is thought that living with wisdom and upholding the precepts
are especially appropriate as ethical norms.
In other words, the practice of Buddhism for solving environmental
problems is in direct accord with the intention of Buddhism in that it

137
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 138

138 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

results in removing pain from all sentient beings. This means that devel-
oping ethical norms and plans of action based on Buddhist practices not
only leads to solving environmental problems but also simultaneously
fulfills the purpose of Buddhism. In this paper, I will discuss environ-
mental problems related to living things, and examine how an ethical
norm that accords with Buddhism could be created.

Environmental Problems Related to Living Things

As I have discussed in a previous paper, there are various environmental
problems related to living things. In this section, I would like to discuss
some typical environmental problems as they relate to living things, as
well as examine how they concern the question of human nature or
ethics.

PROBLEMS OF DEFORESTATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF WILDLIFE

Deforestation and commercialization of wildlife have become a prof-
itable business. Deforestation, however, destroys not only forests but
also reduces bio-intensity5 and biodiversity, which means a reduction in
the amount, as well as variation of, living things that, in turn, causes
havoc on whole ecosystems. The cutting down of tropical rain forests is
particularly detrimental to wildlife and other living things. The liveli-
hood of local people, however, often depends on clearing forest areas
using slash-and-burn farming techniques to make way for agricultural
production, or harvesting trees for energy or export material. Commer-
cialization of wildlife, either exported as food, pets, or fur, or usually
further aggravated by over-hunting and deforestation, also reduces
wildlife in some cases, to the point of extinction.
On the more positive side, even forest and wildlife can be recovered
if given sufficient time and proper habitat. An often cited example of
this is the whale. Although at the point of extinction due mainly to over-
fishing by Japan and other countries, the whale population has
improved due to the prohibition of commercial whaling and the creation
of protected areas. Likewise, environmental problems are caused by the
speed at which forests are felled, wildlife killed, and ecosystems
destroyed, all which exceeded the reproduction capacity. As the above
example illustrates, we can observe that given a reduction in the speed
at which destruction takes place, living things can be recovered with the
regenerative power of nature.
It is important to also consider problems such as deforestation and
the commercialization of wildlife at the level of human nature, or
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 139

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 139

ethics. It is clear that deforestation and commercialization of wildlife

result in destroying and taking/killing living things. Decreasing the
amount and kinds of living things, as well as their habitat means noth-
ing less than pillaging such life from the ecosystem. Such behavior
originates from certain violent and cruel aspects of human nature. This
makes solving such problems fundamentally an ethical issue.
This action is particularly relevant to developing countries where
poverty plays an important factor in environmental destruction. Defor-
estation and commercialization of wildlife are often the only activities
that support local people’s lives and economy. Thus the problem
becomes much more complex than to be solved simply by unilaterally
denying local people the right to cut down trees or engage in commer-
cialization of wildlife.
Moreover, it is important to consider the desires of people in devel-
oped nations as one of the causes of environmental destruction. Living
things provide people of developed nations with wealth, as well as an
improved lifestyle, exemplied by enriched economies, food sources, and
leisure activities. Another reason for environmental destruction is the
poverty of developing countries. In the above discussion I have attempt-
ed to show that there are three oppositional, although highly interdepen-
dent interests: wealth and lifestyle of people in developed countries; the
livelihood of disadvantaged people in developing countries; and the sur-
vival of ecosystems and living things. One can not simply be given pri-
ority over another, which makes it a question of ethics.

PROBLEMS OF LAND DEVELOPMENT AND THE USE OF CHEMICALS

Land development, transgenic crops, and chemical pollution can also be
seriously harmful to living things and ecosystems. The development of
farmland, cities, dams, recreational facilities, land reclamation etc.
seems obvious examples of activities that impose various environmental
hazards. Ecosystems and the habitats of living things are destroyed as a
result of such developments, which, in turn, impacts biodiversity and
bio-intensity. The reduction in biodiversity and bio-intensity in devel-
oped countries has mainly been attributed to such developments as
mentioned above. Transgenic crops are another technology that has also
caused a reduction in biodiversity and a transformation of ecosystems.
Through a recombination of genes, transgenic crops at first glance
appear beneficial to human beings as they have built-in protection
against noxious insects, cold or dry weather, and specific agricultural
chemicals. However, a closer look reveals rather frightening drawbacks.
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 140

140 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

As transgenic crops introduce extraneous genes into the ecosystem, they

create the potential for destroying or seriously changing the structure of
ecosystems and mechanisms of evolution.
There are also problems with chemical pollution, including heavy
metals, agricultural chemicals, food additives, as well as endocrine dis-
rupters. These problems are rooted in two main activities: extraction of
naturally occuring materials such as heavy metals, and the synthesizing
of artificial compounds by using, oil and chlorine, for example. In gen-
eral, living things throughout history have acquired the capacity to cope
with various chemicals. However, as new chemicals are released into
the biosphere, living things have had difficulty in adaptation. Many arti-
ficial chemicals tend to turn toxic when accumulated in the human or
animal body. One clear example is agricultural chemicals, which are
designed to kill insects that damage crops. Insects are killed by extrane-
ous chemicals that destroy the mechanism of living. However, because
all living things are fundamentally functioning by the same principle,
agricultural bioaccumulate and become detrimental all living things.
Endocrine disrupters have been shown to affect reproduction through
lower sperm count, as well as ontogeny seen through higher risk of
deformity. As pointed out in Silent Spring by Rachel Carson,6 Our
Stolen Future by Thea Colborn,7 and The Feminization of Nature by
Deborah Cadbury,8 this problem is qualitatively different from past
environmental problems. Although past environmental problems were a
threat to the survival of individual lives, they did not function as
endocrine disruptors do in acting against posterity.
Now how do the above mentioned problems relate to human nature
or ethics?
In addition to the problems associated with deforestation and com-
mercialization of wildlife, the fundamental cause is associated with vio-
lence and pillaging, which indicates that there is a problem in human
nature or ethics. This is clearly seen when developments violently
destroy nature, where wildlife habitat is reconstructed and pillaged to
suit the desire for comfort and profit. Furthermore, if human beings are
incapable of considering or predicting how certain developments would
affect an ecosystem, it becomes either a question of arrogance or igno-
rance. If we do not feel a sense of responsibility for our actions on the
ecosystems, it then becomes an issue of irresponsibility. We are deceiv-
ing ourselves if we fail to consider the consequences of certain develop-
ments and instead only emphasize advantages such as convenience and
safety. Naturally, these developments are carried out to profit human
beings by making life more comfortable and safer. From this we can
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 141

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 141

conclude that profit and desire are usually intertwined.

If we also remain indifferent to the adverse effects of chemicals on
our ecosystems, the problem then becomes an issue of arrogance. How-
ever, if we are unable to predict the influence of the use of chemicals on
our ecosystems, it then becomes a question of ignorance. Moreover,
since agricultural chemicals were made with the aim of killing living
things, there is an aspect of cruelty to be found in human nature that
must be considered. The desire for profit, however, tends to overrule
this ethical dilemma and encourage the development of chemical com-
pounds such as agricultural chemicals and food additives. Such new
developments aim to increase profits for producers by manufacturing
attractive, easy-to-preserve, and cheap food items as well as increase
the purchasing power of consumers. The desire of consumers for cheap
and attractive food further sustains this process. But the synergistic
effect of producers and consumers stimulating each other’s desires is
tends to increase in food and environments polluted by artificial chemi-
cals. Such developments have also brought many disadvantages, such as
general health hazards, destruction of ecosystems, and impediments to
reproduction capacity in forms of lower sperm count and sterility which
are detrimental to the posterity of living things. Considering these prob-
lems we can draw up two opposing interests: profits and disadvantages
for human beings and disadvantages for ecosystems or living things. In
the end, the problem is an ethical one.

PROBLEMS WITH ECO-PROTECTION MANAGEMENT

The killing of wildlife in order to protect the ecosystem has been a con-
troversial. For example, measures have then been taken to reduce the
number of animals that have been shown to breed abnormally, such as
the Japanese monkey or the Japanese serow. These measures were taken
to combat the increase of Japanese monkeys, which had caused a food
shortage, resulting in their descending on a village, injuring people and
damaging agricultural products. Moreover, the Japanese serow eats the
bark and young leaf buds of newly-planted trees, thereby having a dam-
aging effect on forestry.
In recent years the numbers of captured and exterminated monkeys
have reached several thousand per year, becoming a hotly debated issue.
The issue goes straight to questioning the violent and cruel aspect of
human nature. This question deals with the dilemma of whether it is
morally justifiable to solve the problem by taking the lives of these ani-
mals in order to reduce their number.
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 142

142 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

On the other hand, a reduction in numbers carries certain benefits for

human beings as well as for the ecosystem; fewer monkeys prevent
harm being inflicted on people and economic losses, and regenerate the
ecosystem. Thus on the one hand, the beneficial outcome of exterminat-
ing animals for human beings and the ecosystem, and on the other, the
obvious detrimental effect this has on the animals themselves.

THE PROBLEM OF ANIMALS USED FOR FOOD AND EXPERIMENTS

Although this is not an issue directly related to environmental problems,
the fact that human beings consume living things, as in the case of med-
ical research, give rise to certain ethical dilemmas. A large number of
animals serve as food for human beings. The annual number of mam-
mals used as meat for human consumption, mainly pigs, cows, sheep,
and goats, is about 4 billion.9 Moreover, in 1989 11 billion chickens
were consumed in the world.10 In Japan alone, the number of chickens
consumed is now (in 2001) at 0.7 billion per year.11 In addition, it is
estimated that as many animals as 200 million animals each year end up
being used for experiments. In the United States alone for examples,
there are an estimated 70 million rats per year are used in experiments.12
However, animals used for food contribute to the survival of human
beings, just as they contribute to the development of medicine that
improves our health. To find a substitute for using animals in this way is
appear to be impossible. Therefore, how we justify the taking of animal
life needs to be treated as an ethical problem; there is a dilemma in
using animals for the benefit of human beings but at the expense of the
animals killed.

Biological Conservation and Buddhist Thought

Before examining the Buddhist view on problems of biological conser-
vation, I will describe some fundamental concepts in Buddhism.

WISDOM
The attainment of wisdom (prajñå-påramitå) is part of the six kinds of
practices by which a bodhisattva attains enlightenment (sat påramitåh).
This concept originally referred to the attainment of absolute wisdom
(prajñå-påramitå). Here, I would like to examine the idea of wisdom in
relation to two fundamental Buddhist concepts as a way to solve envi-
ronmental problems. They are “dependent origination” (prat¥tya-
samutpåda) and “the middle way.”
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 143

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 143

The doctrine of dependent origination teaches that an entity does not

exist and generate independently. Instead it is characterized by its fun-
damental interdependence and interconnectedness to all phenome-na.13
This concept of fundamental interdependence and interconnectedness of
all phenomena indicates a relation of space (ontology) and a relation of
time (formation). The ecological environment of today is included in
the relation of space and relation of time. This means that all living
things on earth are related including the circulation of organic or inor-
ganic matter. Moreover, the time means not only movement between
one generation and the next, i.e. a living thing is produced from its par-
ents, but also indicates a historical relationship, such as the process of
evolution over time. The transmigration of life as explained by Bud-
dhism means rebirth of life. However, since in Buddhism the transmi-
gration of life is based on the concept of non-self, it does not refer to
the transmigration of life with a permanent entity. Broadly speaking, the
transmigration of life exists in relation to time based on the concept of
dependent origination.
The second concept is the wisdom of the middle way. Akira
Hirakawa14 has quoted “the metaphor of a koto” propounded by Shakya-
muni, to describe in an easily comprehendible manner the principle of
the wisdom of the middle way as “the middle way of pleasure-and-
pain.” According to Hirakawa, “the metaphor of a koto” declares that
the strength of a bowstring for a koto is most useful when it is neither
too loose nor too firm. “The middle way of pleasure-and-pain”
describes the method of practice of Shakyamuni. Although Shakyamuni
carried out austerities for six years together with five Buddhist monks,
he was unable to attain spiritual enlightenment. After this long attempt,
he realized the futility of trying to attain enlightenment through punish-
ing himself. Indeed, after receiving rice gruel with milk from a woman
named Sujata he recovered from his physical ordeals, and did in fact
attain enlightenment.
The ‘pain’ of the penance principle indicates that although perhaps
useful for developing strength of mind it does not lead to attaining
absolute wisdom, or spiritual enlightenment. Instead, the ‘pleasure’ of
hedonism shows that absolute wisdom can be acquired without taking
recourse to punishing oneself. Therefore, the concept of the middle way
of pleasure-and-pain denies a deterministic stand towards either hedo-
nism or austerity. That is, while accepting the value of both principles,
the middle way demands harmony between the two and does not accept
an inclination to either side.
What I have been attempting to discuss in this section is how two
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 144

144 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

fundamental principles in Buddhism, the wisdom of dependent origina-

tion and the wisdom of the middle way, offer us an ethical framework
that can be used to arrive at a solution for environmental problems.
Moreover, understanding the workings of these two concepts will work
as a driving force for wanting to keep the Buddhist precepts, which will
be discussed later on in this article.

THE VALUE OF LIFE

The problem of biological conservation necessarily entails a considera-
tion of how we rank the value of living things. To examine what Bud-
dhism has to say about the value of life, in this section I will use the fol-
lowing example from the Brahma-carya chapter of the Nirvana Sutra
which propounds that killing living things constitutes a crime.
“There are three degrees of killings: the lower, middle, and upper
degrees. The lower degree constitutes the killing of any humble being,
from an ant to any of the various kinds of animals. But the killing of
any being that a bodhisattva has chosen to be born as [to help other liv-
ing beings] is excluded. As a result of a killing of the lower degree, one
will fall into the realms of hell, animals, and hungry spirits, and will
suffer all the pains appropriate to a killing of the lower degree. Why
should this be? Because even animals and other humble beings possess
the roots of goodness, insignificant though those roots may be. That is
why a person who kills such a being must suffer full retribution for his
offense. Killing any person from an ordinary mortal to an anågåmin
(Anagon in Japanese)15 constitutes what is termed the middle degree. As
a consequence of such an act of killing, one fall into the realms of hell,
hungry spirits, and animals, and will suffer all the pains appropriate to a
killing of the middle degree. The upper degree of killing refers to the
killing of a parent, an arhat (Arakan in Japanese),16 a pratyekabuddha
(Byakushi-butsu in Japanese),17 or a bodhisattva who has reached the
stage of non-retrogression. For such a crime one will fall into the great
Av¥chi (Av¥ci) hell (Abijigoku in Japanese)18.”19
This passage clearly expresses a hierarchy in the value of different
life forms. For sure, Buddhism, especially Mahayana Buddhism of
China or Japan asserts that all living things including animals and plants
deserve respect since they possess the state of Buddhahood. On the
other hand, the above passage points out that the seriousness of killing
is hierarchical, namely in the descending order of killing parents, arhats,
pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas being the worst crime one can com-
mit, killing ordinary mortals and anagamins the second worst, and the
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 145

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 145

killing of animals the less heavy crime of the three. This hierarchy in
the seriousness of killing also depicts how Buddhism ranks the value of
different life forms.
Therefore, although in principle all lives are regarded as equal in
Buddhism, the value of human life is regarded is higher than that of
other living things. I believe this means that although Buddhism is
based on the spirit of egalitarianism priority is still given to human life.

KEEPING THE PRECEPTS

Keeping the precepts in the six kinds of practices by which bodhisattvas
are able to attain enlightenment specifically means keeping “the five
precepts” (for laymen and lay-women) or “the ten good precepts.” The
five precepts consist of the precepts of “not killing living things,” “not
stealing,” “not committing adultery,” “not telling lies,” and “not drink-
ing intoxicants.” On the other hand, the ten good precepts are catego-
rized into precepts that refer to good deeds, good words, and good
thoughts. Good deeds, or bodily acts, are “not killing living things,”
“not stealing” and “not committing adultery.” Good words, or verbal
acts, are “not telling lies,” “not engaging in idle talk,” “not uttering
harsh words,” and “not uttering words which cause enmity between two
or more persons.” And finally good thoughts refer to “not being
greedy,” “not being angry,” and “not having wrong views.” For the sake
of establishing an ethical norm for solving present environmental prob-
lems, I consider the concept of keeping precepts an important contribu-
tion to that project.
Since Yoichi Kawada20 has already discussed “the ten major pre-
cepts” and “the forty eight light precepts” in the Brahma-net Sutra from
the point of view of the role of Buddhist precepts in solving environ-
mental and peace problems I will not go into further details here.
Instead, I will examine the significance of two particular precepts,
namely, the precepts of “not killing living things” and “not stealing” in
the Brahma-net Sutra as they relate directly to the challenges facing
biological conservation today.
The Precept of “Not Killing Living Things”
The “First Major Precept on Killing” of the Brahma-net Sutra pro-
pounds:
“A disciple of the Buddha shall not kill himself, encourage others to
kill, kill by expedient means, praise killing, rejoice at witnessing
killing, or kill through incantation or deviant mantras. He must not cre-
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 146

146 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

ate the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of killing, and shall not
intentionally kill any living creature. As a Buddha’s disciple, he ought
to nurture a mind of compassion and filial piety, always devising expe-
dient means to rescue and protect all beings. If instead, he fails to
restrain himself and kills sentient beings without mercy he commits a
Parajika21 (major) offense.”22
This precept forbids the killing of any living thing, and further adds
that although killing itself is an offense; the state of mind of the person
at the time of the killing, i.e. whether a person kills intentionally or for
no apparent reason, determines the graveness of the offense. Therefore,
it is an offense to kill a living thing, but it is a major offense if “he fails
to restrain himself and kills sentient beings without mercy,” or out of
pleasure. This ethical standard of Buddhism described in the precept of
“not killing living things” can be used as the basis for solving problems
or dilemmas related to the killing of living things.
The Precept of “Not Stealing”
The “Second Major Precept on Stealing” of the Brahma-net Sutra
states:
“A disciple of the Buddha must not himself steal or encourage others
to steal, steal by expedient means, steal by means of incantation or
deviant mantras. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods,
or karma of stealing. No valuables or possessions, even those belonging
to ghosts and spirits or thieves and robbers, be they as small as a needle
or blade of grass, should be intentionally stolen. As a Buddha’s disciple,
he ought to have a mind of mercy, compassion, and filial piety—always
helping people earn merits and achieve happiness. If instead, he steals
the possessions of others, he commits a Parajika offense.”23
This precept also forbids stealing especially when it is done inten-
tionally (without reason). Since the standard of judgment is based on
the life-state of a bodhisattva, which is to help people earn merits and
achieve happiness, stealing is regarded as of gravest consequence (a
Parajka offense). In today’s world it is necessary to interpret this pre-
cept more widely and consider it an offense to not only steal from other
human beings but also from nature, or the ecosystem.
The Meaning of Keeping Precepts
In considering environmental problems, it is helpful to examine the
characteristics of Buddhist precepts, that is, the meaning and the role of
keeping such precepts. Many of the precepts, such as the ten major pre-
cepts, and the forty eight light percepts of the Brahma-net Sutra, regu-
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 147

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 147

late the behavior of human beings. However, as described above, there

are also many precepts to which the conditions of “without reason,” or
“intentionally” for example are attached. This means that precepts in
Buddhism are not absolute.
Does that mean that any justification is acceptable? For example, in
the tenth light precept “on storing weapons” (I will discuss this later)
the statement “he must not even avenge the death of his parents”24
appears. This sentence clearly states that killing in retaliation is unac-
ceptable even if it is for the sake of revenging one’s parents’ murder.
This means that retaliation is not recognized as sufficient justification
for killing.
Then, what kind of justification is acceptable? If we kill living things
in order to support our own survival it is in fact justifiable. (How we
decide on what we need to survive is of course something we must con-
sider very carefully. It is not my intention, however, to delve into that
question here.) Eating a living thing, however, is still equivalent to
stealing the body from such a living thing. But since this is the mini-
mum requirements for supporting human life, the condition of “without
reason” attached to the precepts of “not killing” and “not stealing” need
not apply here.
Reasons for killing living things, which are contrary to Buddhist wis-
dom, are also prohibited. That is, human behavior which destroys rela-
tions in ecosystems, is also considered an offense since it runs counter
to the concept of dependent origination, i.e. disrupting ecological and
historical relations, and thereby undermines our own survival.
In modern society, some precepts may be more relevant than others.
However, regarding to environmental problems, what is the relevancy of
keeping precepts in the first place? I suggest that the significance of
keeping precepts is relevant in that it develops:
1) An understanding that wanting to achieve a particular end
does not necessarily justify the means. We should judge
what is permissible according to Buddhist thought,
2) The ability to put a halt to the continuation of reckless
behavior that is controlled by our desires, and
3) The awareness of the need to control our actions.

Biological Conservation and Ethics of Mahayana Buddhism

In the following sections, I offer a few guidelines found in Mahayana
Buddhism that are useful when considering the basis for biological con-
servation. These guidelines are pertinent to deforestation and over-hunt-
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 148

148 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

ing, ecosystems protection, use of agricultural chemicals, and the use of

animals for food and experiments.

ETHICS FOR DEFORESTATION AND OVER-HUNTING

First, I will consider the problem of deforestation, and its impact on
wildlife, which is, for example, further reduced by over-hunting and
commercialization. As stated earlier, there are certain problems with
destroying species and pillaging living things from the ecosystem. From
a Buddhist frame of reference, these acts constitute breaking the not-
killing-living-things precept, as well as the not-stealing precept. An
understanding of the concept of dependent origination makes the
destruction of life, capture, or pillaging of living things a problem to be
taken seriously. As described above, we should forbid such behavior in
principle because it means, first, that we destroy the relation between
each living thing, and second, that we destroy its future potential for
being born again. Especially causing the extinction of a species should
be absolutely forbidden according to the Buddhist canon because it
destroys its future potential for reproduction.
Apart from the seriousness of species extinction, we must also give
consideration to how the capture of wildlife and felling of forests are a
means of support for local people. This corresponds to having a justifi-
able “reason” as discussed from the passage of “intentionally (without
reason).” Moreover, according to the ethics of the middle way, the
destruction and capturing of living things will be acceptable as long as
the generative power of an ecosystem is not destroyed. I think that the
ethics of the middle way neither denies the survival of local people, nor
affirms the destruction of an ecosystem, as long as securing the benefits
for local people does not mean destroying the generative power of an
ecosystem. However, in order to secure the protection of ecosystems it
is important to have a system of surveillance and proper management
put in place.
It is also necessary to consider that living things support the accumu-
lation of wealth and general well-being of people in developed coun-
tries. There is no denial in Buddhism of comfort and wealth. Instead
what Buddhism refutes is making desires for comfort and profit the
basis of one’s life. Surely desires are needed to motivate human beings
to make effort towards achieving something. But it is when a life-style
is caught up in overindulgence that Buddhism sees life as being exces-
sively governed by desires. Therefore, excessive or unnecessary
destruction and capturing of living things is considered to correspond to
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 149

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 149

the offense “he fails to restrain himself and kills sentient beings without
mercy” described in the precept on “not killing living things.” More-
over, if developed countries exploit local peoples for the sake of obtain-
ing wealth, this would correspond to the offense described as “rejoice at
witness killing” also expounded in the percept on “not killing living
things.” Therefore, when a consumer pursues a comfortable or prof-
itable life, self-control that prevents him or her from becoming ‘greedy’
is a must. This should be the basis of a Buddhist ethical norm.

ETHICS FOR ECO-PROTECTION MANAGEMENT

Here, I would like to examine the problem of killing animals by eco-
protection management. The extermination or capture of monkeys and
serows in Japan is a common problem, as was described earlier. In this
case, from the viewpoint of dependent origination it is considered
‘allowed’ because it is done to protect the ecosystem and done so with-
out cutting off ecological and historical relations. This is because the
ecosystem itself may be destroyed if no intervention takes place. How-
ever, it is undoubtedly more desirable to develop a method which does
not kill living things, a method that avoids committing the offense of
“killing” in the first place. This view is also prominent in the concept of
“Land Ethics” advocated by Aldo Leopold who points out the appropri-
ateness of maintaining the beauty and stability of the totality of a com-
munity of living things.25

ETHICS FOR USING CHEMICALS

I now turn to the question of how we should view the use of chemicals,
such as agricultural chemicals. The answer is to be found in the tenth
light percept “on storing deadly weapons” of the Brahma-net Sutra. It
says:
“A disciple of the Buddha should not store weapons such as knives,
clubs, bows, arrows, spears, axes or any other weapons, nor may he
keep nets, traps or any such devices used in destroying life. As a disci-
ple of the Buddha, he must not even avenge the death of his parents—
let alone kill sentient beings! He should not store any weapons or
devices that can be used to kill sentient beings. If he deliberately does
so, he commits a secondary offense.”26
This precept admonishes against the possession of tools used for
killing living things. According to this precept, we should make it a
principle not to produce artificial chemicals aimed at killing living
things such as is the purpose of agricultural chemicals. Furthermore, as
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 150

150 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

the production of artificial chemicals is considered to be the cause of

change in reproduction such as endocrine disruptors, and destroys the
potential for continued reproduction, i.e. destroys the historical relation-
ship described in the concept of dependent origination, it should be for-
bidden.
Still, although the tenth light precept, as well as the first or second
precept cited above, forbids possession of tools used for killing living
things, it also stresses without reason (“deliberately”). For example, if,
like the present day, it is difficult to secure the harvest of crops and to
supply enough food without agricultural chemicals, its use could be jus-
tified. However, I believe we should develop alternative methods to
increase the yield of crops to agricultural chemicals. I have discussed
this in a previous paper from the standpoint of the consciousness-only
doctrine.27
What can we then conclude from the above discussion on killing liv-
ing things by using agricultural chemicals from the viewpoint of depen-
dent origination? Certainly it is evil to kill a living thing using agricul-
tural chemicals. At the same time, however, it increases food production
and supposedly the supply to many people who would otherwise starve.
In Buddhism, all living things are respect worthy because they are
endowed with Buddha Nature. However, when the value of human life
is compared with that of other living things, human beings are given
priority. Therefore, as a matter of course, priority should be given to
supplying food to human beings, and people suffering from starvation.
However, it goes without saying that if we can develop a way to supply
enough food without using agricultural chemicals, such methods should
be used. Taking into account the influence on human health or on other
living things of residual agricultural chemicals, we should naturally
move in the direction of discontinuing this technology. Transgenic
crops may appear to meet such expectations. However, if the genetic
code of an ecosystem is disturbed, such transgenic crops would need to
be reconsidered.
In the case of food additives, technology that does not use preserva-
tion agents, such as dried or frozen technology where the microbe is
suppressed rather than destroyed is considered more desirable. That is
because from the Buddhist standpoint of “not killing living things”
technology that does not kill, in this case, microbe is considered to be
more ethically sound. Such a standpoint is derived from the concept of
the wisdom of the middle way. Making full use of the wisdom of the
middle way and the wisdom of dependent origination is also considered
to correspond to the ethics of the middle way in Buddhism.
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 151

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 151

ETHICS FOR USING ANIMALS FOR FOOD AND EXPERIMENTS

Finally, I would like to examine the ethics for eating livestock and con-
ducting experiments on animals. Although these issues are seemingly
not directly related to environmental problems as described above, they
are important issues related to our daily life. It is difficult to separate
such issues from environmental problems because they are directly
related to how we treat living things.
The “third light precept on eating meat” of the Brahma-net Sutra
states:
“A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately eat meat. He should
not eat the flesh of any sentient being. The meat-eater forfeits the seed
of Great Compassion, severs the seed of the Buddha Nature and causes
[animals and transcendental] beings to avoid him. Those who do so are
guilty of countless offenses. Therefore, Bodhisattvas should not eat the
flesh of any sentient beings whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately eats
meat, he commits a secondary offense.”28
The above precept forbids the eating of all meat. The reason is that
“the meat-eater forfeits the seed of Great Compassion, severs the seed
of the Buddha Nature.” Moreover, the “twentieth light precept on failure
to liberate sentient beings” of the Brahma-net Sutra states:
“A disciple of the Buddha should have a mind of compassion and
cultivate the practice of liberating sentient beings. He must reflect thus:
throughout the eons of time, all male sentient beings have been my
father, all female sentient beings my mother. I was born of them. There-
fore, the sentient beings in the six worlds are all my parents. If I now
slaughter them, I would be slaughtering my parents, as well as eating
flesh that was once my own. This is so because all elements, earth,
water, fire and air—the four constituents of all life—have previously
been part of my body, part of my substance. I must therefore always
cultivate the practice of liberating sentient beings.”29
This precept promulgates from the viewpoint of the transmigration of
life that we should not eat meat. To be sure, it is important to view the
transmigration of life in light of the ethical foundation of Buddhism.30
However, we must consider the fact that human beings and other ani-
mals can sustain life only by eating living things. Plants greatly differ
from animals on this point. On the other hand, if there is Buddha Nature
in all things, a plant could also possess Buddha Nature. Then, even eat-
ing vegetables becomes conduct that tramples on the respect-worthy
Buddha Nature.
The last thing to be considered is the statement “restricting a transmi-
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 152

152 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

gration of life to a sentient being.” We generally draw the line between

sentient and insentient beings at the level of animals. However, since
there are also animals without a brain, we can not come to a definite
conclusion that all animals have sentiments (consciousness). Moreover,
a plant without a brain is independently equivalent to various situations
and its environment. For example, a plant changes direction of a leaf to
light and stretches a root to water or nutrients. That is, a plant recog-
nizes the environment and acts to that as an animal recognizing the
environment by the five sense organs (the five consciousnesses of Bud-
dhism) of an eye, an ear, a nose, a tongue, and a body and acting to that.
Therefore, from a broad perspective, a plant is considered to have senti-
ment.31 If we were to follow this logic, however, we would have little
left to rightly eat.
This dilemma can be addressed using the doctrine of dependent origi-
nation. As described previously, the historical relation of a living thing,
including inorganic matter, can be considered to be a transmigration of
life. The sentence “all elements, earth, water, fire and air—the four con-
stituents of all life—have previously been part of my body, part of my
substance” in the “twentieth light precept” suggests that the transmigra-
tion of life include inorganic substance. Judging from this frame of ref-
erence, it will be evil to destroy any relationships within an ecosystem.
Therefore, if an ecosystem is destroyed by taking wildlife from its habi-
tat, it will be necessary to admonish against such behavior. However,
since human beings manage agriculture or livestock farming, eating
these animals would not destroy the ecosystem, i.e., the historical rela-
tionship of the animal, and the elemental cycle. Therefore, the act of
eating meat will be allowed in Buddhism.
Thus from the viewpoint of ecological and historical relationships
(transmigration of life) derived from the concept of dependent origina-
tion, Buddhism regards the existence of human beings and living things,
as well as the future lives of human beings and other living things, as of
equal importance.

Conclusion
The view of Buddhist ethics with regards to living things, as I have
mentioned, depicts actions based on wisdom of dependent origination
and of the middle way. The pursuit of profit has been discussed as being
neither confirmed nor dinied. However, as living things are usually only
beneficial for human beings, we have to examine what we are able to
give in return.
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 153

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 153

First, since a valuable life is lost by eating, we need to have a sense

of obligation. Since human beings survive through consuming living
things, we also have to have a sense of gratitude. Also, human beings
can not only be born because of the ecosystem, but also continuously
gain from the circulation of substances in such a system. According to
Buddhism, this means that we should have a sense of obligation, as well
as appreciation towards other living things.
In Buddhism there are various forms for obligation: obligation to a
parent, to a sentient being, to a king, and to the three treasures32 as
expounded in the “Meditation on the Mind-base Sutra (H®dayabhËmi-
dhyåna-sutra).”33 For the purpose of our discussion here, I will elaborate
on the meaning of “the obligation to a sentient being.” According to
Shigeo Kamata,34 this obligation is categorized as “close relationships”
and “distant relationships.” Specifically, a close relationship includes
family relations, social relations, state relation, and other living things
closely related to human beings, such as a horse or a cow. A distant
relationship is considered to include not only all living things but also
even inorganic matter. Therefore, Buddhism elucidates one’s obligation
to all things.
Let us consider what this means in concrete terms. As stated previ-
ously, even if we assert that deforestation, the capturing of living things,
and the eating of animals are necessary acts to support human beings,
we can not deny that these acts are regarded as evil in Buddhism, and
that “the meat-eater forfeits the seed of Great Compassion.” Moreover,
eating animals, felling trees, and capturing wildlife are expressions of
desire. Naturally overeating and excessive-drinking, the thoughtless
felling of trees, and over-hunting should be condemned from a moral
point of view. It is, however, important not only to condemn such evil
acts, but also to accumulate much good karma by doing good acts.
The “twentieth light precept” stresses the importance of cultivating
“the practice of liberating sentient beings” as described above. That is,
we should seek to refrain from restraining a living thing and instead aim
to provide it with freedom. Considering this from the precept of “not-
stealing”, the notion of granting enough space for living things to thrive
is necessary. Such actions as releasing fish into rivers or lakes, reforest-
ing, and developing methods for riverbank construction suitable to the
habitation of marine life and others, are examples of habitat develop-
ment for living things. Reforestation and proper riverbank construction
methods are especially important affirmative actions that contribute to
recreating habitat for animals. It is also important to construct policies
that are based on an understanding of ecosystem management. Such
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 154

154 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA

well-thought out policies are equivalent to the practice of donation of

the six practices mention in the introduction. We should aim to act
“with mercy,” and should strongly admonish acts “with evil intention.”
This is also stressed by many of the other light precepts.

Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitude to Anne Mette Fisker-Nielsen for edit-
ing the English version of this article.
I also express my gratitude to Dr. Mike Curtis for reading this article
and providing some useful comments.

NOTES
1
Kato, Hisatake (1991), Kankyo Rinrigaku No Susume, (Introduction to Environ-
mental Ethics), Maruzen, Tokyo, 1991
2
Yamamoto, Shuichi (1998), “Contribution of Buddhism to Environmental
Thoughts,” The Journal of Oriental Studies, vol. 8, 144–173.
3
Yamamoto, Shuichi (1998), “Kankyo-rinri to Bukkyou no Kadai” (Environmental
Ethics and Issues of Buddhism), Nihon Indo-gaku Bukkyo-gaku Kenkyu (The Journal of
India and Buddhist Studies), vol. 47, No. 2, 78–84
4
Yamamoto, Shuichi (1993), “Seibutsu-hogo notameno Rinri to Kyouiku (1)”
(Ethics and Education for Biological Conservation (1)), The Bulletin of Institute of Ori-
ental Philosophy, vol. 9, 59–81.
5
I am here using the word ‘bio-intensity’ to refer to the quantity of living things in a
given environment
6
Carson, Rachel (1987), Chinmoku no Haru, Shincho-sha (in Japanese), (Silent
Spring, 1962, Houghton Mifflin Company.)
7
Colborn, Theo (1997), Our Stolen Future, Abacus, (translated in Japanese,
(Ubawaresi Mirai, Shoueisha, 1997)
8
Cadbury, Deborah (1997), The Feminization of Nature: Our Future at Risk, (Mesu-
ka-suru Sizen, Shuei-sha, 1998) Hamish Halilton.
9
Singer Peter ed. (1985), In Defence of Animals (Doubutsu no Kenri, Gijutsu to Nin-
gen-sha, 1986) Basil Blackwell.
10
Ibid.
11
Statistics and Information, 2001, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of
Japan (2002). http://www.maff.go.jp
12
See endnote 9.
13
See endnote 2.
14
Hirakawa, Akira (1998), Dajou Bukkyo Nyumon (Introduction to Mahayana bud-
dhism), Daisan Bunmei-sha, Tokyo.
15
Anågåmin (in Sanskrit) means the third degree of the four degrees to be attained by
a follower of Hinayana Buddhism.
16
Arhat (in Sanskrit) is a person who is freed from all craving and rebirth, and is one
of the ten appellations of the Buddha.
17
Pratyekabuddha (in Sanskrit) is a person who is a self-enlightened Buddha.
18
Av¥chi Hell means the worst kind of hell, where sinners suffer interminable pain.
J/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 155

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN MAHAYANA 155

19
Daihatsu-Nehangyo, Nehanbu vol. 1, p. 338, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo, Daito Shupan-
sha. This text is translated into English in: The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin,
p.19–20, Soka Gakkai, Tokyo, 1999.
20
Kawada, Yoichi (1994), Chikyu Kankyo to Bukkyo Shiso (The Global Environment
and Buddhist Thoughts), Daisan Bunmei-sha, Tokyo.
21
Påråjika (in Sanskrit) is the four gravest offenses for a Buddhist monk.
22
Bonmo-kyo (Brahma-net Sutra), Ritsubu vol. 12, p. 336, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo,
Daito Shupan-sha. http://www.sinc.sunysb.edu/Clubs/Buddhism/bns/bnstext.htm (For
an English Translation)
23
Bonmo-kyo (Brahma-net Sutra), Ritsubu vol. 12, p. 336, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo,
Daito Shupan-sha. (English translation as cited in endnote 22)
24
Bonmo-kyo (Brahma-net Sutra), Ritsubu vol. 12, p. 340, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo,
Daito Shupan-sha. (English translation as cited in endnote 22)
25
Aldo, Leopold (1986), Yaseino Uta ga Kikoeru, Shinrin-Shobo (A Sand County
Almanac, 1966, Oxford University Press.)
26
See endnote 21.
27
Yamamoto, Shuichi (2001), “Environmental problems and Buddhist ethics: From
the perspective of the consciousness-only doctrine,” The Journal of Oriental Studies,
vol. 11, 167–180.
28
Bonmo-kyo (Brahma-net Sutra), Ritsubu vol. 12, p. 339, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo,
Daito Shupan-sha. (English translation as cited in endnote 22).
29
Bonmo-kyo (Brahma-net Sutra), Ritsubu vol. 12, p. 341, Kokuyaku-issai-kyo,
Daito Shupan-sha. (English translation as cited in endnote 22)
30
See endnote 17.
31
Yamamoto, Shuichi (1999), “Kankyo-rinri to Bukkyou no Kadai II” (Environmen-
tal Ethics and Issues of Buddhism II). Nihon Indo-gaku Bukkyo-gaku Kenkyu (The Jour-
nal of India and Buddhist Studies), vol. 48, No. 1, 250–256.
32
Three treasures indicate the Buddha, the Buddhist law and the Buddhist monk.
33
Kamata, Shigeo (1998), Gendai-jin no Bukyo (Buddhism for humans of today),
Koudan-sha.
34
Ibid.