Assignment NO,02

Hormones and Behavior

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Hormones

 Types of hormone

 Testing for hormone and behavior connections

 Estrogen

 Testosterone

 Oxytocin and vasopressin

 Cortisol

 Serotonin

 Reciprocal effect
 HORMONES AND BEHAVIOR

INTRODUCTION;

Def;

A hormone is chemical messanger produced in the

body that circulates in the bloodstream and then influences the activity

of living cells that are far from where it was produced. Because

hormones travel to their target tissue, they are sometimes referred to as

signaling molecules. For example, estrogen is produced by the ovaries,

but effects the functioning of cells in the heart, uterus, breast, liver, and

brain. Any molecule produced in the body that travels to another tissue

via the bloodstream for its effect is classified as a hormone.

Hormones coordinate the physiology and behavior of an animal by

regulating, integrating, and controlling its bodily function. Hormones are

similar in function to other chemical mediators including neurotransmitters

and cytokines. Indeed, the division of chemical mediators into categories

mainly reflects the need by researchers to organize biological systems into

endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, rather than real functional

differences among these chemical signals. Hormones often function locally as

neurotransmitters and also interact with neurotransmitters and cytokines to

influence behavior. Hormones can be grouped into three classes:

o Lipid derived hormone

o Amino acid derive hormone

o Peptide hormone

Generally, only one class of hormone is produced by a single endocrine

gland.

Lipid-Derived Hormones (or Lipid-

soluble Hormones)
Most lipid hormones are derived from cholesterol, so they are structurally
similar to it. The primary class of lipid hormones in humans is the steroid
hormones. Chemically, these hormones are usually ketones or alcohols; their
chemical names will end in “-ol” for alcohols or “-one” for ketones.

Examples of steroid hormones include estradiol, which is an estrogen, or

female sex hormone, and testosterone, which is an androgen, or male sex
hormone. These two hormones are released by the female and male
reproductive organs, respectively. 

Other steroid hormones include aldosterone and cortisol, which are

released by the adrenal glands along with some other types of androgens.
Steroid hormones are insoluble in water; they are carried by transport
proteins in blood. As a result, they remain in circulation longer than peptide
hormones. For example, cortisol has a half-life of 60 to 90 minutes, whereas
epinephrine, an amino acid derived-hormone, has a half-life of approximately
one minute.

Amino Acid-Derived Hormones

The amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules derived
from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. If a hormone is amino acid-
derived, its chemical name will end in “-ine”.

Examples of amino acid-derived hormones include epinephrine and

norepinephrine, which are synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal glands,
and thyroxine, which is produced by the thyroid gland. The pineal gland in
the brain makes and secretes melatonin, which regulates sleep cycles.

Peptide Hormones
The structure of peptide hormones is that of a polypeptide chain (chain
of amino acids). The peptide hormones include molecules that are short
polypeptide chains, such as antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
produced in the brain and released into the blood in the posterior
pituitary gland. This class also includes small proteins, such as growth
hormones produced by the pituitary, and large glycoproteins, such as
follicle-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary.
Secreted peptides, such as insulin, are stored within vesicles in the cells which

synthesize them. They are then released in response to stimuli (e.g., as high

blood glucose levels in the case of insulin). Amino acid-derived and

polypeptide hormones are water-soluble and insoluble in lipids.

 Testing for Hormone and Behavior

Connections
 Psychologists who are interested in
understanding the role that hormones play
in shaping human behavior rely on several
types of research approaches. These would
include animal research where hormone
levels are experimentally altered, studies of
humans with certain types of disorders that
change the levels of hormones, direct
measurement of hormone levels via
immunoassay, and studies that take
advantage of natural variations that occur
in the levels of some hormones. With each
approach, the psychologist is trying to see if changes in hormone levels
relate to changes in behavior in a predictable way.

For example, a social psychologist might be interested in the reasons

that more females choose to major in psychology (study of human
behavior), while more males major in engineering

(study of mechanical objects). Although most psychologists would certainly

agree that social attitudes play a major role in career choice, the potential role
of biological differences could also be important. In fact, girls from a very
young age appear to be more people oriented (playing with pretend people,
drawing more people) and are shown to be more empathic and interested in
feelings on a variety of indicators, while boys from a young age seem more
drawn to nonliving mechanical objects and later show better spatial skills,
such as the ability to visualize complex objects from a variety of angles.
Because this sex difference is found all over the world, one might wonder if
there is some biological basis for this difference.

To test this, a psychologist might look at whether levels of hormones relate to

differences in people orientation, empathy, or mental rotation skills.

 First, one might measure the level of hormones in the bloodstream via
immunoassay, or saliva samples could be used. If the psychologist
thinks that testosterone might relate to performance on a test of
spatial skills, it would be testosterone that would be measured. If
persons with high testosterone levels have better spatial skills, the
 idea would be supported. It is also true that the levels of hormones
vary in a predictable way across time; this knowledge can be used to
test the effects of hormones without taking direct measures. In
women, the levels of estrogen and progesterone change across a
month due to the menstrual cycle.

 A psychologist might wonder if high estrogen levels actually worsen

performance on spatial skills tasks. Thus, he or she might give a test of
spatial skills at day 12 (when estrogen is high) and at day 1 (when
estrogen is low). If the scores at day 12 are lower than would
otherwise be expected, the idea would be supported. Testosterone,
too, follows a predictable pattern of rises and ebbs, though not a
monthly one. The average testosterone level is higher in the fall and
lower in the spring, so a psychologist could measure a behavior at two
times in the year is a similar fashion.

Animal models are often very useful, as many of the sex differences of interest
to a social psychologist can be seen in other species as well. Although a person
might suppose that the question of college major could never be investigated
via animal models—after all, mice do not go to college—but male rats do
show better spatial skills than females.

 There are tests of spatial skills for rodents that rely on maze-solving
ability. If a psychologist wonders if prenatal levels of testosterone are
affecting spatial skills, a developing mouse can be injected with extra
testosterone if it is a female, or, if male, testosterone effects can be
eliminated. If the females with extra testosterone grow up to be
unusually good at solving mazes, especially if the males denied
testosterone grow up to unusually poor maze solvers, the role of
testosterone on maze solving would be supported. Of course, mice are
not people, and ideally a psychologist would do an experiment with
people, but the obvious problem is that parents are (of course) reluctant
to allow the hormonal environments of their unborn children to be
manipulated. However, some children are born with conditions that
alter prenatal hormone environments.

 A condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes a

lack of an enzyme needed to tell the adrenal glands to stop making the
male hormones, so they are exposed to levels that are much too high
 during prenatal development. The problem can occur in either males or
females. Upon birth, the problem is almost always diagnosed and the
enzyme supplied via medicine, and the problem is no longer present.
Girls with CAH are of great interest to a social psychologist interested in
the role of prenatal hormonal environments on behavior. These girls
self-identify as girls, and society sees them as girls (i.e., they are getting
all the same social messages about what it is to be a girl as any other
girl); the difference is in the prenatal hormonal environment. In the
example about college majors, a psychologist might try and find out if
girls with CAH have better spatial skills or were more likely to play with
mechanical objects over dolls as children.

. In the previously mentioned examples, all of these types of research have

been done, and all support the idea that hormones do have some influence on
spatial skills.

 What Is Known about Hormones and

Behavior
 Estrogen
Estrogen has myriad effects on the brain and body. Those relevant to
social psychologists include pathology (depression, borderline
personality disorder), verbal memory, motivation for sex, and
emotional jealousy.

The brain has estrogen receptors, and estrogen has the direct effect of
raising the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. This is important
because serotonin is important to understanding depression, and
perhaps schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder as well.
Estrogen supplementation has been shown to alter the symptom
expression of these disorders, whose courses and prevalence rates are
different for males and females. As for cognition, several types of
research suggest that estrogen may increase performance on tasks that
can be related to verbal skills or verbal memory and may decrease perfo

 Testosterone
Although it has been widely believed that testosterone promotes
aggression, this is only partially true. The best research suggests that
testosterone is more related to a desire for social dominance and
power, rather than aggression (although desire for power may lead to
aggression at times).

 Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Oxytocin acts directly on both the nucleus accumbens and amygdala and
increases after sex, promoting a feeling of bonding. Oxytocin has also
been found to increase positive feelings about other people.

Vasopressin levels and receptors within the brain for this hormone are
higher in species in which males and females form monogamous
relationships and who provide care for their young. Both of these
hormones seem to promote affiliation needs in humans. These
hormones increase when a person falls in love. Animal research suggests
that these hormones are actually causing affiliative behavior and
social bonding since experimentally altering these levels of these
hormones leads to major changes
in pair bonding and parenting
behaviors. Many social
psychologists think of these as
being attachment hormones, and
oxytocin is sometimes called
the mothering hormone.

 Cortisol:
The Stress
Hormone

Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body respond to stress. It’s

sometimes called the “stress hormone,” because levels of cortisol spike
in the body during high-stress situations to give your body a natural
energy boost.

Cortisol also plays a major role in metabolism by stimulating the liver to

increase blood sugar and helping to convert food into usable energy.

The adrenals are triangular glands that produce and release cortisol into
the bloodstream. There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each
kidney.

Too much or too little cortisol for a prolonged period of time can have a
negative effect on physical and mental health.
  Serotonin: A Happy Chemical
Serotonin is a hormone that doubles as a neurotransmitter. It’s
sometimes known as the happy chemical, as it appears to play a role in
regulating mood, and low levels of serotonin in the brain have been
associated with mental health.

Besides the brain, serotonin is involved in the function of several

different organ systems. It helps to regulate appetite and digestion, bone
health, and sex. Serotonin is also a precursor to melatonin, a chemical
involved in the body’s sleep-wake cycle.

Dopamine: A Hormone and Neurotransmitter That

Helps Control Movement

Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that’s mainly involved in

helping to control and coordinate movement. That’s why some drugs
used to treat Parkinson’s disease — a movement disorder —
boost dopamine levels in the brain.

 Reciprocal Effects

It is important to realize that hormone-behavior effects are not one-way.

This means that hormone levels affect behavior, but behavior also affects
hormone levels.

The best example of this might be the relationship with testosterone and
competitive behavior. Raising testosterone levels seems to make animals
more competitive, and with enough of a boost, this translates into an
increase in fighting behavior. But, it is also true that being in a
competition has the effect of changing testosterone levels.

REFERENCES
 http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/control/hormones-and-
behavior/

 Geary, D. C. (1998). Male, female. Washington, DC: American Psychological

Association.

 https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2015_syllabus/2015_readings/Nel
son_2010_EAB.pdf