FEMINISM

MODULE 3 LESSON 2
FEMINISM

• -is an ideology and a movement that advocates for equal rights between the sexes,
and an opposition to patriarchal structures. Feminism campaigns for legal rights; for
the right to their own body; for protection from domestic violence, sexual harassment,
and rape; for equal pay; and against all forms of gender-specific discrimination
against women in the workplace and the public sphere.
FEMINISM
• Most societies in the world are patriarchal, that is, the institutions that constitute these
societies are headed by men. One of the most influential of these institutions is the Catholic
church, and its hierarchy comprise almost solely of men. Government and capitalist
institutions all over the world are also led by men. This dominance results not only in the
absence of women’s voices from history texts, but also in the hegemony of masculine
knowledge. In order to understand the motivations behind feminist thought and the feminist
movement then, it is necessary to look at some of the concepts and circumstances that have
influenced it.
Sex and Gender

• Sex refers to the biological distinction between females and males. As a biological
characteristic, it depends on those physical characteristics that make one either male
or female. Primary sexual characteristics comprise the external genitalia that one is
born with, while secondary sexual characteristics refer to bodily development, such as
growing an Adam’s apple or having breasts that further distinguishes biologically
mature males and females.
Sex and Gender

• Gender on the other hand, refers to the significance society attaches to the biological
categories of male and female. It is socially constructed. This means that societies assign
cultural traits to this binary, based on beliefs of what biological males and females should be.
When babies are born, the only characteristic that differentiates one from another is their
external genitalia. But as they grow, men develop more muscle mass than women, have
larger skulls and a sharper brow bone, and have leaner hips. At the same time, it is the
women who have the capacity to bear children.
Sex and Gender
• Based on these traits, society develops beliefs and ideas of what men and women are and
how they should be. These beliefs become the basis of gender. Being male or female,
therefore, does not follow from sex. Masculinity and femininity are socially determined.
Humans grow up learning how to act as males or females on the basis of the roles, attitudes,
and activities that a culture links to these sexes, it is thus important to note that no sex is
inherently superior or inferior to the other. Many cultures, however, contain notions of male
superiority, primarily because of the appearance of the male sex as bigger, and the
corresponding cultural traits assigned to men on the basis of such an appearance.
Sex and Gender

• Gender is reinforced in society every day. People treat children differently from birth. The
curricula in schools enforce male and female ways of doing things. Media also supports
notions of masculinity and femininity in television and movies. As such male and female
children grow up thinking that gender is natural, when in fact, it is a social construction. The
problem with thinking that gender is natural is that the other possible expressions of gender
are criticized if these expressions are not deemed appropriate for one’s sex. This is one of the
concerns of the feminist movement.
Sex and Gender
• Sexual orientation, however, is different from gender. It refers to the manner in which people
experience attraction or sexual pleasure. Examples of sexual orientation include
heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. The norm for most societies is heterosexuality,
or attraction to opposite sex. This stems from the societal goal of reproducing and propagating
the species. Given the norm of heterosexuality, other forms of sexual orientation tend to be
disapproved. Homosexuals, or those attracted to the same sex, are tolerated, but forms of
homophobia-the irrational fear of homosexuals, still exist. Further, very few societies have
legalized rights for homosexuals.
Sex and Gender

• Sexual orientation is to be distinguished from gender because a person may observe the
gender traits assigned to him by society, but not the normative sexual orientation. For
instance, a biological male who is also masculine is conforming to society’s expectations of
gender. But if that male is attracted to another male, then he is not abiding by society’s
norm for sexual orientation. A biological female can be heterosexual but very masculine.
Feminists have questioned the existence of these norms, which serve to categorize people
and impose restrictions on how males and females should act.
Patriarchy and Sexism
• Patriarchy is a form of social organization in which males dominate females. Matriarchy, on the other hand,
is a form of social organization in which females dominate males. While there are societies that confer a
high status on women and see them as important contributors, no matriarchal societies are known to exist
or to have existed. According to structural functionalism, traditional sex roles could have emerged in
hunting and gathering societies, where distinct roles fostered the efficient functioning of the family. Each
sex played a complementary role to the other: men hunted to provide food for the family or community;
women raised children when they were not foraging for food. These appointed roles enabled society to
operate efficiently.
Patriarchy and Sexism
• Under these circumstances, men are accorded a higher status over women, because they are seen to
provide for material resources necessary for the sustenance of the household or community. Women are
perceived to have merely supporting roles. Men’s higher status results in sexism, or the belief that one sex
is innately superior to the other. Sexism in an ideology responsible for the continued perpetrations of
patriarchal structures.
Patriarchy and Sexism
• Patriarchy is not unavoidable in modern societies, especially since modern technology and economic
necessity have had to push women to work outside the home. Many feminists insist that the dominance of
men is maintained by the perpetration of sexist beliefs, despite sexism having no biological basis. The men,
having been accorded to a higher position in the society, are also in a position to control ideologies to
maintain their dominance at the expense of women. Thus, there is a continued belief in sexism and
promotion of patriarchal structures, leading to an unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege
between the sexes. This is called gender stratification.
EXAMPLES
OF SEXISM
IN MEDIA
EXAMPLES
OF SEXISM
IN MEDIA
EXAMPLES
OF SEXISM
IN MEDIA
EXAMPLES
OF SEXISM
IN MEDIA
EXAMPLES
OF SEXISM
IN MEDIA
Gender Stratification
• Gender stratification divides the sexes into unequal groups, where men get more in terms of wealth, power, and privilege
compared to women. This is evidently global as women continue to enter a narrow range of occupations, that also tend to
pay less than those jobs intended for men. Almost half of the female labor force worldwide is in clerical or service work.
The more prestigious and lucrative the job, the more likely it is held by a man.
• One of the reasons for the tendency of women to enter service or clerical occupations pertain to the ways that men and
women are brought up. Gender roles encourage men to be technical and logical, while women to be expressive. This is
reflected for instance in the kinds of university courses that males and females choose. For example, most of the
engineering majors would be male while most of the liberal arts majors would either be female, or students who do not
conform to traditional gender expectations. Given the choice of careers among men and women, it comes as no surprise
that the average female full-time worker earns less than the average full-time employee.
Gender Stratification
• Another instance of gender stratification is evident is women’s role in the household. Despite entry into the paid labor
force, the role of women in the household has not been substantially reduced. Some say that society no longer looks down
on men who opt to help their wives in the household. But there lies the difference: men are able to choose whether they
want to help out or not; women have no choice. Mothers who do not take care of their children properly are criticized in
the society, but fathers who single-mindedly focus on work are lauded as responsible breadwinners.
• In terms of political positions, women’s involvement with politics is increasing in a slower pace. Although when it comes to
positions, few women are seen governing. Most appointed posts, mostly secretarial, are given to women. When it comes to
public service, women are taking more military assignments, yet they are usually given administrative tasks despite having
the same type of training as their male counterparts.
Gender Stratification
• Lastly, one of the major concerns of the feminist movement is violence against women. This includes domestic violence,
rape and sexual harassment, and pornography. While some argue that such violence can also be directed towards men,
statistics show that it is the women who get beaten in the household, raped, harassed, and objectified in pornography
much more frequently than men. Further, these abuses are oftentimes carried out by men. In most instances, the female
victims of abuse get to experience victim blaming. For example, if a woman gets raped by a man, society, due to its
patriarchal structure would scrutinize the victim; people, mostly men, would ask the victims about what they wore, and if
they are promiscuous. These are some examples of the kinds of sexist ideologies that feminism and feminist movement
strive to rectify.
History of Feminism and the Feminist
Movement
• The Age of Enlightenment had been a crucial point to the origin of feminism. During this time,
women had no participation in the public sphere. They could not vote, had no say in political
activities, and were relegated to domestic duties.
 MARY
WOLLSTONECRAFT
• Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” in
1792, was one of the primary female writers who examined the social
conditions of women. She observed that society educates women in ways
that implicitly urge them to support patriarchal structures. While her writing
still reflects adherence to gender expectations, it was considered radical
thinking at a time when few women dared question gender. She stated that
women deserve equal rights as men because they are the ones who educate
the children. They are companions to husbands, rather than simply wives.
 MARY
WOLLSTONECRAFT
• Wollstonecraft criticized the lack of employment opportunities for educated
but poor women. Her work thus reflects some form of elitism, as she makes
the distinction between the educated and uneducated, thereby supporting the
education of women into middle class ideologies. However, she demonstrates
the awareness that women as a group were inferior to men, and that society
raises women to accept this position.
 MARY
WOLLSTONECRAFT
• Furthermore, she stated that the upbringing of women under these
circumstances steers them into complying with the “male gaze.” Men are
raised to demand that women be beautiful; that women should please men.
Wollstonecraft declared that women are brought up to accept such an
expectation, and to work at satisfying the male gaze. In doing so, they are
prevented from developing their other capacities.
 MARY
WOLLSTONECRAFT
• The male gaze can also be simplified as objectification. It happens when men
look at women as objects of desires. For example, most advertisements
catering to the male demographic would most of the time use a female
model to sell them an illusion of sexuality, thus reducing a women’s function
to a sexual object.
 First Wave
Feminism
• First wave feminism started in the 1800s to the early 1900s in the United States and United
Kingdom, but other feminist groups existed across Europe. The goal of feminists during this
period revolved around the fight for equal opportunities for women. This was a time of
intensified industrialization, both in Europe and the United States. Women worked in factories
alongside men, but they were still not allowed a political voice in the public sphere.
Campaigns, therefore, focused on women’s suffrage, or the right to vote.
• Some of the key figures of the first wave include Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B.
Anthony in the United States; and Millicent Fawcett and the Pankhurst family in the United
Kingdom. The right to vote was eventually granted to all women over the age of twenty-one
in 1928 in Britain, and in United States, the vote was granted to all women in 1919.
Second Wave
Feminism
• The feminist movement from the 1960s to the
1990s is more properly known as Women’s
Liberation. During this period, supporters called for
equality between men and women in social and
cultural life, particularly where gender norms and
women’s roles are concerned. They demanded a
change in the structures that perpetuate inequality,
for instance, sex discrimination in employment.
Second Wave
Feminism
• The second wave of feminism invited not only the
men but also the women to understand sexism, and
the ways that their actions reproduce sexist power
structures. Betty Friedan’s work, “The Feminine
Mystique,” questioned the double burden imposed on
women, and the devaluation that occurs when society
obliges them to concentrate solely on domestic work,
despite their college education.
Second Wave
Feminism
• Feminists of this period continued the fight of their
predecessors against standards of beauty imposed by a
male-dominated culture. Such standards also relate to
women being objectified and subjected to rape and
sexual harassment. Many of these feminist views were
voiced in Ms., a magazine founded by the feminist-
activists, Gloria Steinem, and Dorothy Pittman Hughes.
The second wave of feminism, however, revealed the
varied trajectories taken by supporters of the
movement that would later divulge into distinct
advocacies.
Third Wave Feminism
• The third wave feminism, from the 1990s to 2000s, was a response to the
second wave, and a move to address issues that the second wave had
failed to consider. For instance, many of the earlier adherents of feminism
were white, middle class, educated women. Women of color, immigrant
women, and poor women did not share in the experiences of the white
and middle class. Reforms advocated in the second wave would therefore
not impact all women in the same way.
Third Wave Feminism
• Gender advocacies of the third wave emphasized the diversity of women
and women’s experiences. They reiterated the need to go beyond the
traditional understanding of what constitutes maleness and femaleness and
asserted that gender can be expressed differently regardless of sex. Many
feminists in the United States include non-White women such as Maxine
Hong Kingston and Gloria Anzaldua.
Third Wave Feminism
• In the present day, feminists still fight for the recognition of “feminisms,” of
the diversity of social locations, needs, and concerns among women. They
work toward the creation of spaces for women to be able to articulate
these concerns as they have experienced them. Furthermore, feminism has
also been expanding to include advocacy for the freedom to express other
forms of gender identity without discrimination, as well as legal rights for
those who do not conform to societal notions of maleness and femaleness.