Haramaya University

College of Agriculture and Environmental Science

School of Rural Development and Agricultural
Innovation
Course Material for Gender and Youth In Value Chain
Program: Agricultural Economics
Class Year: Year II, Semester II
Prepared By: Lemi Chala(MSc.)
November, 2023
Maya City, Ethiopia
 Course Content
 Chapter One: Gender and Youth in Value Chain
Chapter Two: Gender Analysis Framework / Tools
 Chapter Three: Gender and Youth mainstreaming in value chain
management
 Chapter Four: Policy Issues Related with Gender
Assessment Methods:
 Continuous assessment 50%(mid-exam, assignment, quiz)
 Final exam 50%
 Chapter One : Concept of Gender
We begin by asking the question: Brainstorming
 Sex and gender are terms that are often used interchangeably but they are in fact
two different concepts, even though for many people their sex and gender are
the same.
1. What do you understand about “Gender”?
2. What do you understand about “Sex”?
3. What is the differences between “gender” and “sex”
 Sex

 Sex refers to the biological difference between male & female

 People are born biologically female or male, but they learn
femininity and masculinity.
 referring to the biological aspects of an individual as determined
by their anatomy, which is produced by their chromosomes,
hormones and their interactions
 generally male or female
 something that is assigned at birth
 What is Gender?
 Gender refers to the roles, behavior, attitudes, and activities that society
assigns to men and women.
 It refers to the power relations between men and women in a given society.
 Gender is learnt through a process of socialization
 Socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn and internalize
the norms, values, and behaviors of their society or social group.
 Gender… Cont….
 Gender is socially constructed and it is: the social differences or roles allotted to women and men
 It refers to a set of qualities and behaviors expected from males and females by society.
 The gender of a person is shaped by the society and by its way of upbringing children.
 Gender is therefore the result of the interplay of cultural, religious and similar factors of a society.
 Gender starts in childhood in the household.
 Gender identity of men and women in any given society is socially and psychologically
determined.
Major differences between Gender and Sex

Gender
 Socially constructed
 Dynamic concept
 Determined by culture, societies,
norms etc
 Varies across time and regions
Sex
 Biological constructed
 Static concept
 Determined by GOD
 Same around the world
 . Essential Concepts of Gender
Gendering:
 This is the process by which females and males learn and do the common action for them.
 It decides for example, who goes to war, and looks after children, who does heavy construction work,
and who does commercial or subsistence farming.
Gender Identity:
 Gender identity is defined as a personal conception of oneself as male or female.
 Gender identity refers to an individual's deeply-held sense or perception of
their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex they were assigned
at birth.
 It is an internal and personal understanding of one's own gender, which can be
male, female, or non-binary, among other identities.
For example, if a person thinks of himself as a male and identifies himself as such, then
his gender identity is male.
 Gender Issues
 are the needs, problems and concerns brought about in the distinction of perceptions and roles between
men and women.
 Gender issues refer to the social, cultural, and political challenges and inequalities that
arise due to the unequal treatment and opportunities experienced by individuals based on
their gender.
Gender stereotype
 It is a sum of commonly accepted norms of behavior, needs, motives, and judgments that concern the present position
of women and men.
 Gender stereotypes are preconceived notions or beliefs about the roles, behaviors, and characteristics that are typically
associated with males and females in society.
 These stereotypes often reinforce traditional gender norms and expectations, dictating how individuals should act,
dress, or behave based on their gender.
 For example, it is commonly believed that men are strong, assertive, and logical, while women are nurturing,
emotional, and submissive.
 However, it is important to note that these stereotypes are not accurate representations of all individuals and can be
harmful as they limit people's choices and perpetuate inequality.
 ,
 Gender socialization
 In sociological theories, gender is a social construction rather than a
biological given.
 The sources of gender differentiation lie more in social and institutional
practices than in fixed properties of the individual.
Gender Relations:
 Gender relations are simultaneously relations of co-operation, connection,
and mutual support, and of conflict, separation and competition, of
difference and inequality.
 These are the social relationships between women and men.

 Gender Gap:
 This is when the gender is not represented or is totally absent.
 It means unequal participation of women and men in socio-economic and
political activities
 The gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in
terms of their levels of participation, access to resources, rights, power and
influence, remuneration and benefits.
 Of particular relevance related to women’s work is the “gender pay gap”,
describing the difference between the average earnings of men and women
(ILO, 2007)
 Gender inequality

 refers to the discrimination on the basis of a person’s sex in opportunities,

the allocation of resources or benefits, or in access to services (i.e., equal
participation and decision-making power by men and women on a Board of
Directors)
Gender equality
 implies equal enjoyment of rights by man and women
Gender Equity
 Fairness in women's and Men's access to socio-economic resources.
 Patterns of inequalities

 Inequalities in political power and representation: Women are often underrepresented in formal
decision-making structures, including governments, community councils, and policy-making
institutions
 Inequalities in economic participation and opportunities: In most countries, women and men are
distributed differently across sectors.
 Women are receiving lower wages for similar work, are more likely to be in low-paid jobs and
unsecured work (part-time, temporary, home-based) and are likely to have less access than men to
productive assets such as education, skills, property and credit.
 Educational attainment: In most countries women have lower literacy rate, lower level of enrolment
in primary secondary and tertiary education.
 Sexual and domestic violence: Women tend to be more often victims in a form a domestic violence by
woman’s intimate partner, sexual exploitation through trafficking and sex trade, in wars by an enemy
army as a weapon of attempted ‘ethnic cleansing’ etc.
 Differences in legal status and entitlements: There are many instances in which equal rights to
personal status, security, land, inheritance and employment opportunities are denied to women by law or
practice
 Why gender makes a difference?
 Gender identity in a given society governs the allocation of resources, tasks and power
at the level of the individual, the household and society.
 This is due to the fact that the social starting positions of men & women differ.
 It is true that in all societies social factors underlie and support gender based disparities
through:
 institutional arrangement, the formal legal system, socio-cultural attitudes and religious
practices.
 Such differences between men & women and disparities should, therefore, be part of the
“baseline” situation in which you should plan your interventions.
 Why We Study Gender?
 b/c: Gender influences human options, conditions, and experiences.
 A Deep understanding of gender patterns, dynamics and biases can
enhance the accuracy and scope of work in many fields.
 Understanding gender helps to broaden our-understanding about ourselves
and our societies.
 Gender helps us to understand other differences.
 Understanding gender differentiation and gender discrimination helps us to
understand differentiation and discrimination on other grounds.
 Different roles and characteristics are assigned to people not only on the basis
of their gender, but of their race, caste, class, ethnic background and age.
1.2.Gender Division of Labor (GDoL)

 The gender division of labor in the family denotes separate labor

assignments in the household according to sex.
 Many women are chiefly responsible for housework and
childcare regardless of their other work;
 Men’s chief responsibilities are non-domestic work in the
economic sector and in other social and cultural institutions.
 Gender-based division of labor does not mean simply that men
and women do different work.
 The different roles can generally be categorized in to three,
these are: Productive, Reproductive and Community
management.
 GDL cont…
 Gender division of labor refers to the assignment of different roles, tasks,
and responsibilities based on gender within a society or a household.
 Traditionally, gender division of labor has often been characterized by
assigning men to tasks that are perceived as more physically demanding,
such as agricultural work or manual labor, while women have been assigned
tasks related to caregiving, household chores, and nurturing roles.
 This division has been influenced by cultural, social, and economic factors
throughout history.
 However, it is important to recognize that gender division of labor can vary
across different cultures and societies.
 Over time, societal changes, advancements in gender equality, and evolving
perspectives have challenged and reshaped traditional gender roles.
1.2.1.Triple Roles of Gender
 Productive role: Productive works are any kind of activities/ works done to obtain
payment in cash or kind and have exchangeable value,
 includes marketable goods that have exchange value and consumable goods (at home)
which have use value.
 Both women and men undertake this role.
 productive role is mainly considered to be men’s role and
 even if women undertake the role it is mostly unrecognized.
 E.g. Wage workers, farming activity.
 Reproductive role:- There are three levels at which the term is used.
 These are biological reproduction, labor reproduction and social reproduction.
 Reproductive role…… conti

 Biological reproduction comprises childbirth and lactation

 while labor reproduction involves the daily regeneration of the labor force through
cooking, cleaning, washing, nursing and so on.
 Social reproduction on the other hand is an all-embracing category that is maintenance of
ideological conditions, which reproduce class relations and uphold the social and
economic status quo.
 reproductive role mostly tend to fall upon the shoulders of women.
 Community management role
 These are activities undertaken at local community
level.
 And these include, voluntary unpaid or paid work,
undertaken in “free & volunteer time”.
 It is important for the spiritual and cultural development
of communities and as a vehicle for community
organization and self determination.
 It is the role of both women & men.
 Examples include: Idir (Individuals comes together
register and contribute certain amount of birr per month
for their benefits at the time of sorrow or happiness).
1.2.2 Practical and Strategic Gender Needs/Interests (PGN and SGN)

 Practical Gender Needs: Practical gender needs are needs identified by women that do
not challenge their socially accepted roles.
 These needs relate to fulfilling their productive, reproductive and community roles and
responsibilities,
 which include basic, practical necessities such as shelter, employment and food.
 Practical gender needs do not challenge the gender division of labor or women's
subordinate position in society, although rising out of them.
 Practical gender needs are a response to immediate perceived necessity, identified
within a specific context.
 They are practical in nature and often are concerned with inadequacies in living
conditions such as water provision, health care, and employment.
 Cot……PGN
 These are the immediate and tangible needs that individuals of different
genders may have.
 For example:

• Access to healthcare services specific to reproductive health for women.

• Providing safe and inclusive spaces for women to participate in decision-
making processes.
• Ensuring equal access to education and vocational training opportunities
for both genders.
 Strategic Gender Needs
 Strategic gender needs are the needs women identify because of their
subordinate position to men in their society.
 Strategic gender needs vary according to particular contexts.
 They relate to gender divisions of labor, power and control and may include
such issues as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and women's
control over their bodies.
 Meeting strategic gender needs helps women to achieve greater equality.
 It also changes existing roles and therefore challenges women's subordinate
position.
 Conti…. SGN
 These are the underlying issues and structural changes required to
address gender inequalities in society.
 For example:

• Promoting gender-responsive policies and legislation that protect women's

rights and promote gender equality.
• Challenging harmful gender norms and stereotypes through awareness
campaigns and education.
• Ensuring equal representation of women in leadership positions across
different sectors.
 Strategic gender needs are those needs that are formulated from the
analysis of women's subordination to men.
 The comparison between PGN and SGN
Practical needs Strategic needs
Main features
 Mostly short –term  Mostly long-term
 Site specific  Common to almost all women
 Can be identified easily by women  Not easily identifiable by women themselves
themselves  Relate to the status of women, lack of resources,
education, limitations on rights, vulnerability to
 Related to daily needs – food, shelter, violence, poverty
income, health,  Can be addressed by awareness raising, increasing
 Can be addressed by provision of education, opportunities, strengthening women’s
specific inputs organizations etc
Strategy
 Tends to involve women as recipient or  Involves women as agents of change, or enables
beneficiaries women to become agents
 Can improve the condition of women’s  Can improve the position of women in a society
lives  Can empower women and transform relationships
 Generally does not alter traditional roles
and relationships
 The comparison between PGN and SGN
Practical needs Strategic needs
Main features
 Mostly short –term  Mostly long-term
 Site specific  Common to almost all women
 Can be identified easily by women  Not easily identifiable by women themselves
themselves  Relate to the status of women, lack of resources,
education, limitations on rights, vulnerability to
 Related to daily needs – food, shelter, violence, poverty
income, health,  Can be addressed by awareness raising, increasing
 Can be addressed by provision of education, opportunities, strengthening women’s
specific inputs organizations etc
Strategy
 Tends to involve women as recipient or  Involves women as agents of change, or enables
beneficiaries women to become agents
 Can improve the condition of women’s  Can improve the position of women in a society
lives  Can empower women and transform relationships
 Generally does not alter traditional roles
and relationships
1.3. Policy approaches to Women

WID, WAD, GAD

 Exploring where women fit into development theory and practice
Cont……
 In Ethiopia, the policy approach towards women has been
focused on:
 promoting gender equality and
 Empowering women in various aspects of life.
 The government has implemented several initiatives to address
the challenges faced by women and promote their rights.
 Overall, Ethiopia's policy approach towards women recognizes
the importance of empowering women economically, politically,
and socially.
 Thepolicy approaches of Women in Development (WID), Women
and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD)
represent different perspectives on addressing women's issues and
promoting gender equality.
1.3.1. Women in Development Approach (WID)

 The WID approach was introduced primarily by “American liberal feminists” and focuses on
egalitarianism, especially in terms of economic participation and access.
 was originated as a result of three major feminist moments/waves concerning feminine conditions.
 The first two were due to the feminist waves.
 The first wave also known as women’s suffrage movement, originated in the North America back in the late
19th century, when women fought for the equal right to vote and participate in politics.
 The second-wave of feminism sought to deal with the remaining social and cultural inequalities women
were faced with in everyday affair i.e. sexual violence, reproductive rights, sexual discrimination and glass
ceilings.
 The UN organized the first global conference on women back in 1975 at Mexico.
 The conference sought to address nations role on fighting gender inequalities and support women’s right.
 The third was influenced by Ester Boserup (1970) publication on “Women’s Role in Economic
Development”.
 She states and gave empirical results of how increasingly specialized division of labor associated with
development undermines or neglects the value of women’s work and status especially in the developing
 WID… Cont..

 Women to be concerned with anti-poverty and efficiency:-The WID approach supports

women to be engaged in solving their problems of poverty and resource utilization
 Integrates women into existing development:- by making more resources available to
women they can work effectively and contribute into the existing development activities.
 What is most striking about the WID model is that it does not deal with the disparities and
power relations between men and women.
 However other scholars argued about WID approach, by indicating its negative effects
because it :
 Increases women’s workloads,
 Reinforce inequalities, and
 Increases the gap between men and women.
 1.3.2.WAD- Women And Development ` `

 The women and development (WAD) approach originated back in 1975 in Mexico city, as it sort to
discuss women’s issues from a neo-Marxist and dependency theory perspective.
 `The WAD approach is not as frequently discussed, however it was an important bridge between
WID and GAD.
 The WAD approach comes from the perspective that equality will be essential to improving
women’s positions, but still frames change in terms of providing women access to the productive
sector (p.493).
 WAD, while perhaps more critical than WID, also fails to dig deeper into the systemic problems
associated with the relationship between men and women.
 Its focus was to “explain the relationship between women and the process of capitalist development
in terms of material conditions that contribute to their exploitation”
 WAD is often misinterpreted as WID, however what sets it apart is that, WAD focuses specifically on
the relation between patriarchy and capitalism.
 The WAD perspective states that women have always participated and contributed towards economic
development, regardless of the public or private spheres.
 1.3.3 Gender and Development Approach (GAD)

 The GAD approach, which was developed in the 1980s, stepped away from both WID
and WAD and was founded in socialist-feminist ideology.
 The GAD approach holds that the oppression of women stems largely from a neoliberal
focus on improving women’s reproductive and productive capacities.
It focuses on:
 Intellectual view of the need of shifting from WID to GAD and looks in a broader
context: -- this approach includes economic growth and women’s empowerment.
 Shifting in attention from ‘Women’ to ‘Gender’:- occurred because of the wrong
interpretations given to women’s biological differences from men, rather than with regard
to their gender.
 Devising women’s programs in a broader context: - to change the view from increased
efficiency in meeting development goals, to greater equity and empowerment for women.
 Aninteresting shift that happened between WID/WAD and GAD was the
change in language from dealing with ‘women’ in the context of
development, to ‘gender’.
 TheGAD approach is not just focused on the biological inequalities among
sexes: men and women, however on how social roles, reproductive roles and
economic roles are linked to Gender inequalities of: masculinity and
femininity.
 GAD……… conti

GAD stresses that women can play great roles in every development strategies
and its concept shows that:
 Both men and women maintain the society and form the division of
labor.:-But they benefit and suffer unequally thus on this perception more
focus must be given to women as they have been more disadvantaged.
 Men and women have different priorities:- This is based on socially
constructed gender roles which men can constrain or expand women’s
options.
 Development affects men and women differently:- Because they have
different impacts on programs and projects.
The following table can help you to summarize theories of
WID and GAD approaches.
Women in Development (WID) Gender and Development (GAD)

An approach towards women An approach to development

Shows about women Shows the relations between men and women

The goal is for more efficient, effective Equitable, sustainable development with
development of women women and men as decision-makers

Integrate women into existing Empower the disadvantaged group (both men and
development women)

The goal is for increasing productivity of *The goal is to identify and address practical needs
women’s projects and their ability to look determined by men and women and address
after the household women’s strategic needs and the needs of the poor
 Here are the main differences between these
approaches:
 Women in Development (WID): WID emerged in the 1970s and
focused on integrating women into existing development processes.
 The approach aimed to address gender disparities by highlighting
women's specific needs and roles in development.
 It emphasized the importance of women's economic participation
and access to resources, such as education and healthcare.
Women and Development (WAD):
 WAD emerged as a critique of the WID approach in the 1980s.
 Itchallenged the assumption that women's issues could be
adequately addressed within existing development
frameworks.
 WAD focused on analyzing the structural causes of gender
inequality and emphasized the need for women's
empowerment and gender equality as central goals of
development.
Gender and Development (GAD):

 GAD emerged in the 1990s as a more comprehensive

approach that acknowledged the social construction of
gender and its intersection with other forms of inequality.
 GAD recognized that gender issues are not solely about
women but also about the power dynamics and social norms
that shape gender relations.
 It aimed to transform unequal gender roles and relations by
addressing both women's and men's needs and promoting
gender equality as a fundamental goal of development.
In summary,

 while WID focused on integrating women into

development processes, WAD critiqued this
approach and emphasized women's
empowerment.
 GAD took a broader perspective, recognizing the
importance of addressing gender as a social
construct and promoting gender equality for both
women and men.
1.4. Critical areas of concern/intervention for women in development worldwide

1.4.1. Global History of women’s movement

A.1975: held in Mexico
 Women’s decade
 Equality, development and peace
B.1980: held in Copenhagen
 Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
C. 1985: held in Nairobi
 Forward-looking strategy for the advancement of women to the year 2000.
 eliminating illiteracy, bringing life expectancy for women to 65 years of age, ensuring
self-supporting employment for women, equality before the law and women full
participation in national policy.
D.1995: held in Beijing
 including Ethiopia (representatives of women)
 implementing the forward looking strategies
 12 concerns/intervention on women worldwide.
 12 areas of concern/intervention

 Poverty: women constitute 70% of the world poor cause of economic opportunity due to their lower position in the
gender relationship.
 Education and training
2/3 of all illiterate people in the world are women the majority being from rural areas.
 Health care: Mortality rate of women are high
 Violence: domestic or outside
 The effect of war on women: women are affected in many ways during wars.
 Inequality in economic structure and access to resources;
 Inequality in sharing power and decision making; ex in leader ship position
 Women focused institution
 Human rights of women
 Women and media
 Women and environment
 The girl child: ex early marriage
1.4.2. National context for gender issues
 Women’s status before the 1970’s:-- In the past some decades ago women’s organized
activities were handled mainly by non-governmental organizations which include:
 the Ethiopian Officer’s Wives Association, The Ethiopian Women’s Association and
Ethiopian Female Students’ Association.
 Women in the 1990’s:--- In the Ethiopian law the civil code governs matters related to
inheritance and the constitution does not discriminate on the basis of gender.
 Women are granted full rights to inheritance and the civil code maintains that property must
pass to blood relatives.
 The 1993 Health Policy:- a special emphasis has given to the health needs of the family,
particularly that of women and children.
 A National Education Policy:- this aims at raising the enrollment rate and retention of girls
in school.
 The national committee for the eradication of harmful traditional practices:
1.4.3. Gender-related problems in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is a patriarchal society, where gender relationship is characterized by male
domination of the female in all spheres of social life.
 Patriarchy is a gender system legitimizing the predominance of the male over the female.
Social life in which patriarchy is reflected are:
1. Economic; reflected in the existing sex-based division of labor, right to resource,
distribution of services, capacity to make use of available opportunities.
A. Division of labor
The existing division of labor is unfair because;
 it creates more burden on women than men
 Women are not engaged on socially elevating activities
 Under estimate and undervalues women's work.
B. Rights to resources, social services and opportunities
 Like land, livestock, urban houses, factories………held by men than women
2. political/power/decision making

 Men hold society's power and political decision making.

 Men physical force on women is also observed in many instances.
 3. Sexual
 From birth to death, women are subjected to control of men. In early childhood,
parents show preference for boys than girls
 Ex; Girls undergo genital mutilation to reduce women's sexual urge
 Virginity and loyalty is expected from girls.
 4. Technology
 Technologies are mostly designed to suit the physical conditions of men.
5. Ideology
 Is ideas with which the society socializes, which used to defend and
justify the system of patriarchy and this is reflected in the;
A. Laws
 1960 civil code; that treats women which is now revised in 1998
 1957 penal code has also been revised where critical issues affecting
women and children including rape, domestic violence and child abuse.
B. Religion; texts of Christianity and Islam
C. Proverbs and stories; proverbs, songs

 Can patriarchy abolished?

 Chapter Two:
Gender analysis frameworks/tools
 WHAT IS GENDER ANALYSIS?

 Gender analysis is a process to identify, analyze, and inform action to

address gender inequalities.
 Methodology for collecting and processing information about gender
 Identifyroles, needs, and opportunities of women AND men
 Requires information -- quantitative and qualitative
 Explores women’s and men’s different realities and expectations
 Understanding the different experiences, knowledge, and needs of men
and women allows programs and policies to include those needs.
 Gender analysis……. Conti….
 Gender analysis is a process of examining how gender roles,
norms, and relations affect people's lives and experiences.
 It involves looking at how gender influences social, economic, and
political opportunities and outcomes.
 Gender analysis can be applied to a variety of fields, including
development, education, health, and economics, to identify and
address gender-based disparities and inequalities.
 By understanding how gender influences different aspects of life,
gender analysis can help to promote gender equality and
improve the lives of both men and women.
Gender Analysis cont…
 Gender analysis is a systematic methodology for examining
the differences in roles and norms for women and men, girls
and boys; the different levels of power they hold; their differing
needs, constraints, and opportunities; and the impact of these
differences in their lives.
 Gender analysis, as defined by USAID, is an analytic, social
science tool that is used to identify, understand, and explain
gaps between males and females that exist in households,
communities, and countries, and the relevance of gender norms
and power relations in a specific context.
Goals of Gender Analysis

 Better understand our community (women, men, girls and boys)

 Get better results from development programs.

Gender analysis can be done using:

 Formal interviews and surveys, mapping

 Household interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs)
 What Can Gender Analysis Tells Us?

An analysis of gender relations can tell us;

 Who has access, which has control, who is likely to benefit from a new
initiative, and who is likely to lose?
 Itcan also lead us to explore assumptions about issues such as the
distribution of resources and the impact of culture and traditions.
 Itcan also provide information on the potential direct or indirect benefit of a
development initiative on women and men.
 The information obtained from gender analysis serves:

 To devise/plan measures for equity to address disparities,

 To establish benchmarks for evaluation of the project performance.
 To design effective resource-use strategies for programs/projects.
 To devise mechanisms for increasing women's participation,
 To develop indigenous community resource management techniques, and
 To identify and remove gender discriminatory institutions.
 Why Should We Do a Gender Analysis?
The purpose of the gender analysis is to answer the following key questions:
 How will the anticipated results of the work affect women and men differently?
 How will the different roles and statuses of women and men affect the work to be
undertaken?
 Ultimately, conducting a gender analysis entails understanding and addressing gender
inequalities in power and privileges, and the use of tactics, including violence to uphold
inequitable rights and privileges.
 WHEN DO WE DO A GENDER ANALYSIS?
 Gender analysis should be undertaken at all stages of a
programme/ project cycle, i.e.:
 Identification of the project or activity
 Formulation/design
 Implementation and
 Monitoring and evaluation
 Most effective when initiated during the design phase
When and how to use the frameworks
Use a gender
analysis
framework Use a
Design gender
analysis
framework

Ongoing M&E
Ongoing M&E

Evaluation Inception

Use a
gender
analysis
framework Implement

Use a
gender
analysis
framework
GENDER ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
 Who does what within and outside of the household?
 Who owns/controls/accesses what?
 What are the institutional, economic and social factors?

Photo: Lindsey Spinks

GENDER ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
• What capabilities, opportunities and powers do men and women have?
• Did you review sex-disaggregated data?
• Were women and men consulted?
• Have the different needs, interests and responsibilities been
considered?
• What groups are most likely to be affected and how?
WHO SHOULD DO A GENDER ANALYSIS?
 If doing primary data collection, it is important to have trained researchers with strong research
skills overseeing the process as well as the data collection.
 Data collectors that have good facilitation skills are best.
 If relying on secondary data analysis, it is important to have a gender specialist or someone
with some experience or training in gender analysis and integration to analyze the data.
 Government
 Policymakers
 Donors
 Program Managers
 Development Staff
 Field workers, etc.
 GA should be participatory involving key stakeholders from the field where the
intervention is to take place
 Gender Analysis can be conducted through a variety of Tools and Frameworks
 HOW TO CONDUCT A GENDER ANALYSIS?

Gender analysis has two parts.

 The first part is a process to identify inequalities, gaps, and disparities
in a particular context.
 It consists of collecting information and data on gender roles, relations,
and identities related to specific health problems to identify gaps and
disparities based on gender differences.
 The second part of the analysis entails analyzing the information
collected on gender differences to determine and prioritize gender-based
constraints and opportunities and their implication for the achieving
health objectives and equal status of women and men (Caro,2009)
Cont……
 Collect Relevant Data Sex-disaggregated information for analysis (Who does what?
Gender roles, responsibilities, priorities of men and women both within and outside
the household? Who has what? Who controls what?)
 Identify Relevant Gender Issues (women's and men's practical needs and strategic
interests)
 Understand the institutional, economic, social, and political contexts (What are the
differences, constraints, influences, and power dynamics between women and
men?)
 Understand the priorities and needs of both men and women affected by the project
(what do they need/want?)
 GENDER ANALYSIS BENEFITS

• Leads to effective policies and programs and the efficient

use of resources
• Equal access to resources and opportunities promotes
economic development
 Gender Analysis Frameworks
 Genderanalysis frameworks are a useful tool with which to
understand gender dynamics within a project or a context.
A gender analysis framework (GAF) provides a structure for
organizing information about gender roles and relations.
 Gender analytic tools are systematic frameworks for diagnosing
the existing gender situation in a given community
 GAF cont…
 Thereare a number of gender analytic tools available,
including:
1. The Moser Gender Analytical Framework(Gender planning)
2. Sara Longwe’s Women Equality and empowerment framework
3. Social Relation Approach(SRA) framework
4. FAO Gender Analytical Framework
5. The Harvard Gender Analytical Framework
 Moser Gender Analysis Framework

 This framework was developed by Caroline Moser.

 It comes very much from the tradition of planning as a discipline but finds
the current traditions of planning inadequate.
At the heart of the framework are the concepts of:
 Women’s triple role;
 Practical and strategic gender needs; and
 Categories of policy approaches to women and development/gender and
development
 Tool 1: Gender Role Identification/Triple Role
 This tool involves mapping the gender division of labour

Who Does What?

The Moser Framework recognizes that in most societies low income women
have a triple role: Reproductive work, Productive work and Community
work
Gender Role Identification
 Use: Program design and planning
 Understand who does what
ACTIVITIES WOMEN MEN GIRLS BOYS
Productive
Reproductive
Community
EXAMPLE: MOSER FRAMEWORK TOOL 1:GENDER ROLE
IDENTIFICATION
ACTIVITIES WOMEN MEN GIRLS BOYS
Productive
Gardening Household gardens and Wheat crops Household gardens
maize and maize
Livestock Care Year-round
Income Sell extra household Sell crops and Assist
Generation vegetables livestock livestock/crop
sales

Reproductive
Water-Related Collect water daily
Food Lead food preparation Assist food
Preparation preparation
Childcare Lead childcare Secondary caregiver
Market- Shops in the
Related market
Community
Religious Sometimes attends Always attends Rarely attends Always attends
Activities
School Rarely finish primary Until secondary
 Tool 2: Gender Needs Assessment

The second tool involves an assessment of practical and strategic needs.

 Practical gender needs – These are needs identified to help women in
their existing subordinate position in society.
 Strategicgender needs – The needs identified to transform existing
subordinate relationships between men and women.
Tool 3: Disaggregated Data at the Intra-household Level

Who Controls What? Who Decides What? How?

 Here one needs to recognize that intra-household resource allocation is
the outcome of bargaining processes.
 One needs to find out who has control over what resources within the
household and who holds what power in decision making.
 Harvard Gender Analytical Framework

 Harvard Gender Analysis Framework is a tool to collect data at the

community and household levels.
 The framework was designed by the Harvard Institute for International
Development.
 The Harvard Gender Analysis Framework has three main components.
These are:
1. Activity Profile (who does what?),
2. Access and Control Profile (who has access and who controls what?),
3. Analysis of Factors Influencing Activities, Access, and Control
Tool 1; Activity profile
This tool identifies all relevant productive and reproductive tasks and
answers the question: who does what?
Activity profile cont….
EXAMPLE: GENDER ANALYSIS TOOLS(ACTIVITY
PROFILE TOOL)
Italy
Hours (h) Minutes (m)/day
Task Women Men
Personal care (sleeping, eating,
grooming) 11h12m 11h16m
Employment 1h52m 4h15m
Studies 14m 11m
Domestic work (cooking, cleaning,
childcare, shopping, pet care) 5h20m 1h35m
Leisure 4h6m 5h5m
Travel (to/from work, leisure
activities, shopping, etc.) 1h14m 1h35m
Unspecified 3m 3m
Total 24h 24h
 Tool2; Access and control

This tool enables users to list what resources people use to carry out the tasks
identified in the Activity Profile.
 TOOL2; ACCESS AND CONTROL PROFILE

• Access, Control and Decisions (Harvard GAF)

 Use: Program design, implementation
 Understand decision-making and resource controls
ACCESS CONTROL
Resources Women Men Girls Boys Women Men Girls Boys
Land Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No

Equipment Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No

Labor Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No
Cash Yes Yes No Sometimes No Yes No No

Education/ No Yes No Sometimes Yes Yes No No

Training
Tool 3; Analysis of Factors Influencing Activities, Access and Control

 Influencing
factors are factors which affect the relationship
between women, and men.
 Different influencing factors have different impact on the
gender arrangement, depending on the society and point in
time in question.
 This tool allows you to chart factors which influence the differences in
the gender division of labour, access, and control as listed in the two
Profiles(Tools i and 2).
 Identifying past and present influences can give an indication of future
trends.
Chapter Three: Women & Men Farmers in Rural
Development
 Introduction
What is rural development?
 The term has two words- rural and development.
 As we all know that rural is a sparsely populated area in which people depend on
agricultural land and other natural resources.
 Rural development means the utilization, protection, and enhancement of the natural,
physical, and human resources needed to make long-term improvements in rural living
conditions.
 It refers to the growth of the rural economy and the improvement of people’s wellbeing.
 The majorities of the Ethiopian population lives in rural areas, and they are mostly
dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods, such as forests and water.
 Rural women like their male counterparts engage in agricultural activities but their
contributions do not get recognition compared to men, in fact they are seen as simple
assistants to men.
3.1 The need to work with both men and women farmers

 Women are an integral part of farming households.

 Women farmers need to be reached because the contribution of
both female and male farmers is substantial and essential to
the agricultural development of a nation.
 Women usually have more limited access to resources and
opportunities and their productivity remains low relative to
their potential.
 Women play an important role in the peasant agriculture of
Ethiopia, contributing more than 50% of the total labor force.
 The distinction in training delivery and information by
extension planners restricts the skill development of a
substantial proportion of the agricultural labor force.
 We need to acknowledge the role of men, women, and children
in our farming system on equal footing and in more clean terms.
Why making female farmers targets in extension:

1. It improves productivity
2. Helps nations to achieve their goals
3. Maximize the utilization of scarce extension resource.
 The challenge for extension planners is to insure that both women and men farmers are
targeted as extension clients and to identify the appropriate means of directing training and
technologies to them.
If- not it brings;
 low returns
 inefficiency
 failure to achieve development objectives (In the long run)
Conti….

 The productivity and welfare of rural households can be maximized when

both men and women farmers participate in extension activities that is relevant
to their roles as agricultural producers.
 Female headed households should be given special emphasis by extension
programs because they belong generally to small farm category.
 Also, women in male-headed households are generally not mainstream clients
in agricultural extension services and household surveys
3.2 Gender Barriers to involvement in RD Activities

1. Resource based barrier

Like:
 lack of technology
 lack of access to credit
 low literacy
 small size of land etc.
Cont….

The barriers that prevent women from owning land usually restrict women’s
access to credit due to reasons which some of these include:
 Land is a form of collateral:-- many women do not have land title
 Husbands have to sign for the credit:-- In many cases their husbands have to
sign for the credits because women have no or lower level of numeric ability
and general education
 Distance and cost of travel to credit institutions: - these are also
contributing factors that discourage women’s access to credit or financial
institutions.
Educational Based Barrier
2. Educational Based Barrier

 Better educated farmers are more likely to adopt new technologies and to have
access to extension services.
 The gap b/n women's and men literacy rates is high in rural areas, therefore this
gap has implication for women farmers’ adoption of new technologies.
3. Time Related barriers
 Women are more involved than men in routine, time consuming activities;
therefore, time availability is more of a constraint for them.
4. Mobility Related Barriers
 Women's freedom to move inside and outside the community is restricted in
some societies due to their responsive roles, social and religious reasons, less
cash to pay for transport etc.
3.3. Difficulties faced by RD workers in reaching women farmers

 Extension workers usually find it much easier to exchange information with

the rural men out in the field than with the women.
 The restrictions of women’s participation in agricultural extension programs
can arise due different reasons (Nuray Kizilaslan, 2007) which some of these
include:
 Lack of training and education
 Lack of time
 Social biases
 Women’s mobility problems
Some of the difficulties faced by RD (research and development) workers in reaching women farmers include:

1.Limited access to women farmers: Women farmers may be located in remote or hard-to-
reach areas, which can make it difficult for RD workers to reach them.
2. Cultural barriers: Cultural norms and gender roles may make it difficult for RD workers to
interact with women farmers, particularly in male-dominated communities.
3.Limited mobility: Women farmers may have limited mobility due to a lack of transportation
or other resources, which can make it difficult for RD workers to reach them.
4. Limited literacy and language barriers: Women farmers may have limited literacy or
speak a different language than RD workers, which can make it difficult to communicate
effectively.
5.Limited trust: Women farmers may be hesitant to engage with RD workers due to a lack of
trust or past negative experiences.
To overcome these difficulties, RD workers can take several steps, such as:

1. Partnering with local organizations: Partnering with local organizations that have
established relationships with women farmers can help RD workers to reach these farmers
more effectively.
2.Building trust: Building trust with women farmers by listening to their needs and concerns
and demonstrating a genuine interest in their well-being can help to overcome barriers to
engagement.
3.Using appropriate communication methods: Using appropriate communication methods
such as visual aids or working with translators can help to overcome language barriers.
4.Offering flexible solutions: Offering flexible solutions such as training sessions held at
different times or locations can help to overcome mobility barriers.
5.Promoting gender equality: Promoting gender equality and working with men and
women to shift societal attitudes can help to overcome cultural barriers.
3.4. Developing appropriate extension package for women

In the process of the development of gender extension package, FAO Corporate Document
Repository (2007) states important points to be considered such as:
 Gender situation analysis and review of technologies: --
 Concerns and comments needs to be gathered from the rural women and it should be
addressed in the extension packages.
 Any support services and improved technologies that is needed in the community must be
identified.
 A review of the appropriateness of the existing extension packages has to meet the daily
activities of women.
Cont…
 Ensure responsiveness to felt needs of women: - As much as possible the pressing needs
of women must be well addressed.
 Progresses achieved must be reported to the women because achievements can help
women to build confidences.
 Involve the women in the process of package development: - a brief discussion and
comment gathering with women farmer representatives is important to do for the
applicability and reliability of the packages in to their practices.
 Consulting the women farmers is a way to identify their problems clearly and gives them
assurance to extension services.
 Be flexible in the development of extension package: Flexibility is recommended in
using packages as it allows women farmers to have more inputs and practices in the
progress of using the package.
When developing an appropriate extension package for
women, it is important to consider the following factors:

1.Needs assessment: Conducting a needs assessment to identify the specific needs and challenges faced by women farmers
can help to tailor the extension package to their needs.
2.Gender sensitivity: Ensuring that the extension package is gender-sensitive and takes into account the specific needs and
challenges faced by women farmers.
3.Involvement of women: Involving women in the development and implementation of the extension package can help to
ensure that it is relevant and effective.
4.Appropriate communication methods: Using appropriate communication methods such as visual aids or working with
translators can help to overcome language barriers.
5. Flexibility: Offering flexible solutions such as training sessions held at different times or locations can help to overcome
mobility barriers.
6.Addressing social norms: Addressing social norms and cultural barriers that may limit women's participation in
agriculture can help to promote gender equality and ensure that women have equal access to resources and opportunities.
7. Sustainability: Ensuring that the extension package is sustainable and that women farmers have access to ongoing support
and resources can help to ensure its long-term effectiveness.
Extension package fail to adequately address rural women's needs;

1. Considering men farmers as the main target

2. Fail to address women's specific needs
3. Rarely inviting women to attained existing extension package etc.
 Improving the problems regarding Extension package;
1. Flexibility to allow women to adopt inputs and practices on a step by step
basis
2. Give attention to post harvest and marketing operations
3. Time consuming tasks of women can be reduced through use of simple, low
cost labor-saving technologies.
4. Improving access to credit to women
3.4.1. Developing Gender Sensitive Extension package for rural women

Developing a gender-sensitive extension package for rural women requires a comprehensive

approach that takes into account the specific needs and challenges faced by women farmers.
 Here are some steps that can be taken to develop a gender-sensitive extension package:
1.Conduct a gender analysis: Conduct a gender analysis to identify the specific needs and
challenges faced by women farmers in the target area.
2. Involve women in the development process: Involve women farmers in the development
and implementation of the extension package.
3.Address gender norms and stereotypes: Address gender norms and stereotypes that may
limit women's participation in agriculture.
4.Use appropriate communication methods: Use appropriate communication methods that
are accessible to women farmers, such as visual aids or working with translators to overcome
language barriers.
 Cont... GSEP steps
5. Provide training on gender-sensitive practices: Provide training on gender-
sensitive practices that take into account the specific needs and challenges faced
by women farmers.
6.Ensure access to resources: Ensure that women farmers have access to
resources such as land, credit, and technology that are necessary for their
participation in agriculture.
7. Monitor and evaluate the extension package: Monitor and evaluate the
extension package to ensure that it is meeting the needs of women farmers and
promoting gender equality in agriculture.
3.5.Contacting Rural Women: working with rural women in practice

A. Who should contact women?

 Female agents
 Male agents
 Contact farmers
B. What communication methods should be used:
1. Using visual aids and traditional media. Ex drawing, photo
2. Using demonstration, field days and tours
-Commonly used extension methods
3. Using speeches and talks
-more effective if followed by discussions and visual aids
4. Using group discussion
5. Using Audiovisuals
3.6. Mobilizing Women groups for self-help development

 Workingwith rural women through groups, both from both men and women
members.
 A women group offers a place to speak up freely and talk about needs and
interest which are often overlooked.
Steps in forming a women's group

1. Know the community and go through community/traditional leaders and

authorities (requesting permission)
2. Get support of local leaders in identifying potential groups of women which
may be interested to work together
3. Initial meetings should be carried with the group
-group size should be kept small
-formation of viable and stable groups require patience and in most cases, a
period of 2-6 months.
Four basic principles in group formation

1. The group should be small and manageable

- Small groups are less likely to be divided by arguments or dominated by a
majority
2. The group should be homogeneous
-similar economic condition and similar background
3. Groups should be formed around income generating
4. Groups should be voluntary and democratic
3.7 Policy Related Issues for Rural Women: Women access to
land and other rural resources
 For direct involvement of women in agriculture activities, demand for
additional external inputs like credit, fertilizer, farm tools etc., is highly
dependent on access to and control over the basic means of production.
 Women access to and control over land

The Derg period (r. 1974–1991)

 The land policy of the government stated: “without differentiation of the
sexes, any person who is willing to personally cultivate land shall be allotted
rural land sufficient for his maintenance and that of his family” (Hadera
2002).
 The 1975 reform granted all peasants and tenants to maintain and held the
land which they previously farmed and freed them from any exploitation by
the landlords (Daniel 2012).
 Moreover, the 1975 land policies and proclamations were poorly
implemented especially to protect women’s right of land during divorce and
the death of a husband.
EPRDF (r. 1991 onwards)

 The 1995 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) Constitution declared land to be the
property of the State and the People of Ethiopia.
 Article 40 sub-article (3) of the constitution stated that “The right to ownership of rural and urban
land, as well as of all natural resources, is exclusively vested in the state and the peoples of
Ethiopia.
 Land is a common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be
subject to sale or to other means of exchange”
 The FDRE Constitution under Article 4(4) of the Proclamation underscores the fact that: “The land
administration law of the regions shall confirm the equal rights of women in respect of the use,
administration and control of land as well as in respect of transferring and bequeathing holding
rights”
 Equal access of land and certification did not increase women’s right to equally use of land
attributed to various reasons.
 Discriminatory cultural practices, low awareness of women on land right, poor law enforcement
mechanisms and lower status of women are the most important factors
Here are some tips on policy-related issues that can help to improve women's access to land and other rural resources:

 Address gender-biased land policies: Addressing gender-biased land policies can help to
ensure that women have equal access to land. This can involve revising land laws and
regulations to ensure that they do not discriminate against women.
 Ensure women's land rights: Ensuring that women have secure land rights can help to
protect them from eviction and displacement. This can involve providing legal recognition
of women's land rights and protecting them from unlawful seizure.
 Provide support for women's land registration: Providing support for women's land
registration can help to ensure that they have legal recognition of their land rights.
 Ensure access to credit: Ensuring access to credit can help women to invest in their land
and agricultural activities.
 Promote gender equality in rural development policies: Promoting gender equality in
rural development policies can help to ensure that women have equal access to resources
such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN AND
GENDER
Chapter Four: Empowerment of Women and Gender
4.1. THE CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT
 Empowerment is the process of providing individuals or groups with the tools, resources,
and opportunities they need to gain greater control over their lives and achieve their goals.
 This can include access to education, healthcare, employment, and leadership positions,
as well as the ability to make decisions that affect their own lives and the lives of their
families and communities.
 Empowerment also involves building self-confidence, self-esteem, and a sense of
agency and autonomy.
 Ultimately, empowering individuals and groups can lead to greater social, economic, and
political equality.
 Empowerment has been defined as infusing people with power
 The dictionary meaning of empowerment is that it is “the empowerment of a person or
group of people is the process of giving them power and status in a particular situation.
Concept of Empowerment……CONT……
 Empowerment is the process that allows one to gain the knowledge,
skill sets, and attitude needed to cope with the changing world and
the circumstances in which one lives.
 Empowerment is fundamentally about power – the power to
redefine our Possibilities and options and act on them.
 GENERALLY, It involves awareness-raising, building self-
confidence, expanding choices, and increasing access to and control
over resources and actions to transform the structures and
institutions that reinforce and perpetuate gender discrimination and
inequality.
Cont…
 According to Rawland, in order to understand the process of empowerment, there is a
need to be aware that power can take many different forms.
A. Power over; Controlling power, this may be responded to with compliance, resistance
(which weakens processes of victimization), or manipulation.
B. Power to; Generative or productive power (sometimes incorporating or manifesting as
forms of resistance or manipulation) which creates new possibilities and actions without
domination.
C. Power with; a sense of the whole being greater than the sum of the individuals, especially
when a group tackles problems together.
D. Power from within: ‘the spiritual strength and uniqueness that resides in each one of us
and makes true human.
Its basis is self-acceptance and self-respect, which extend, in turn, to respect for and
acceptance of others as equals.
According to Rawland, empowerment to be operating within three dimensions:

A. Personal: development of a sense of self and individual confidence and capacity, and
undoing the defects of internalized oppression.
B. Rational: developing the ability to negotiate and influence the nature of a relationship and
decisions made within it.
C. Collective: This includes involvement in political structures, but might also cover
collective action-based cooperation rather than competition.
Cont…
The elements required in enabling one to gain power, authority, and influence over others,
institutions or society may be listed as follows:
 Access to information and resources for taking proper decision
 Availability of a range of options from which choices can be made (not just yes/no, either/or.)
 Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making
 Positive thinking on the ability to make change
 Ability to learn skills for improving one's personal or group power.
 Ability to change others‘ perceptions by democratic means.
 Involvement in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated
 Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma
 Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
 Empowerment of women refers to the
process of providing women with the tools,
resources, and opportunities they need to
achieve greater social, economic, and
political equality.
 This includes access to education,
healthcare, employment, and leadership
positions, as well as the ability to make
decisions that affect their own lives and the
lives of their families and communities.
 The empowerment of women concerns
women gaining power and control over
their own lives.
Women Empowerment framewrok
Cont..
 Empowerment of Women: empowerment relates to the ability of women to
manage their lives.
 Gender empowerment, on the other hand, focuses on promoting equality and
fairness between men and women.
 Itinvolves creating a society where both men and women have equal rights
and opportunities to participate in all aspects of life, without discrimination
based on their gender.
 Whilewomen empowerment is a subset of gender empowerment, gender
empowerment is a broader concept that includes both men and women.
The particular aspects of domestic empowerment we examine are:

(1) Women’s economic decision-making power—do they participate in the family’s major
economic decisions and have the freedom to make minor economic decisions on their own?
(2) their family size decision-making power—do they participate in or control decisions
 about how many children to have?
(3) their physical freedom of movement—can they visit sites such as the local market,
 health center or fields outside the village without obtaining permission from other family
members?
(4) Their husband’s control of them via intimidation and force, specifically, are they afraid to
disagree with the husband for fear he will become angry with them, and does he ever hit or
beat them?
In the following, we furthermore distinguish between three groups of
Women empowerment aspects:
 Political empowerment,
 Economic empowerment, and
 social/legal empowerment.
4.2. Economic Empowerment of Women

 Women’s economic empowerment is a prerequisite for sustainable development and pro-poor

growth.
 Women must have more equitable access to assets and services; infrastructure programs should
be designed to benefit the poor, both men and women and employment opportunities must be
improved while increasing recognition of women’s vast unpaid work.
 Economic Empowerment which is also part of all the classifications reviewed relates to
women’s economic opportunities.
 Key aspects of this type of empowerment are women’s access to formal sector employment,
self-employment, borrowing, saving and access to and control of economic resources.
 Women’s economic empowerment is a prerequisite for sustainable development, pro-poor
growth and the achievement of all the MDGs.
 Women’s empowerment is about rights and equitable societies.
 Achieving women’s economic empowerment is not a “quick fix”. It will take sound public
Cont..
There are specific challenges when working with the poorest women such as:
 lower levels of literacy
 lower levels of access to and control over resources
 lower levels of access to networks and people who can assist and support, and
Such constraints require donors to take into account of
the specific needs of the poorest women in the design
of programs, such as:
 Give women credit
 Providing supplementary services
 Taking a holistic approach to women’s economic empowerment
 Improving donor practice in key areas of the economy
 Control of productive assets and access to services in the agricultural sector
 Access to tools, innovations and agricultural extension services
 Securing women’s property and land rights
 Making markets work better for women
 Designing infrastructure programmes to benefit poor women
 Improving employment for women
4.3 Social Empowerment

Legal/social empowerment: A second group of aspects, which is often (but not always)
present in the classifications of empowerment reviewed, relates to women’s roles as social
actors in the community and in the household.
Key aspects of this group are legal rights, status, and norms.
Two examples of legal empowerment are:
(i) the removal of legislation that constrains women from divorce, and
(ii) assistance directed at informing women of their legal rights.
Norms are in this report defined as rules of conduct or expectations for the behavior of
members of society.
4.4. Political empowerment of women

 political empowerment of women refers to the process of increasing women's

participation, representation, and influence in political decision-making at all
levels of government.
 It involves creating an environment where women have equal opportunities
to participate in political activities, run for office, and hold positions of
power and authority.
 Political empowerment of women also involves ensuring that women's
voices and perspectives are heard and taken into account in policy-making
and implementation.
 The goal of the political empowerment of women is to promote gender
equality and to ensure that women have an equal say in shaping the policies
4.5. Gender Mainstreaming
 Gender mainstreaming is the process of integrating a gender
perspective into all policies, programs, and activities at all levels
and stages of decision-making.
 It is an approach aimed at achieving gender equality by ensuring
that gender perspectives and considerations are incorporated into
all aspects of planning, implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation of policies and programs.
 The goal of gender mainstreaming is to promote equal
opportunities for men and women and to eliminate discrimination
and inequalities based on gender.
Cont…
In the following, we shall consider the empowerment potential of three types of
interventions: Microfinance, education and legal aid.
4.3.1 Intervention areas
1. Microfinance
 The premise for micro-finance interventions is often a situation where women’s access and control of
external resources differ from that of men.
2. Education
 In some areas it may be less socially accepted for girls to attend school in which case parents would opt to send boys to
schools regardless of perceived ability of the children.
3. Legal aid
 legal aid interventions are more directly related to social and legal empowerment.
Chapter Five: Rural Youth in Agricultural and Rural Development
 Brainstorming Questions ?

Are Rural Youth in Ethiopia Abandoning

Agriculture?
Why agriculture is not attractive to youth?
Why is it important to engage youth in agriculture?
How can technology help agriculture?
What is the future for youth in agriculture?
 Why is it important to engage youth in agriculture?
 The unemployment rate for youth is currently three times that of
adults in all regions of the world, according to a 2021 report from
the Food and Agriculture Organization.
 In Africaespecially, which boasts the globe’s youngest population,
two-thirds of youth are unemployed or working in vulnerable, low-
paying positions
 "We now need to unlock the potential of the agricultural sector."
 Why agriculture is not attractive to youth?

 Farmers across the globe regularly confront issues such as climate

change, pests and invasive species, outdated farming practices and
limited access to technology, all of which hinder productivity and
income generation.
 The World Bank states 80% of the world’s rural poor earn a
living through farming, and the sector employs half the rural
population of the entire continent of Africa.
 Therole of youth in agriculture is, in fact, that of immense
possibility — to grow more food, transform local food systems
and build economies that lift entire communities out of poverty.
“We cannot always build the future for our youth,
but we can build our youth for the future.”
Former U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
5.1 Who are the Rural Youth?

 Age as gender is a way of grouping the rural people.

 Different countries have different age categories for the same terminology (youth).
 The dictionary defines the terminology as the period between childhood and maturity.
 In some countries, youth are between 12 and 18 years of age.
 In the case of Ethiopia, it is between 15-30 years (Ministry of Youth and Sport Ethiopia,
2011), while the UN defines it as individuals female or male aged between 15-24 years of
age.
 Individuals below 15 years are defined as children, while those above 24 years are defined
as adults.
 The concept of ‘youth’ varies widely from country to country, and may even vary widely
within a given country.
For now, it is important for you to remember the following:

 The concept of youth varies widely, within and across countries, because of different social
and cultural contexts as well as the biological changes associated with the concept.
 Despite the different definitions of ‘youth’ that you may come across, young people share
some key characteristics that you ought to know about.
 The main objective of targeting the youth is show concern for the future of the
youngsters and to keep them settled so as to minimize migrations to town.
 The rural youth should be catered for by the extension services.
Youth…..
 In Ethiopia, because of the fact that proper attention has not been
given to addressing youth issues and their organizations, therefore,
mutual cooperation and networking among youth, family, society,
other partners and government had hardly been created.
 Various governmental institutions, in line with their respective
policies which they have formulated to realize their missions, have
been making efforts to address the problems and needs of youth.
Cont…
In this section of the unit, we analyze three ways of looking at the concept of
young people.
 We shall be looking at youth as:
 an age category;
a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood (including here a
discussion of some gender issues)
a social construct.
An age category
 Youth as an age category is the most conventional, popular and common-
sense way in which youth has been defined.
 Those who think about youth principally in terms of an age category argue
that this defines youth best.
 They point to the similarity of experiences that young people of the same age
tend to have.
 These common experiences are what make young people define themselves as
sharing the same position.
 The main problem with using an age definition is that it is difficult to reach a
reliable consensus as to where youth begins and ends.
A transitional stage
 Four significant marker happenings the transition from childhood to
adulthood, according to Mitterauer (1993), a social scientist who has
researched how the conceptualization of youth has changed over time in
Europe.
 He maintains that these transitional markers have remained fairly stable over
time.
 They are:
 leaving home
 finding employment
 setting up home
 marriage.
Cont….
We conceptualize youth purely as an age category or as a transitional stage
between childhood and adulthood it will be inadequate.
This is because:
 itfails to take into account the specific race, gender, class or cultural context
in which a young person actually negotiates his or her life
 itignores the problems raised by the assumption that there are clear and
absolute differences between childhood, youth and adulthood
 itencourages the view that youth is a biologically determined process that is
natural, universal and a historical.
A social construct
 Our common-sense theories tell us that we know what youth is.
 After all, we have all been young and we see young people around us all the
time.
 We can generally tell what people’s ages are by looking at them and we have a
concept of what people are like at those ages.
 Every society creates ways of seeing youth.
 To put it another way, every society constructs views of youth.
 These social constructs of youth are not necessarily biologically or socially
true, nor do they always show youth the way they really are psychologically.
Conclude remark on youth
 YOUTH is best understood as a period of transition from the dependence of
childhood to adulthood’s independence.
 That’s why, as a category, youth is more fluid than other fixed age-groups.
Yet, age is the easiest way to define this group, particularly in relation to
education and employment, because ‘youth’ is often referred to a person
between the ages of leaving compulsory education, and finding their first
job.
 Definition of youth perhaps changes with circumstances, especially with the
changes in demographic, financial, economic and socio-cultural settings;
however, the definition that uses 15- 24 age cohort as youth fairly serves its
statistical purposes for assessing the needs of the young people and
providing guidelines for youth development.
 5.2 Common problems faced by the rural youth worldwide

The following are major barriers/ problems youth are facing:

 Burdened with special obligations :- starting from a very early age, working for long hours.
 They are faced with landlessness /diminishing farm size/ unemployment:- As a result,
production is not sufficient for the family and hence.
 Lack of motivation:- as young people see the backwardness and neglect of rural areas, they
lose inspiration and often see little hope for their own future.
 Lack of training:- many lack formal education and technical training.
 Lack of involvement and opportunities:- they often feel isolated and unable to get
involved in development activities.
 Usage of drugs, and alcohol and usable to disease:- including HIV/AIDS, such practices
affect their health.
 Lack of any coherent youth policy and implementation:- There should be a designed
policies existed but lack implementation to serve the youth and participate in development.
5.3 Rural Youth in Extension
 Rural youth can play a significant role in agricultural extension, if they are properly
handled.
 They can act as a dynamic force in communities because they generally have a positive
attitude to change.
They provide a range of services available in one location; the following could be done
through them:
 raising demonstration plots and showing to others
 keeping themselves aware with latest agricultural technologies and adopt all improved
agricultural technologies
 educating other farmers, youth councils
 acting as liaison between extension workers and farmers.
 multipurpose youth centers – recreation, primary health care, advice on reproductive health;
skills training

Conti…
 Rural youths are also play a role on community development.
 Community development services are general services outside the specific service that
young people may use.
 They work with vulnerable groups of people to develop particular aspects of their lives, or
they may aim to work with people generally and to provide a complete range of services in
one location.
These are some of the services:
 community theatre groups
 environmental health services
 drug users’ rehabilitation community projects
 anti-poverty projects
 literacy schemes
 enterprise schemes etc
5.4 Youth Organizations

 A youth organization can be almost as broad--or as narrow--in scope as an organization for

adults, or for the community as a whole.
 Youth organizations can be run through schools, in churches, in neighborhoods, or at local
rec centers. They may operate on a local, national, or even international level.
 Youth organizations are unique in that they are primarily focused on reflecting the views
and serving the needs of young people.
 Whether these are structured organizations or informal groups, they provide a space where
young people can organize for action to meet community needs and experience group
processes.
 In Ethiopia, because of the fact that proper attention has not been given to addressing youth
issues and their organizations, mutual cooperation and networking among youth, family,
society, other partners and government had hardly been created.
Chapter Six: Leadership for Development
6.1. Introduction
 Leadership can be defined as the position or function of a leader or the ability
to lead.
According to John Gardner, in On Leadership,
 "Leadership is the process of persuasion or example by which an individual
(or leadership team) induces a group to pursue objectives held by the leader
or shared by the leader and his or her followers.“
 Effective leaders are able to set and achieve challenging goals, take swift and
decisive action even in difficult situations, outperform their competition, take
calculated risks, and persevere in the face of failure.
 Strong communication skills, self-confidence, the ability to manage others and
a willingness to embrace change also characterize good leaders.
 Leadership… cont…

 Leadership is the ability to inspire, motivate, and guide individuals or groups

toward a common goal.
 Itinvolves setting a clear vision, making sound decisions, and effectively
communicating with others.
 6.2 lay leaders

 A lay leader is a member of the laity in any congregation who has been
chosen as a leader.
 Since lay leadership is not an ordained clerical office, the lay leader's
responsibilities vary according to the particular tradition to which he or she
belongs.
 Some organizations do not allow the lay leader to give sacraments for
example, but do allow them to perform most other portions of the service that
are normally the responsibility of the clergy (e.g. giving sermons when the
regular clergy are on vacation).
 Lay Leaders…… Conti…

 Lay leaders are individuals who are members of a religious community and who are not
ordained or trained as professional religious leaders.
 They are typically volunteers who take on leadership roles within their religious
community, serving as mentors, teachers, and facilitators of religious activities.
 Lay leaders can play an important role in supporting and guiding their fellow community
members in their faith journey.
 They may lead prayer groups, Bible studies, or other religious activities, and may also
provide pastoral care and support to those in need.
 Lay leaders are often chosen for their dedication, knowledge, and commitment to their
faith, and may receive training or support from professional religious leaders to help
them carry out their duties effectively.
 Example of lay leaders
 An example of a lay leader could be a member of a church who volunteers to lead a small
group Bible study.
 They may plan and lead weekly or monthly Bible study sessions, guiding discussions and
providing insights into the text.
 Another example could be a member of a mosque who volunteers to lead prayer services
in the absence of an imam.
 This person may have a strong commitment to their faith and a good understanding of the
rituals and practices of their religion.
 They may lead daily prayers or Friday Jummah prayers, helping to create a sense of
community and connection among the worshippers.
 In both cases, these lay leaders are providing valuable support and guidance to their
fellow community members, helping to strengthen their faith and deepen their
understanding of their religion.
6.2.1 Qualifications for lay leaders
Lay leaders must full fill the following criteria. These are:
 truthful under all conditions
 honest even when no one is looking
 respectful of other people's reputations
 mature and not defensive
 pure in habits, motives, and relationships
 balanced in priorities
 emotionally stable
 restrained in seeking pleasures
 fair-minded and objective
 faithful in self-examination/evaluation for the purpose of conforming to the image of the idea
 driven to win
 willing to make necessary changes
 Sensitive to the work which is assigned.
 Able to demonstrate loving service to the organization or institute.
 Qualification….cont.. Generally
 The qualifications for a lay leader may vary depending on the specific
context and organization,
 but generally, a lay leader is a member of a religious community who is not
ordained or trained as a professional religious leader.
 Some common qualifications for a lay leader in a religious context may
include a strong commitment to the faith, a deep understanding of the
teachings and practices of the religion, good communication and
interpersonal skills, and a willingness to serve and support the
community.
 In addition, a lay leader may be expected to have a certain level of
maturity, responsibility, and integrity, and to be able to work
collaboratively with other members of the community.
 6.3. Methods of selecting lay leaders
 The methods of selecting lay leaders may vary depending on the specific context and organization, but some common
methods include:
 Nominations: Members of the community may be asked to nominate individuals who they believe would make good
lay leaders.
 This can be done through a formal nomination process or informally through conversations with community leaders.
 Elections: Once a list of nominees has been compiled, community members may be asked to vote on who they
believe is best suited for the role.
 This can be done through a formal election process or through a show of hands at a community meeting.
 Appointments: In some cases, lay leaders may be appointed by the professional religious leaders or governing body
of the organization.
 This may be based on the individual's qualifications, experience, or other factors.
 Self-selection: In some cases, individuals may express interest in serving as a lay leader and may be selected based
on their willingness to serve and their qualifications.
 Regardless of the method used, it is important to ensure that lay leaders are chosen based on their commitment to
the faith, their knowledge and understanding of the teachings and practices of the religion, and their ability to serve
and support the community.
6.4. Opinion Leadership
 Opinion leadership refers to the ability of certain individuals or groups to
influence the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of others.
 Opinion leaders are individuals who are seen as knowledgeable,
trustworthy, and credible in a particular area, and who are able to share their
opinions and ideas with others in a way that is persuasive and influential.
 Opinion leadership refers to the position of individuals who influence the
opinions, attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviors of others.
 Theterm opinion leader is sometimes used synonymously with the champion,
as well as other terms such as lay health advisors, health advocates, and
community leaders.
….What is an opinion leader?
 Opinion leadership is defined as the process in which one person influences the
attitudes or actions of other person informally, who may be identified as opinion
leader.
 They offer informal advice about the product or service.
 An opinion leader is someone who has mastered a specific market or industry and
has established trust within a community as an industry insider or decision-maker.
 They have an audience or following that trust them as a source of information for
their interests.
Why are opinion leaders important?
 Opinion leaders are important because of their ability to influence the market and
consumer trends.
 They often have the authority in the market to be the first to try a new product or
service and have the influence to pass on their information and opinions
 Cont…
 Opinion leaders can be found in many different contexts, including politics,
business, and social media.
 They may be experts in a particular field, celebrities, or simply individuals
who are respected and admired within their community.
 Opinion leadership can be a powerful tool for shaping public opinion and
influencing social change.
 By identifying and working with opinion leaders, organizations and
individuals can amplify their message and increase their impact, helping to
bring about positive change in society.
Characteristics of an opinion leader
 Opinion leaders have several qualities that help them be successful as a trusted source of information in their area of
expertise in the market.
 Characteristics of an opinion leader are:
1.Sense of charisma
 Opinion leaders have a sense of charisma that allows them to convey their message in a likable and influencing way.
2. Respectability
 Opinion leaders are respected, which allows us to have the ability to trust them.
 They earn their level of trust by becoming experts in their field.
3. Interest in issues
 Opinion leaders are interested in an issue that influences their area of expertise.
 The way opinion leaders become experts is by acquiring knowledge from issues that pique their interest.
4. Ability to influence
 Opinion leaders can influence the formation of public opinion with products or services.
 Knowledge
 Ability to easily convey information
 6.5. Theories of leadership
Leadership theories are the explanations of how and why certain people become leaders.
There are several theories of leadership that have been developed over the years. Some of the most well-known theories
include:
 Trait theory: This theory suggests that certain personality traits, such as intelligence, charisma, and confidence, are
inherent qualities of effective leaders.
 Behavioral theory: This theory suggests that leadership is not based on inherent traits, but on the behaviors and actions
of the leader. This theory emphasizes that effective leaders should exhibit certain behaviors, such as setting goals,
communicating effectively, and motivating their followers.
 Contingency theory: This theory suggests that the effectiveness of a leader is contingent upon the situation and the
needs of the group. This theory emphasizes that effective leaders must be able to adapt their leadership style to fit the
needs of the situation and the group.
 Transformational theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders are those who are able to inspire and motivate
their followers to achieve their full potential. This theory emphasizes the importance of vision, inspiration, and
empowerment in leadership.
 Servant leadership theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders are those who prioritize the needs of their
followers over their own needs. This theory emphasizes the importance of empathy, listening, and collaboration in
leadership.
1."Great Man" Theories

 According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born with the
necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence,
and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.
 Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that
great leaders are born, not made.
 These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise
to leadership when needed.
 The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of
primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
2. Trait Theories

 Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people
inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership.
 Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics
shared by leaders.
 For example, traits like extraversion, self-confidence, and courage are all traits
that could potentially be linked to great leaders.
3. Contingency Theories
 Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best
suited for the situation.
 According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.
 Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style,
qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories
 Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variables.
 Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
 For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced
member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate.
5. Behavioral Theories

 Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders
are made through teaching and observation , not born.
6. Participative Theories
 Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one
that takes the input of others into account.
 These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members
and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-
making process.
7. Management Theories
 Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance.
 These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial
theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded;
when they fail, they are punished.
8. Relationship Theories
 Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections
formed between leaders and followers.
 Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the
importance and higher good of the task.
 These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person
to fulfill his or her potential.
 Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.
6.5. Style of leadership

 A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and

motivating people.
 There are many different leadership styles that can be exhibited by leaders in the political,
business or other fields.
1. Authoritarian
2. Paternalistic
3. Democratic
4. Laissez-faire
5.Transactional
6.Transformational
6.6 Participation of women in leadership
 From the local to the global level, women’s leadership and political
participation are restricted.
 Women are underrepresented as voters, as well as in leading positions, whether
in elected office, the civil service, the private sector or academia.
 This occurs despite their proven abilities as leaders and agents of change, and
their right to participate equally in democratic governance.
 6.7. Role of Leadership for development
Influential leaders are very important to:
 Develop the person in the position.
 The result is a more confident, resilient and adaptable leader who can better meet any situation as it arises.
 Create good teamwork and building organizational culture.
 increase their presence through Extensive feedback about the programs
 Practice in the skills of leading group interaction, giving feedback and having conversations that involve
difficult topics.
 Positively impact both organizational culture and the bottom line performance
 Increased retention of employees through leadership capacity that develops and uses talent effectively.
 Respond to rapid shifts in the environment through leaders who understand how to manage change and
respond to resistance.
 Access to Greater market value over time
 Improved business sustainability
 Facilitate the employee to do their work on planned time.
Thank You
The End

Thank You
The End