Index
A Burden, 24, 150-160
ABCD parameters
of long, mutually coupled
transmission lines, 447-453
of relay apparent impedance,
329-332
of faulted system, 332-336
Abnormal unavailability, 1233-1241
Admittance
circles of
constant III and variable (J,
357-358
diagrams, 355-356
input, 358-361
input loci, 356-357
input plot, for various operating
conditions, 360
loci
for constant Ill, 357-358
for constant e, 358-359
relay characteristic, 359-364
AND logic, 105
Anti-pumping, 22
Apparent impedance
of distance relay, defined, 258
Argand diagrams, 283-285
Asymmetry factor, 155-156
Automatic circuit reclosers, see
reclosers, 84-89
Automatic line sectionalizer, see
sectionalizer, 89-90
B de current component, defined, 78
Backup, 8
relays, defined, 9-10
Blocking, 489-492
directional comparison, 490-492
scheme, direct, 489-490
defined, 24, 150
in undereized CT, 159-160
maximum, by calculation, 159-160
Bus differential protection, 649-653
concepts and problems, 650--653
CT selection, 649--650
high inlpedance, 657--663
example, 657--663
with linear couplers, 655--656
with overcurrent relays, 653--654
with percent differential relays, 655
Bus fault statistics, 646
Bus protection, 645--670
auxiliary tripping relays, 669-670
combined bus and transformer, 664
differential, 649--663
directional comparison, 669
requirements, 647--648
using auxiliary CT's, 644-669
using backup line relays, 648-649
c standard operating duty, defined, 81
Capacitive potential devices, 30-32
Carrier current, 477
CCVT,30-32
Circuit breaker, 21-22, 77-84
air, 77, 82-83
arc extinction, 82-84
asymmetrical current, defined, 78
asymmetry factor, 81
compressed-air, 84
control circuit, 21
definitions, 77-79
designs, 82-84
fluids, 82-83
graph of operating time, 79
latching current, defined, 78
live tank vs. dead tank, 84
magnetic-air, 84
making current, defined, 78
manual operation, 21
oil, 77, 83
oiIless, 83-84
operating time, defined, 79
operating voltage, defined, 78
operation, 22
permissible tripping delay, 82
rated permissible tripping delay, 82
rated voltage range factor, 80
rating, rated quantities, 79-82
symmetrical current method,
79-80
total current method, 79
ratings, 79-82
recovery voltage, defined, 78
reignition, defined, 79
restrike current, defined, 79
restrike voltage, defined, 78
sulfur hexaflouride, 77
symmetrical current component,
defined, 78
vacuum, 77
Circuit switchers, 90-91
Clearing time, 7
Coherent logic, 1113-1125
2-relay system, 1114-1116
3-relay system, 1116-1118
analysis, 1118-1125
Comparator, 127-139
alpha and beta planes, 129
amplitude, 128-129, 132-133
distance relay, 135-137
general equations, 129-132
phase, 133-135
1295

1296
Comparator, (Continued)
phase and amplitude, 128-129
relay design, 127
Compensation theorem, 186-189
applications, 189-193
Complex line protection, 531-570
multiterminal lines, 539-546
mutually coupled lines, 547-570
single-phase switching, 531-539
Complex Z and Y loci, 283-314
admittance inversion, 296-299
circle equations, 294-296
conformal mapping, 307-308
half plane mapping, 287-293
impedance at the relay, 312-314
impedance inversion, 284-286
inversion of a circle with center at
(1,0),302-304
an arbitrary circle, 304-306
an arbitrary straight line,
301-302
line through (1,0),299-301
line and circle mapping, 286--293
line equations, 293-294
orthogonal trajectories, 308-312
properties of, 286-287
summary of line and circle
inversions, 307
with respect to the unit circle, 285
Connection
90 degree, 20
Contacts, 18
a,18
b, 18
back, 18
front, 18
graphic symbol for, 18
normally closed, 18
normally open, 18
Control configuration, redundant, 35
Control circuit, 19-21,35
de, 19
dc, for circuit breaker, 20
series trip, 21
typical configurations, 35
X-Y, 21
Coordination
defined,9
Coordination time interval (CTl)
defined, 231
CT and VT graphic symbols, 17-18
CT, 17-18,24,29-34,230-231
burden defined, 24
bushing type, 29-30
delta connection, 31
equivalent circuit, 24
graphic symbol for, 18
markings, 29
optical,32-34
optical, types, 34
polarity conventions, 29
saturation,23-29,159-160
ANSI standard accuracy class
method, 23-24
ANSI standard CT accuracy
class method, 25-27
excitation curve method, 25-26
formula method, 26-27
simulation method, 28-29
C-Rating, 159-160
terminal markings, 29
wye connection, 30
CTl, coordination time interval
defined,228
Cnrrent
let-through,47
Current transformer, see CT
Cutout
distribution, 44-45
D analysis, 379-417
Definitions
protection, 9-10
Degree of series compensation
defined, 576
Digital relay logic, 115-126
Kalman filter, 125
overcurrent, 123
substation protection, 124
transformer protection, 124
generator protection, 124
unique concepts, 124-125
Walsh function, 125
Digital circuit, 91-93, 109-112
sampling of analog signals,
109-110
the AID converter, 110-112
Digital fault recorders, 91-93
Digital logic circuits, 104-112
AND,105
buffer, 107
exclusive OR, 106
flip-flop, 109
graphic symbols, 105
NAND,108
NOR, 107
normal,104
NOT,107
OR,106
reversed, 104
time delay, 108
Digital relay, 120-126
Digital signal processing, 116--120
common discrete sequences, 116
data window method, 120-121
fast Fourier transform, 119-120
Index
frequency response, 118
linear transformations, 117
periodic sequences, 118-1 19
phasor method, 121-123
relaying applications, 123-125
Directional comparison, 490-495
blocking, 490-492
ground fault protection, 495
high speed reclosing, 494-495
power swing blocking, 495
selectivity, 493-494
switch-onto-fault function, 495
unblocking, 492-493
Disjoint, 1005-1006
Digital relay applications, 123-125
distance protection, 123
example, 125-126
generator protection, 124
Kalman filter, 125
transformer protection, 124
logic, also see relay logic
Distance protection, 257-268,
379-417
description, 257-268
Distance relay, 57-58, 257-268
apparent impedance
ground faults, 389-394
line-to-line line fault, 386--389
three-phase line fault, 382-386
typical Z plane plots, 400-406
characteristics, 257-262
coordination, 57-58, 412-414
dependence on system parameters,
258-260
effect of fault resistance, 265-267
ground protection, 410-412
R-X plane display, 259
reach, as a function of system
conditions, 259-260
sequential tripping, 258
settings, GCX example, 406-410
trip threshold, 258
types, 261-262
underreach,259-260
zoned,262-265
Distribution feeder, 201-207
coordination, 203-207
main and lateral, 202
sectionalizing, 202
also see "Radial"
Distribution transformer
fusing, 202
Disturbance, 11-12, 1093-1104
classification of, 11-12,1097-1099
defined, 11
joint probability density, 1104
probabilistic model, 1093-1096,
1099-1104
Index
probability distribution, 1096-1097
also see "System disturbance"
E system parameters, 1165-1169
Environmental effect in protection
analysis, 1115
F functional specification,
Fail dangerous, 1109
Fail safe, 1109-1110
Failure
control of, 4
definitions, 1027
Failure modes, 1027-1028,
1109-1116
definition, 1027-1028
dual, 1108-1109
operational (fail dangerous),
1109-1110
optimization, 1110
security (fail safe), I J09-1110
Failure to trip
defined,lO
False tripping
defined,lO
Faraday effect, 32-33
Fast Fourier transform, 119-120
Fault characteristics, 148-J52
Fault current, 150-159
initial dc component, J58
measurement of, 150-151
near synchronous machines,
152-J59
synchronous generator, example,
155-157
unloaded generator, 157
Fault current computation, 168-172
description, 168-169
2 line-to-ground, 170-171
3-phase, 169-170
line-to-line, 171
II-port sequence network, 168-169
one line-to-ground, 171-172
Fault recorders
digital,91-93
Fault tree analysis of protective
systems, 1157-1201
analytical methods, 1158-1169
conditional intensities, 1162-1163
parameters, 1159-1163
unavailability, 1162
unconditional intensities,
IJ59-1161
evaluation, 1193-1201
expected number of failures and
repairs, 1161-1162
minimal cut set parameters,
1163-1165
niles and methods of analysis,
1158-1169
system nomenclature, 1159
transmission protection,
1169-1193
breaker failure, 1175-1180
1169-1173
minimal cut sets, 1198-1199
protection failure, 1180-1193
special cases, 1199-120 I
the top event, 1173-1175
Fault trees, 1052-1064
analysis methods, 1054-1055
component failures, 1055-1057
construction, 1057-1060
conventions, 1053-1054
decision tables, 1060-1062
signal flow graphs, 1062-1064
systems and components, 1055
Faults on power systems, 147-160
calculation of,I 50-I 52
characteristics of, 148-149
near synchronous machines,
152--159
FM, see frequency modulation
Frequency, effects of, 807-847
also see "system frequency"
Frequency modulation, 508-509
for pilot communications, 509
principles of, 508
Front contacts, also see "contacts," 18
Function numbers
of devices, 17-18
Fuse, 44-56,220-222
characteristics, 44-56
coordination, 51-55
example, 55-56
current limiting, 46-47
cutout, 44-45
defined,46-48
distribution, 44
E rated, 48-49
electronic, 48
expulsion, 46
filled,46
heating and cooling cycles,
220-222
link, described, 45
link, example of, 45
power, 44, 49
protected, 52
protecting, 52
ratings, 48, 49
special types, 47, 48
speed ratio, 50
time-current characteristics, 48-55
1297
types, 44-48
types K and T, 50-52
vacuum, 46
zero current clearing, 46
Fusing, special, 47-48
capacitor banks, 47-48
parallel, recommendation, 48
G
Generator protection, 713-745
bearing failure, 738-739
breaker failure, 743-745
coolant failure, 739
excitation, loss of field, 732-737
induction generator effect, 732
loss of field, 732-737
fire protection, 739
loss of plant auxiliaries, 739-740
loss of voltage measurement, 739
motoring, 737-738
overspeed,737
rotor protection, 728-731
grounded field winding,
729-731
open field winding, 731
overheated field winding, 731
shorted field winding, 729
stator, 715-728
backup protection, 728
ground fault, 717-724
open circuit, 724-725
overheating, 725
overvoltage, 726
phase fault, 716-717
turn to turn fault, 724
unbalanced current, 726-728
stator protection, 715-728
summary, 740-745
types of protection, 714-715
unit generator-transformer
protection, 740-743
overview, 740-741
protective devices, 742
trip modes, 742-743
vibration, 738
Graphic symbols, 17-18
Ground fault protection, 270-277
characteristics of, 271-272
importance of, 270-271
relay polarization, 272-276
types of ground relays, 276-277
Ground relay polarization, 272-276
using current, 273-276
using voltage, 272-273
H
High-voltage direct current (HVDe)
protection, 913-952
1298
HVDC ac side protection, 936--938
ac bus, 937
ac line, 936--937
converter transformer, 937
filters and reactive support, 938
HVDC conversion, 913-929
basic control concepts, 926--929
control structure, 931-934
converter station design, 929-936
inverter operation, 921-924
multibridge converters, 924-926
protection categories, 936
protection philosophy, 934-935
rectifier operation, 914-921
HVDC dc protection, 938-948
commutation failure, 940-941
converter overcurrent, 939-940
de filter, 947
dc harmonics, 943
dc line, 944-945
dc minimum voltage, 945-946
dc overvoltage, 946
de side differential, 944
electrode open circuit, 947
excessive delay angle, 942
pole dc differential, 946--947
valve misfire, 941
valve short circuit, 939
valves, 939-943
VDCOL, 947-948
voltage stress, 941-942
HVDC fundamentals, 913-929
HVDC protection, 913-952
ac side, 936--938
de side, 938-948
dynamic overvoltage, 950-951
reverse power, 949
self-excitation, 950
settings, 951-952
torsional interaction, 949-950
Impedance,317-349,356
input, 356
seen by relay, 317-319
Impedance matrix, line, 420-430
mutual symmetry, 427
of a transposed line, 423
Importance, 1066, 1071
Induction motor, 751-799
accelerating torque, 761-763
analysis, 752-769
equivalent circuits, 756--761
heating, 769~782
conduction, 769-772
fundamentals, 769~773
convection, 772-773
radiation, 773
problems, 782-788
external hazards, 783-788
low supply frequency, 787
low supply voltage, 786--787
reversed phase sequence, 787
single phasing, 785-786
stalling due to excessive
load,787-788
unbalanced supply voltage,
784-785
internal hazards, 782-783
starting performance, 763-769
thermal model, 773-782
electric analog, 776
limits, 779-780
lumped,775-777
parameters, 777
performance, 777-779
thermal relay, 780-782
Induction motor analysis, 752-769
normalization, 753-754
symmetrical component
transformation, 754-756
the swing equation, 752
Inspected system modeling,
1211-1226
Instrument transformer, 17-18,23-34
analysis, 23-34
connections, 28-34
graphic symbols, 17-18
selection, 23-28
K OR,I06
k-out of-n G systems, 1220-1226
l Long transmission line, 445-465
Line fault
analysis, 380-381
definition of d phasor operators,
392
equivalent circuit, 380
ground, 389-394
one-line-to-ground, 389-392
tabulation of results, 391
phase-to-phase, 386--389
tabulation of results, 388
sequence network reduction,
381-382
three phase, 382-386
tabulation of results, 386
two-line-to-ground, 392-394
tabulation of results, 394
Line impedance, 167-168,420-423
earth resistivity, 422
equations, 167-168
matrix, self and mutual, 420-423
Index
Load imbalance definition, 836-837
relay characteristics, 835-846
relay connections, 846--847
turbine protective margin, 844-846
Load shedding protection, 834-846
criteria, 835-836
design concepts, 839-844
example, 837
example illustrating settings,
838-839
Local backup relays
defined,lO
Logic
defined, 97
Logic analog, 99-104
active filter, 103
comparator, 100-101
electronic, 99-112
integrator, 102-103
isolator, 100-101
level detector, 100-102
op amp, 100
summer, 102
Logic, digital, 104-112
AID, III
AND,105
Boolean, 104-105
buffer, 107
exclusive OR, 106
flip-flop, 109
NAND,108
NOR,107
NOT, 107
sampling, 110
time delay, 108
isolated line, 445-447
equations, 445
ABCD parameters, 446-447
mutually coupled lines, 447-453
distance parameters, 447-451
identical parameters, 451-452
representation, 453
Equivalent circuits, 453-461
admittance matrix, 453-457
type I equivalent, 459-460
type 2 equivalent, 460-461
type 3 equivalent, 457-459
solution for long lines, 461-465
sequence networks, 461-463
sequence impedances, 463-464
currents and voltages, 464-465
Loss of synchronism protection,
894-902
circuit breaker considerations, 901
out-of-step blocking and tripping,
898-901
Index
out-of-step detection, 897-898
out-of-step performance, 894-897
out-of-step relaying practice,
901-902
pilot relaying considerations, 901
M synchronous, supply voltage
M matrix, 317-322
for relay impedance, 317-319
M parameters, 319-322
Markov modeling, 1205-1245
abnormal unavailability,
1233-1241
modeling inspected systems,
1211-1226
monitoring and self testing,
1226-1230
safeguard systems, 1241-1243
testing, protection, 1206-1211
unreadiness probability, 1230-1233
Measurements, 17-39
circuit breaker controls, 21-22
control configurations, 34-36
graphic symbols, 17-18
instrument transformers, 23-34
optical communications, 36-39
relay connections, 18-21
Minimum operation current (MOC),
229-233
computed example, 233
defined,229
Monitoring and self-testing,
1226-1230
modeling of inspected protective
systems, 1211-1226
testing of protective systems,
1206-1211
k-out-of-n G systems,
1220-1226
optimal inspection interval,
1212-1217
redundant system optimization,
1217-1220
Motor classifications, 788-790
by location, 789
by service, 788-789
Motor protection, 790-799
bearings, 797
for large motors, summary,
798-799
multifunction, 797
rotor, 796-797
heating, 796
problems in detection, 796-797
standards for, 751
stator, 790-796
ground fault, 791
locked rotor, 791-792
overload,792-793
phase fault, 790-791
reversed phase rotation, 794
synchronous, loss of excitation,
795
synchronous, loss of
synchronism, 795
restoration, 795-796
unbalanced supply voltage, 794
undervoltage, 793-794
Multiterminallines, 539-546
3-terminal example, 543-545
common configurations, 540-541
distance protection with three
terminals, 542-543
pilot protection, 545-546
Mutual coupling, 419-465
basic equations, 419-420
effect of, 430-437
equivalent circuit for short lines,
437-444
equivalent circuits for transformers,
439
equivalent networks Type I, 2, and
3,439-443
examples of, 430-437
general network equivalents for
short lines, 437-439
general network equivalents for
long lines, 453-461
line impedances, 420-430
short lines with susceptance,
443-444
solution of the long line case,
461-465
Type I networks, 439-441
Type 2 networks, 442
Type 3 networks, 442-443
Mutual impedance
lattice network equivalents,
437-439
Mutual induction
air-core transformer equivalent,
420
equivalent circuit for, 420
Mutual induction, basic equations, 419
Mutually coupled lines protection,
547-570
measurement errors on the parallel
line,566-568
Types 1,2, and 3 defined, 547-548
Type I, ground distance protection,
548-568
guidelines for settings, 557-562
reach error, 554-557
Zone 2 settings, 562-563
Types 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, 551-554
Type 1.3 problems, 563-567
Type
568--569
Type 3, distance protection, 570
o
Operational amplifier, 99-100
Optical cables
described, 37-38
splicing, 38
Optical communications, 36-39
Optical fiber transmission, 36-37
interstation, 38
intrastation, 38
Optical transducers, 37
Optical transmission, 37-38
attenuation properties, 37
modes, 37
sensor requirements, 38
OR logic, 106
Overcurrent relay
described, 56-57
need for directional element,
250-252
time dial, 230-231
p
Phase comparison, 499-507
described,499-501
dual, transfer trip, 503
dual, unblocking, 502
segregated, 504-507
single, blocking, 501-502
Phasor measurement, 73-74
Pilot protection, 469-527
EHV line example, 509-515
description, 510-515
general considerations, 509-510
general description, 470-472
monitoring pilot performance,
525-527
non-unit pilot schemes, 482-499
blocking and unblocking,
489-493
directional comparison, 482
directional comparison
selectivity, 493-494
distance schemes, 482-483
hybrid schemes, 495-499
other features, 494-495
transfer trip schemes, 484-489
physical systems, 472-481
classifications, 481
communications selection, 480
communucations problems,
480-481
fiber-optic pilot, 479
general concepts, 473-475
microwave pilot, 478-479
PLC pilot, 477-478
wire pilot, 475-477
1300
Pilot protection, (Continued)
pilot settings, 515-522
current reversal, 519-520
distance element, 516-517
echo keying, 520-521
instrumental transformer, 516
loss of potential logic, 521
maximum torque angle, 516
phase overcurrent, 517-518
residual overcurrent, 518-519
switch onto fault, 519
weak infeedlogic, 521
traveling wave relays, 522-525
unit schemes, 499-509
longitudinal schemes, 507-509
phase comparison, 499-507
PLC, power line carrier, 477
Polarization
of ground relays, 272-276
Potential transformers, see voltage
transformers, 18,30-32
Power circuit breakers, 77-84
definitions, 77-79
design, 82-84
ratings, 79-82
Power line carrier, 474, 477-478,
511-513
Power system characteristics, 147-193
available fault current, 168-172
compensation theorem, 186-189
applications, 189-193
faults, 147-160
faulted system equivalents,
172-186
solutions, 193
line impedances, 167-168
station arrangements, 160-166
Power system equivalent circuit, see
system equivalent, 172-186
Prevention set, 1071
Primary relays
defined,9
Primitive impedance
defined,421
Probability distribution, 1015-1023
binomial,1015-1019
exponential, 1022-1023
nonnal,1019-1020
Poisson, 1017-1018
uniform, 1015, 1020
Weibull, 1020-1022
Programmable logic device, 126
Protected component, defined,
1105-1106
Protection, 4-7
economical design, 4
reactionary, 4-6
safeguards, 6-7
Protection design concepts, 469-470
Protection design considerations, 8-9
Protection equivalent
M parameters, 319-322
Protection logic, coherent, 1113-1125
analysis, 1118-1125
defined, 1113-1114
2 relay system, 1114-1116
3 relay sustem, 1116-1118
Protection of series compensated
lines, 575-642
Protection strategy, 8
Protection zones
defined,9
Protective device
ratings, 44
Protective device characteristics,
43-93
circuit breakers, 77-84
fault recorders, 91-93
fuses, 44-56
reclosers, 84-89
relays, 56-77
sectionalizers, 89-90
switches, 90-91
Protective device operation, 7
Protective relaying
defined,9
R random vectors, 1023-1024
Radial distribution coordination,
203-207
Radial line
ILG fault, 210
2LG fault, 209-210
branch fault example, 217-218
branch faults, 215-217
delta- and wye-connected systems,
208
example of fault calculations,
211-215
fault current calculation, 207-218
fault impedance, 209
L-L fault, 210
line impedance formula, 209
main line faults, 208-215
normalization of impedance, 209
positive sequence impedance, 209
summary of fault current formulas,
211
three-phase faults, 209
zero sequence line impedance, 210
Radial line protection, 201-239
Radial system
coordination example, 226-228
coordination of phase and ground
relays, 228-232
coordination of reclosers and fuses,
220-225
example of recloser-relay
coordination, 224-225
Index
example of relay coordination,
232-235
heating and cooling of fuses, 222
instantaneous relay setting
example, 238-239
protective strategy, 218-220
Recloser-relay coordination, 223-224
Relay coordination, 225-239
Relay coordination procedure, 226
setting instantaneous relays,
235-237
Radial system study, 203-207
available fault current, 203
data requirements, 204
protective equipment data, 205
step-by-step procedure, 207
substation data requirements, 204
system data, 205
Radial system, coordination example,
211-214
Random variables, 1010-1026
common distribution functions,
1015-1023
continuous distributions,
1013-1014
definitions, 1010-1011
discrete distributions, 1012-10 13
moments, 1014
stochastic processes, 1024-1026
the density function, 1011-1012
the distribution function, 1011
Reactionary devices, 4-6
Recloser, 84-89
defined,84
definition of operating times, 85
electronic, block diagram of, 88
ratings, 85
time-current characteristics, 85-89
Reclosing, auto, 873-894
advantages of high speed, 875
arc deionization, 880-881
at generator buses, 889-894
bus protection vs. line protection,
889
definitions, 877-879
delayed, 889
description, 873-875
digital devices, 887-888
disturbance considerations,
875-877
fault types, 876-877
voltage levels, 876
number of reclosures, 877
probability of success, 877
switching options, line and bus
check systems, 889
switching options, single-phase
switching, 888
 Index
Reclosing relays, 882-888
breaker operation considerations,
882-884
multi shot, 886
single shot, 884-886
synchro check, 886-887
Relay, 43-75, 127-139
adaptive, 73
as a comparator, 127-139
blinder, analysis of, 65-66
characteristics, 56-75
differential, 57, 70-71
digital,71-77
advantages of, 73
configuration, 74-75
functional block diagram, 74
history of, 72-74
directional, 57
distance, 57, 394-406
electromechanical, 59-66
balanced beam, 64
induction cup, 64-65
induction cylinder, 65-66
induction cylinder, blinder, 65
induction disk, 60-64
directional overcurrent, 64
equations of motion, 61-62
instantaneous, 60
inverse overcurrent, 63
inverse overcurrent. numerical
parameters, 63
inverse overcurrent, time-current
curves, 63
nondirectional, 56
overcurrent, 56
overcurrent, characteristics, 57
percentage differential, 70-7 I
pilot, 58
solenoid type, 60
static, 66-70
advantages of, 66
overcurrent, 67-68
typical characteristic curves, 69
Relay apparent admittance, 355-372
admittance characteristics,
359-364
example, 360-364
admittance diagrams, 355-356
input loci, 356-359
parallel lines, 364-368
summary, 371-372
Y plane characteristics, 368-371
Relay apparent impedance, 317-349
a special case, 336-340
construction of M circles, 323-329,
340-344
equivalent 2 port, 329~336
for distance relays, 394-406
mathematical model, 317-319
M parameters, 319-322
phase comparison, 344-349
the faulted system, 332-336
the unfaulted system, 330-332
Z loci, 322-323
Relay characteristics, 56-75
Relay connection
typical, 18-21
Relay control configurations, 34-36
Relay logic, 97-139
analog relay logic, 112-115
directional comparison pilot,
114-115
instantaneous overcurrent,
112-113
phase comparison distance,
112-114
definitions, 97-98
digital relay logic, I 15-126
description, 115-116
digital signal processing,
116-120
linear transformations, 117
frequency response, I 18
periodic sequences, 118-119
fast Fourier transform,
119-120
data window method, 120-121
phasor method, 121-123
protection applications,
123-125
overcurrent, 123
distance, 123
transformer, 124
generator, 124
substation, 124
other types, 124
unique concepts, 124-125
example, 125-126
electromechanical logic, 98-99
overcurrent, 98
distance, 98-99
electronic logic circuits, analog,
99-104
active filters, 103
comparator, 100-102
integrator, 102-103
isolator, 100
level detector, 100-102
op amp, 99-100
summer, 102
electronic logic circuits, digital,
104-112
AID converter. 110-1 12
AND,105
Boolean logic, 104-105
buffer, 107
exclusive OR, 106
flip-flop, 109
NAND,108
1301
NOR, 107
NOT, 107
OR,106
sampling, 109-110
time delay, 108
hybrid relay logic, 126-127
Relay problems due to series
compensation, 611-632
mutual induction, 624-625
phase unbalance, 613
reach measurement, 625-632
subsynchronous resonance (SSR),
, 613-614
transient phenomena, 611-613
voltage and current inversions,
614-622
voltage inversions, 623-624
Relay characteristics, 60
induction disk, 60
solenoid type, 60
Relay tap, 41, 230, 276
Reliability, 1003-1245
analysis, minimal eut sets, 1078
minimal path sets, 1078-1079
reliability bloek diagrams,
1072-1073
structure functions, 1076-1078
success trees, 1073-1074
truth tables, 1074-1076
basic concepts, 1003-1039
coherent logic, 1114
Markov process, 1079-1087
basic concepts, 1079-1081
failure frequency and duration,
1085-1087
general algorithm for
computation, 1082-1085
model of two repairable
components, 1084-1085
special failure modes, 1085
stationary state probahilities,
1081-1082
probability fundamentals,
1004~101O
classes and partitions,
1006-1007
combinatorial rules, 1007-1010
events and experiments,
1004-1005
the axioms, 1004
Venn diagrams, 1005-1006
random variables, 10 I0-1 026
Reliability concepts in protection,
1093-1152
system disturbance models,
1093-1097, 1099-1104
disturbance classifications,
1097-1099
disturbance density and
distribution, 1099-1 103
1302
system disturbance models,
(Continued;
disturbance distribution,
1095-1097
disturbance joint density, 1104
general probabilistic model,
1093-1095
time dependent models, 1104--1142
coherent protection logic,
1113-1125
protection vs. protected
component, 1105-1106
protective system analysis,
1125-1138
specifications for protection,
1138-1142
system reliability concepts,
1106-1113
time independent models,
1142-1152
composite protection systems,
1148-1152
failure distributions, 1143-1148
Reliability block diagram, 1043-1052,
1125-1138
common control and bus
arrangements, 1125-1138
of common protective systems,
1043-1052
bridge networks, 1049-1050
cut sets, 1050-1052
parallel systems, 1046-1047
series systems, 1044-1045
series-parallel and parallel-series
systems, 1047-1048
standby systems, 1048-1049
Reliability evaluation, 1064-1071
Boolean algebra, 1069
qualitative analysis, 1064-1067
quantitative analysis, 1067-1071
system availability, 1067
system reliability, 1068
system unavailability, 1068
system unreliability, 1068
Reliability model of protection,
1104--1152
time independent, 1104--1142
time dependent, 1142-1152
Reliability models, 1028-1039
constant failure and repair rate
model, 1037-1039
definition of reliability, 1028-1032
the failure process, 1029-1030
the hazard rate, 1030-1032
the repair process, 1032-1034
the whole process, 1034-1037
Reliability, 1003-1245
analysis, 1043-1087
basic concepts, 1003-1039
concepts in protection, 1093-1152
fault tree analysis, 1157-1201
Markov models, 1205-1245
Reliability specifications
for transmission protection,
1138-1142
Reliability state space,
frequency and duration, 1085-1087
general algorithm, 1082-1084
Markov processes, 1079-1081
special failure modes, 1085
stationary state probabilities,
1081-1082
two repairable components,
1084--1085
Restoration strategy, 8
s due to series compensation
Safeguard devices, 4-6, 1241-1245
Saturation,
ofCT's, 23-28, 62, 71,150-151,
159-160,516,613,637,647,
649-657,662,664--670,791
of relays, 62
of power transformers, 682-685,
695
Seal-in relay, 19
Sectionalizers, 89-90
application example, 90
Security, 7
defined, 9
failure, 1028
Selectivity, 8
defined, 9
Sensitivity, 9-10
defined, 9
Series capacitor bank protection,
590-611
bank configuration, 59·1-592
bypass systems, 592-598
bypass gaps, 593
metal oxide varistors, 594--595
gaps and varistors, 595-596
typical system, 597
fundamental frequency varistor
model,598-601
relay quantities including bypass,
601-604
effect of system parameters,
604-611
assumptions, 604-606
external impedance, 606-608
source impedance, 608
fault impedance, 608-611
Index
Series capacitors, unbypassed
578-590
end-of-line capacitors, 578-586
bus-side voltage, 578-585
line-side voltage, 585-586
mid-line capacitors, 586-589
conclusions regarding effects,
589-590
Series compensated line protection,
632-635
current phase comparison, 632
directional comparison schemes,
632-635
hybrid schemes, 632-633
distance schemes, 633-634
traveling wave schemes,
634-635
directional overcurrent ground, 635
Series compensated line protection
problems, see Relay problems
Series compensated line protection
experience, 634--635
autoreclosing problems 637
effect of transient phenomena, 636
effect of phase impedance
unbalance, 636
effect of voltage and current
inversions, 636
effect of fault location error,
636-637
effect of transducer error, 637
recommended system studies, 637
Series compensation, reasons for,
575-576
Short circuits, also see "faults," 4-6,
11-12
Shunt reactor protection, 700-704
dry type, 701-702
oil immersed type, 702-704, 888,
891
Single-phase switching, 531-539
control of secondary arcs, 532-536
secondary arcs, untransposed lines,
536-539
single-phase switching, 888, 891
Speed ratio, 50-51
defined,50
examples, 51
Subsynehronous resonance, 955-992
also see SSR
history of SSR, 962-963
overview of problem, 955-963
example, 957-958
mathematical model, 956-957
spring-mass model, 959
SSR system countermeasures,
963-969
 Index
generator and system
modification, 968-969
generator circuit resonance,
969
turbine-generator
modification, 968-969
network and generator controls,
964-968
capacitor voltage control,
964-965
system switching, 964
thyristor controlled
capacitors, 965-968
unit tripping, 968
SSR unit countermeasures,
969-992
filtering and damping, 970-977
dynamic filters, 973-974
dynamic stabilizers, 974-976
excitation system dampers,
976-977
line filters, 971-973
static blocking filters,
970-971
unit relaying and monitoring,
977-992
comments on SSR relays,
992
SSR monitors, 990-992
SSR protective relays,
977-990
armature current relay,
978-982
subsynchronous current
relay, 982-990
Stability, 853-909
automatic reclosing, 873-894
introduction, 873-874
need for fast reclosing, 875
disturbance considerations,
875-877
fault types, 876-877
voltage levels, 876
reclosing considerations,
877-881
arc deionization, 880-881
definitions, 877-879
number of reclosures, 877
reclosing success, 877
reclosing relays, 882-888
breaker operation, 882-884
digital reclosing and
synchro-check relay,
887-888
multishot reclosing relays,
886
single-shot reclosing relays,
884-886
synchro-check relays,
886-887
reclosing switching options,
888-889
bus vs, line protection, 889
dead line-live bus, 889
delayed reclosing, 889
live line-dead bus, 889
single-phase switching, 888
reclosing at generator buses,
889-894
loss-of-synchronism protection,
894-902
circuit breaker considerations,
901
out-of-step blocking and
tripping, 898-901
out-of-step detection, 897-898
out-of-step relaying practice,
901-902
pilot relaying considerations,
901
system out-of-step performance,
894-897
protection requirements,
896-897
representation in the Z plane,
894-896
review of fundamentals, 853-862
definitions, 853-854
effect of impedance, 854-855
the swing equation, 858-862
two-port representation,
855-857
special protection schemes,
902-909
design procedure, 904-905
critical conditions, 904
operator control, 905
recognition triggers, 904
disturbance events, 903-904
example of an SPS, 905-909
SPS characteristics, 902-903
system transient behavior, 862-873
effect of power transfer,
864-867
effect of circuit breaker speed,
867-868
effect of reclosing, 868
relay measurements during
transients, 868-873
stability of test system, 863
State, 4-5
abnormal,5
action, 5
block diagram, 5
nonnal,5
1303
outage, 5
restorative, 5
Static var compensator, also see SVC,
673-674,705,863,866,963,
975
Station arrangement, 160-166
4 x 6 network, 166
breaker-and-a-half, 164
breaker-and-a-third, 166
crossed ring, 166
double bus, double breaker, 163
double bus, single breaker,
162-163
main and transfer, 161-162
pyrimid, 166
ring bridge, 166
ring bus, 163-164
ring tripod, 166
single bus, single breaker, 160-161
Strategy, 8
protection, 8
restoration, 8
Substation computer, 75-77
block diagram, 76
hierarchy, 75
Subsynchronous resonance, 955
SVC protection, 704-708
Switching stations, see "station,"
Synchro-check relay, 886-887
Synchro-verifier relay, 887
Synchronous motor, 788
loss of excitation, 788
loss of synchronism, 788
System disturbance model, 1093-1104
disturbance classifications,
1097-1099
disturbance distribution,
1096-1097
disturbance joint density, 1104
example with 3 bus system,
1099-1103
probabilistic disturbance model,
1093-1096
probabilistic model distribution,
1099
System protection equivalent,
172-186
4 port, 185-186
3 port, 184-185
2 port parameters, 178
2-port representation, 174-176
2-port equivalent, 176-178
for protection studies, 172-186
for series faults, 179-180
general description, 172-173
line with shunt fault, 178-179
multiport, 183-186
1304
System protection equivalent,
(Continued)
numerical example, 181-182
open-circuit impedance matrix,
173-174
series faults, 179-180
two port, 176-177
System frequency, 807-847
abnormal frequency, 807-847
effect of overfrequency on
turbines, 808
effect of underfrequency on
turbines, 808-810
effect on generators, 808-809
effect on turbines, 810-813
operation, 807
load shedding protection, 834--847
off normal, load shedding, 834
off-normal protection, 831-832
off-normal turbine protection,
832-834
System under frequency protection,
834-847, also see "load
shedding," 835
typical turbine protection, 834-835
System frequency response model,
813-831
effect of
damping, 825
disturbance size, 819
governor droop, 821-822
high pressure fraction, 823-824
inertia, 822-823
reheat time constant, 823
mathematical model, 813-831
normalization, 819-820
refinements, 827-829
slope of response, 820-821
validation, 825-826
various model comparisons,
829-830
System state, see "state"
T suppression of magnetizing
Threshold (of protective action), 5,
7-9
Time (of protective action), 7, 471
action, 7
clearing, 7
comparison, 7
decision, 7
operating, of protective equipment,
471
Time constant
of fault current decrement, 149
Time to failure
as a random variable, 1143
composite protection system,
1148-1152
distribution function, 1143-1148
parallel logic, 1144- 1145
sequential logic, 1147-1148
series logic, 1143-1144
standby logic, 1145-1147
probability distribution, 1143
Transfer trip, 484-489
direct overreaching, 487-488
direct underreaching, 484-486
permissive overreaching, 488
permissive underreaching, 486-487
Transformer fault protection,
philosophy, 680-681
Transformer faults, 674-681
external,674--675
internal,675-680
internal, active, 676-680
internal, incipient, 675-676
Transformer protection, 673-708
discussion, 673-674
magnetizing inrush, 681-684
current harmonics, 683-684
current magnitude, 681-683
in parallel banks, 684
protection against active faults,
687-697
differential protection
connections, 687-690
current transformer ratios,
688-689
delta-wye bank CT
connections, 687-688
example, 689-690
differential protection
discussion, 690-695
autotransformer protection,
694--695
differential relay problems,
695
parallel transformer banks,
694
percent slope of differential
relays, 690-692
inrush, 692-693
three-winding transformer
protection, 693-694
overcurrent protection of
transformers, 695-696
ground fault protection of
transformers, 696-697
protection against incipient faults,
684-687
external incipient faults,
684-685
overheating, 684-685
overfluxing, 685-686
internal incipient faults,
686-687
Index
regulating transformer protection,
699-700
shunt reactor protection, 700-704
discussion, 700-701
dry type reactors, 701-702
oil immersed reactors, 702-704
failure modes, 702-703
protection practices,
703-704
static var compensator (SVC)
protection, 704-708
discussion, 704-705
SVC protection requirements,
705-708
typical SVC system, 705
transformer and line combined
protection, 697-699
examples, 697-698
non-unit protection schemes,
698
unit protection schemes,
698-699
transformer faults, 674-681
external faults, 674-675
fault protection philosophy,
680-681
internal faults, 675-680
active faults described,
676-680
incipient faults, 675-676
Transmission faults, bypassed series
capacitors, 601-604
Transmission fault, series
compensated line, parameter
effects, 604-611
Transmission faults, unbypassed series
capacitors, 578-590
center line capacitors, 586-589
conclusions, 589-590
discussion, 578
end-of-line capacitors, bus side
voltage, 578-585
end-of-line capacitors, line side
voltage, 585-586
Transmission line, mutual induction,
423-453
long line, 445-453
short line, 423-424
Transmission line fault
analysis of, 379-394
Transmission line mutual impedance
example of 500 kV line, 425-428
Transmission protection, 249-278
distance relay protection, 257-268
distance relay characteristics,
257-262

zoned distance relays, 262-265
effect of fault resistance,
265'-267
summary of distance concepts,
267-268
ground fault protection, 270-277
importance, 270-271
ground fault characteristics,
271-272
polarization of ground relays,
272-276
voltage polarization,
272-273
current polarization,
273-276
types of ground relays, 276-277
introduction, 249-250
overcurrent relay protection,
250-257
loops with one source, 252-254
loops with multiple sources,
254'-257
summary, 277-278
unit protection, 268-270
Transmission DC protection, 253-257
example of loop DC relay
coordination, 253
example of looped system
coordination, 255-257
loops with multiple sources,
254'-257
DC relay procedure, 255-257
Trip free, 21-22
Type I networks
dcfincd,439-440
with fault on one line, 441
Typc 2 networks
defincd, 442
Typc 3 networks
defincd,442-443
U w
Unblocking, 489-493
directional comparison, 492-493
Undesired tripping
defined, 10
Unit protection
replica concept, 269
Unit schemes, 499-509
longitudinal differential, 507-509
phase comparison, 499-507
Unrcadincss probability, 1230-1233
1305
v
Varistor, fundamcntal frequency
modcl,598-601
Voltage inversion
example, 433
in mutually coupled transmission
lines, 431-433
Voltage profile, on series compensated
lines, 577-578
Voltagc transformer, see VT, 30, 32
Voltage transformer descriptions,
30-32
Voltage transformers, 30-32
graphic symbol for, 18
Wire pilot systems, 475-477
z
Z loci, 284'-293
line and circle mapping, 286-293
the liZ transformation, 284'-286
Z R loci construction, 323-329
k and 1fr circles, example, 328-329
k circles, 324'-326
Vf circles, 326-327