Project Management

Techniques for managing a project

❖ Communication skills necessary for dealing with others

● Active Listening
○ Good understanding of the speaker’s intended message and the speaker knows that the listener
has received and understood their message.
○ Involves restating, reflecting and summarising the speaker’s major ideas and feelings
● Conflict Resolution
○ Successfully solve arguments within the group in the best interests of the project
○ Some conflict is good to come up with new ideas but not conflict that attacks personal
○ Involves mediation, defining the problem and understanding people POV
● Negotiation Skills
○ A friendly exchange where differences are argued logically and in a reasoned manner, to reach an
agreement
● Interview Techniques
○ Identify problems with existing systems, obtain feedback during development and also to recruit
and assess staff performance
○ Involves planning, preparation, follow-up questions, active listening
● Team Building
○ Teams members focus on and are jointly responsible for achieving a shared goal.
❖ The consequences for groups that fail to function as a team
● Financial Loss
○ Caused by a decrease in productivity
○ ie. Laziness, lack of teamwork, bludging, lack of discipline, etc.
● Employment Loss
○ Caused by a decrease in job satisfaction
○ ie. Bad conditions, lack of teamwork, work overload, lack of respect, etc.
● Missed opportunities
○ Caused by a bad development of a system
○ ie. Incorrect identification of the goal, path and end-point of the project
❖ Project management tools
● Gantt charts
○ A horizontal bar chart that illustrates a project schedule and signifies the start and finish dates of the
project tasks.
○ Vertical axis is the project tasks and the horizontal axis is the total time allocated to that specific task
○ Feel accomplished when smaller deliverables are achieved
○ Ensures there’s equal work amongst members
○ Better equipped to respond to deadlines
● Scheduling of tasks
○ Can be done in a Gantt chart
○ Keeps track of time for different stages of development, deadlines and milestones
○ Helps save money so the project doesn’t go overtime and the company will not have to
compensate for finishing the project after the final deadline

● Journals
 ○ Detail of day to day progress, plus forthcoming milestones or deadlines
○ Keeps track of decisions and events, as well as allows new members to understand what has
happened since the project started
○ Important decisions
○ Journals include a more detailed analysis and reflection on recent events (meetings, phone calls)
● Diaries
○ Meetings, appointments, tasks and other events can be recorded in advance
○ Organizational tool and memory aid
● Funding management plan
○ The procedure for relocating
○ Ensures the project is developed within budget.
○ Each development task be allocated sufficient funds at the correct time and that these funds are
spent wisely
○ Will funds be given fully before the task begins? Progressively during the task? Or after?
● Communication management plan
○ Specifies how team members will communicate with each other during systems development.
○ Strategies in the plan provide a structure that supports and reinforces effective ongoing
communication between all team members throughout the project’s development.
○ This includes the communication medium used, lines of communication, method of monitoring the
progress of SDLC and changing/emerging requirements
❖ Identifying Social and Ethical Issues
● Workplace Health and Safety
○ The ergonomic design of furniture, appropriate lighting and noise levels, varied work routines, and
also procedures for reporting and resolving potential Occupational Health Safety problems.
● Effect on employment
○ Job losses where technology replaces humans
○ Job gains where humans are required to design, maintain and operate technology
○ Retraining where new technology cannot be operated by current staff due to lack of education
● Security of data and information
○ Mechanisms and techniques to protect against loss of regular offsite backups, physical barriers,
restricted access to authorised personnel with passwords, encryption and assigning different levels
of access.
○ Development systems should also be protected against virus attack.
● Copyright
○ Team members are required to sign a contract to hand over all copyrights to the development
company.
○ Obtaining permission and documenting the use of copyrighted material during development,
including the software used to assist development and also software that is incorporated within the
solution.
● Respect for the rights and needs of individual team members
○ Respecting a person’s right to privacy such as individuals deciding how much of their private life
they wish to reveal

Understanding The Problem

❖ Approaches to identify problems with existing systems
● Interviewing/surveying users of the information system
○ The primary tools for collecting user experiences and problems with the existing system
○ Identifying their needs and any new ideas they may have to improve the system
● Interviewing/surveying participants
○ Identify problems and have ideas in regard to solving these problems.
○ Understand the detail of the information processes occurring within the existing system
● Analysing the existing system by determining

❖ Requirements Reports
○ It is produced in Understanding Problem stage and used in Planning stage (also every other stage)
○ Defines the precise nature of the problem, basically determining what needs to be done
○ 2 different versions are produced for client and the technical developers
○ Details the time frame, Details the subprojects and the time frame for them, Identifies
participants , Identifies relevant information technology, Identifies data/information, Identifies the
needs of users
● Systems Analyst
○ Analyses existing systems, determines the requirements and designs the new information system
● Requirements prototypes
○ Working model of an information system, built to understand the requirements of the system
○ Used to obtain further information relevant to the production of the Requirements Report
○ Used when the problem is not easily understood
○ Repetitive process of prototype modification and participants’ feedback until the problem is
understood
○ Can be the basis for further system development
Planning

❖ A feasibility study of proposed solutions (TOES)

● Economic feasibility
○ Cost of the new system compared to the economic benefits of introducing the new system
➔ Development Costs: hardware, software, training costs …
➔ Operational Costs: maintenance and repair, software license…
➔ Benefits: Increased profits/sales/efficiency
➔ Cost-Benefit Analysis: Has the money been spent well?, When will I be level
● Technical feasibility
○ Availability of the required information technology and its ability to operate with other technology
○ Technical expertise of participants and users to use the new technology
● Operational feasibility
○ Will the new system meet the current goals?
○ Does it have enough support to be implemented successfully?
○ Whether the system will work in practice, and whether the new system will fit into the organisation
to meet current goals/objectives
○ Do the staff support it?
 ● Scheduling
○ The timeframe by which the new system must be operational
○ It examines the consequences should some tasks and even the entire project fail to meet its
specified deadlines
❖ Choosing the most appropriate solution
○ After conducting a feasibility test, project managers must choose the most appropriate solution
based on the results
❖ Choosing the appropriate development approaches
● Traditional/Waterfall Approach
○ Formal step-by-step stages, where each step must be completed for the next to occur
(deliverables). This increases errors to feed through SDLC without detection, resulting in
exponential costs.
○ (Understanding the problem, planning, designing solutions, implementing and testing, evaluating and maintaining)
● Outsourcing
○ Using another company to develop parts or even the complete system with all control to them
○ Cost effective- specialised tasks to experts rather than new staff or retraining
● Prototyping
○ Working model to demonstrate the system to participants & user = constant feedback+suggestions
○ It is constantly updated and re-evaluated
○ Suitable for system which require a useful interface but little internal logic.
● Customisation
○ An existing system is customised to meet the needs and requirements of the new system
○ Happens when it is not economically viable to develop a new system from scratch
○ Alterations to system settings within the hardware and software
● Participant development
○ The same people who will use and operate the final system develop the system
○ Users must have an abundance of technical knowledge to create it
○ For small businesses and home users who cannot afford professional solutions
● Agile methods
○ Teamwork focused when developing rather than following SDLC and everyone must share a goal
○ Places emphasis on the team developing the system rather than follow predefined structured
development processes
○ For developing web-based software and software apps = < 6 people in team
○ Not really for developing entire information systems
❖ Requirements Report that:
● Details the time frame
○ This includes the agreed date by which the project must be completed, where else the developer
must make amends for not completing the project on time, should this occur
● Details the subprojects and the time frame for them
○ Each part of the project must be specified with the time frame in which they should be completed
○ Ensures project will be kept on track, and helps break down the problem into manageable parts
● Identifies participants
○ Participants are those who will carry out the information processes of the system
○ All participants of the system, including those who will run it, maintain it, or contribute to it in any
way must be noted
● Identifies relevant information technology
 ○ All required information technology needed for the development must be specified
○ This includes all required hardware and software
○ Helps keep track of what is needed and managing the costs of the resources
● Identifies data/information
○ All data and information that is required and produced by the system needs to be specified
○ This helps the user understand what the system will require to run and what information it will
produce
● Identifies the needs of users
○ The general purpose of the system must be identified
○ The project must be a valid solution to the problem specified by the user
● The Headings
○ 1. INTRODUCTION ○ c)Participant characteristics
○ a) System purpose ○ 3. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
○ b) The needs of the users ○ a) Physical
○ c) System scope ○ b) Performance
○ 2. GENERAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ○ c) Security
○ a) System context ○ d) Data/information
○ b)Major system requirements ○ e) System operation

Designing

❖ Benefits of the new information system

○ These should be clarified with users so that they understand the benefits, feel confident in using
the hardware and see that the software is user-friendly and easy to use
❖ Designing the information system for ease of maintenance
○ The new system should be easy to maintain. Will upgrades be required? Will they be easy to
implement? Are there spare parts available now and in the future?
❖ Clarifying each of the relevant information processes within the system
○ The relevant information process which should be clarified within the system
❖ Detailing the role of the participants, the data and the information technology used in the system
○ The role of the participants, the data and the information technology used in the system, should all
be detailed
❖ Refining Existing Prototypes
○ They’re refined until they reflect the final software solution for those systems for which is a
relevant approach. Ongoing user feedback is critical during this process.
❖ Participant Development
○ When people within the information system develop the solution, participants and users play an
important role in the design of the solution
○ Tools for participant development such as guided processes in application packages (Wizards)
❖ Tools used in designing
● Context diagrams
○ Context diagrams represent the entire system as a single process
○ They do not attempt to describe the information processes within the system
○ Identifies data entering and the information leaving the system
○ Shows the data flow between
the information system and
external entities
● Data flow diagrams
○ Describe the movement and
changes in data between processes.
○ Aim of DFDs is to represent systems
by describing the changes in data as
it passes through processes
○ Each process transforms input data
into output data
○ Can be multiple circles
○ Circle = the processes or actions
that transform inputs to outputs
○ Arrow = data flowing between the
process
○ Open Rectangle = location of where the data is being stored
○ Square = the external entity representing the person/organisation that sends or receive data from
the system
● Decision trees
○ Diagrammatic way of representing all possible combinations of decisions and their resulting actions
○ It represents the decisions made within a system as the branches of a tree
○ Each condition is split into two parts, the first being a variable written above the tree and the
second being the value (or range of values) for that variable within the tree
○ Tools for documenting the logic upon which decisions are made.

● Decision tables
○ Tools for documenting the logic upon which decisions are made.
○ The table is divided vertically into conditions and actions, and
then horizontally into rules

Implementing
❖ Acquiring information technology and making it operational
● Hardware
○ Network cabling needs to be installed
○ Buying, installing and configuring new hardware (e.g. servers)
○ Training the participants and users to use the hardware
● Software, customised or developed
○ Install or customise the new software to suit the system's needs
○ Convert the old data to the new system
○ Train participants and users to use the software
❖ An implementation plan that details:
● Implementation Plan specifies
○ Participant training (many Q’s surrounding these things)
○ Conversion method
○ System testing
○ Conversion of data
● Participant training
○ Ensures that participants can use the new system and understand its benefits
○ It’s vital for successful training to require motivated learners
● Training Techniques
➔ Traditional group training sessions
○ Trainer can be a member of the system development team or an outsourced specialist trainer
○ If software purchased has little modifications → outsourced trainer (intimate knowledge of it)
○ If software is customised → member of development team
○ There’s onsite and offsite training
➔ Peer training
○ One or more users undergo intensive training in regard to the operation and skills needed by
the new system
○ Also learns to teach others to use it
○ One-to-one process that’s essentially an onsite expert guiding them
➔ Online training such as tutorials and help systems
○ Allow users to learn new skills at their own pace and as they are needed
○ Common for larger systems to be provided with a complete tutorial system
○ They include sample files and databases that can be changed without actually altering stuff
● The method for conversion
➔ Direct conversion
○ Old system completely dropped and new system completely implemented at one time
○ The old system is no longer available
○ Must be sure that the new system will operate
correctly and meet all requirements because it might
fail, problems may occur and there is no backup
○ Minimal cost, time and effort
○ The system is up and running immediately
○ Best suited for smaller companies and paper-based
systems
➔ Parallel conversion
○ Operating both the old and new systems together for a period of time
 ○ Problems encountered can be solved before the old
system is discontinued, so no lost data
○ Users have time to familiarise themselves with the new
system
○ Participants need to operate both systems = additional
workload for participants
○ Increased chance of confusion over which system has
correct data
○ Best used for processing that is very important and may result in dire consequences
○ Can compare two systems and obtain a good understanding of the differences between them
○ Eventually old system will stop but only when the new system has been proven to work
➔ Phased conversion
○ Gradual introduction of the new system while the old system is progressively discarded
○ Introducing new parts of the new product one at a time while the older parts being replaced
are removed
○ For large organisations, the conversion process is
also much more manageable
○ Users can gradually get used to the new system
○ Staff training can be done in stages
○ If there is a problem with a certain operation, it is
possible to switch back to the old system
➔ Pilot conversion
○ New system is first of all piloted in one part of
the business (an office, a department)
○ Once it runs successfully, the new system is
introduced to the rest of the company
○ If something goes wrong with the new system,
only a small part of the company is affected and
there is no backup for them
○ Staff who were part of the pilot scheme can
help train other staff
○ Useful for systems with a large number of users as it ensures the system is able to operate
● How the system will be tested
○ When will it be tested (what stage in the development process)?
○ Who will test the system?
○ What methods will be used?
● Conversion of data for the new system
○ How will existing data be converted from the old format to the new format so it is compatible with
the new system?
○ Data entry operators are required to convert between analogue and digital data
○ Data conversion software can be used to convert between digital forms of data

❖ Need for an operation manual detailing procedures participants follow when using the new
system
● Operation Manuals
 ○ Describes step-by-step instructions specific to the new system for participants such as performing
certain tasks, troubleshooting and FAQs
○ It’s continually updated
○ It identifies and details tasks
➔ Why they are required
➔ How tasks relate to one another
➔ Who performs tasks
➔ When a task is to be completed
➔ How to complete tasks
○ Technical support staff assists participants with the new system and an operation manual details
procedures they follow when using the new system

Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining

❖ Testing and evaluating the solution with test data such as

● Volume data
○ Test data designed to ensure the system performs within its requirements when processes are
subjected to large volumes of data
○ Measures response times as well as ensuring the system continues to operate and process data
when presented with large amounts of data
○ E.g: queries can return answer quickly when database contains a hundred records, but what if it is a
million
● Simulated data
○ Tests the performance of systems under simulated operational conditions
○ E.g: when many users, connections or different processes are all occurring in different
combinations and at the same time
○ Evaluates the system performance under a variety of different scenarios
○ Special software (Mercury Interactive’s LoadRunner) is designed to simulate and test the situation
○ Tests when system fails, when exceptional loads are applied, multitasking, response to a large
number of requests
● Live data
○ Live data is the actual data that is processed by the operational system
○ Confirms all parts of the installed system are working as expected and meeting the system
requirements under real conditions
○ Live testing takes place once the system is operational
○ For some systems, it is impractical to build and test the system in advance. Therefore, live testing
allows testing once the system is actually installed
○ Used in the real world by actual people
❖ Checking to see that the original system requirements have been achieved
● Evaluation
○ An ongoing process of examining a system to determine the extent to which it meets its
requirements

● Technical Performance Monitoring

○ Aims to evaluate the continuing achievement of the systems evolving Information technology
requirements
 ○ Verifies that requirements continue to be met and identify any changes that may require
modifications to the system.
○ Software and hardware will change and will change and will need to be upgraded to cope with the
requirements
○ E.g: amount of data in a system grows = storage and retrieval processes slow, as the number of
transactions increase = response speed decreases
(10am morning, compared to 4pm Friday arvo)
● Financial Performance Monitoring
○ Aims to evaluate whether or not the system is
meeting its economic goals as outlined in the
feasibility study
○ Environmental factors which may affect the
financial progress of a system (etc. new
competitor entered the market a year ago, hence
causing decrease in profits)
❖ Trialling and using the operation manual
○ The operation manual is trialled to ensure that any modifications required are corrected
○ Participants need to be instructed about and assisted with major functions of the new system by
the operation manual
❖ Reviewing the effect on users of the information system, participants and people within the
environment
○ Important to evaluate the effect of the information system on people
○ They are the most critical element of an information system
● Changes in the type and nature of employment
○ New systems alter the work performed by participants and others who use/are affected by the
system
○ New tasks commonly require more advanced skills in technology rather than manual skills which
substitute for technology
○ Due to the increase in processing speed, work hours performing a particular task can be reduced
○ E.g: No need to manually look through filing cabinets but instead query it in a database
● Health and safety concerns
○ All workers are exposed to potential health and safety problems whilst working
○ Employers must follow OH&S (Occupational Health and Safety Act/Regulation 2000/2001)
standards to minimise health and safety risks
○ Ergonomics is the study of the relationship between human workers and their work environment
➔ Furniture and hardware design, placement
➔ Artificial lighting
➔ Noise levels
➔ Minimising boredom and discomfort in work routines
➔ Intuitive and user-friendly software
➔ Procedures for reporting OH&S issues

● Little or no sense of accomplishment

○ Many information systems involve monotonous tasks with no end in sight and always extra work
○ It may be demoralising to work in this type of task
 ○ The work routine should be altered to include a variety of tasks and assigning responsibility for the
task completion
○ Evaluation should identify these problems and make modifications, so that people feel a sense of
accomplishment
● Deskilling
○ Participants need to feel as if they are not being deskilled and need to feel valued as a new system
may replace many of the skills that they posses
○ E.g. desktop publishing software replaced the 'typesetting' industry
○ All existing skills for the particular task are no longer required
○ Deskilling can also occur when an information system restricts participants to particular tasks and
excludes them from others
● Loss of social contact
○ An issue due to the introduction of efficient communication systems, they lose face to face
interactions
○ Can also occur if an information system requires participants to spend long periods of time at a
computer (especially data entry)
❖ Modifying parts of the system where problems are identified
○ Maintenance is the modification of the system by making minor improvements
○ Regular maintenance is required for the system to continue to meet requirements and solve
problems
○ Maintaining an information system involves:
➔ Regular maintenance
➔ Repairs when faults occur
○ Maintenance tasks include:
➔ Maintaining equipment (hardware/software) inventory
➔ Backup
➔ Virus protection
➔ Maintain hardware through cleaning/other maintenance tasks
➔ Ensure all consumables are at hand
○ For each modification, the SDLC commences again and the changes are all documented
○ This ensures that the modification works correctly with all parts of the existing system and also
ensures all documentation is updated
○ A backup of the system's data will ensure the system will not lose any data while maintenance
takes place and should be stored in a secure location (perhaps offsite)

Information Systems and Databases

Information Systems

❖ The characteristics of an information system

➢ Purpose = Aim or objective of the system and the reason the system exists.
● The organisation of data into information
○ Data must be organised (sorted, summarised, classified) prior analysis.
○ If not done carefully, the data will become meaningless, so use data dictionaries.
● The analysing of information to give knowledge
○ There are varieties of tools available for analysis by tables, queries and reports.
○ Decisions are then made based on these decisions.
❖ The different types of and purposes for information systems
● Process transactions (Transaction Processing System - TPS)
○ Collects, stores, modifies and retrieves transactions of an organisation
○ Provides data to other systems
○ E.g. credit card systems, EFTPOS, POS terminals
○ Does little or no organization of data into info
● Provide users with information about an organisation (Management Information Systems - MIS)
○ Takes data from TPS and organises it into information reports
○ Provide info on the organisation’s performance
○ Makes summaries, profit/loss statements to assist managers in making decisions.
● Help decision-making (Decision Support System - DSS)
○ Assist people to make decisions by providing information, models and analysis tools.
○ Creates a mathematical model of variables affecting the decision, using the tools
○ Used in statistical analysis, stock market, and weather forecasts.
● Manage information used within an organisation (Office automation systems - OAS)
○ Manages the vast quantities of data and info in an organisation.
○ Improve efficiency and reduce the quantity of administrative tasks needed to run the organisation.
○ OAS tools include: word processors, DBMS software, voice mail, scheduling software, spreadsheet
software and desktop publishers

Database information systems

❖ School databases holding information on teachers, subjects, classrooms and students

○ Environment:
○ School community (students, staff, parents), authorities (BOS, government), any
organisation, business or individual that receives information generated by the school or
supplies data for the system
○ Purpose:
○ To maintain the efficient operation of the school, personnel, resources and
administration tasks.
○ To provide information on student enrolments, subject selections and assessments for
both school staff and educational authorities.
○ Data/Information:
○ Information on people and resources, library loans, staff information, student and
teacher timetables, student marks and grades.
○ Participants:
○ Office staff, teachers
○ Information technology:
○ Hardware: Computers, barcode readers, scanners
○ Software: Operating system, spreadsheet and word processor applications, database

○ Information processes:
○ Cover the seven processes; collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving,
processing, transmitting and receiving, displaying.
❖ The Roads and Traffic Authority holding information on automobiles and holders of drivers
licences
 ○ Environment:
○ NSW vehicle owners, government (NSW department of transport), police and courts.
○ Purpose:
○ To manage registration of all drivers and motor vehicles in NSW.
○ To provide information to drivers/applicants on matters such as licensing, vehicle
registration, etc. as well as statistical information to government and other authorities.
○ Data/information:
○ Drivers’ details (contact, payment, driving history, license information), vehicle details
(registration numbers, make of car, etc.)
○ Participants:
○ Data entry operators, administration staff at offices, police department
○ Information technology:
○ Hardware: Computers, cameras, barcode scanners, networking between computers
○ Software: Operating system, database software
○ Information processes:
○ Cover the seven processes; collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving,
processing, transmitting and receiving, displaying.
❖ Video stores holding information on borrowers and videos
○ Environment:
○ Staff, customers around the area, suppliers, other chain stores, head office.
○ Purpose:
○ Allowing customers to hire videos for a period of time, keeping an accurate record of
rentals and stock.
○ Data/Information:
○ Customer details, current loans and overdue items, rental records (in stock/on loan),
rental fees, video details, barcodes, receipts
○ Participants:
○ Staff, head management

○ Information technology:
○ Hardware: Computers, barcode scanners
○ Software: Operating system, database software
○ Information processes:
○ Cover the seven processes; collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving,
processing, transmitting and receiving, displaying

Organisation

❖ Non-computer methods of organising

● Telephone books
○ Alphabetically organised by surname
○ Searching for the record brings up their phone number
○ Difficult to enter details between records
● Card-based applications
○ Recipe cards are organised based on categories
○ Eg. salads, pastas, etc.
○ Photo albums are organised chronologically (first taken to last taken)
❖ Computer-based methods of organising,
● Flat-file systems
○ A single table of data stored as a single file. All rows (records) are composed of the same sequence
of fields (attributes)
○ Telephone books, appointment diaries and even filing cabinets
● Database management systems
○ System software for creating and managing databases.
○ Data is organised into tables, viewed in forms, retrieved using queries and displayed in reports
○ Manipulates the data in different ways, such as sorting and searching
○ Allows simultaneous management and use of several separate databases
○ Allows relationships between data in different databases (relational databases)
○ Data can be organised into different databases for each category and can then be linked together
○ Can make flat file and relational databases
● Hypermedia
○ A combination of media whose locations are linked to provide an easy way to navigate between
the documents
○ World Wide Web is one large hypermedia data store where web pages are linked together
○ Mainly used on the Internet
○ Limited data processing capabilities
○ Allows documents to be cross-linked in such a way that the user can move from one document to
another by clicking on a text link (hyperlink)
❖ Advantages and disadvantages of computer-based and non-computer based organisation
methods

Advantages Disadvantages

Computer-Based ○ Faster ○ Only accessible electronically

○ Data can be automatically
organised
○ Management is much easier
○ Data can be easily
exchanged over a network
○ Can be accessed by more
than one person
○ Easily Edited
○ Not always portable
○ Training may be required
○ Can be subject to security
confidentiality issues
○ Expensive hardware and software
have to be purchased
○ Vulnerable to viruses and hackers
○ Staff need to be trained to use it

Non-Computer ○ Does not require any power ○ Inflexible layout (eg. cannot be
Based ○ Portable reorganised alphabetically when a
○ No training required new record is added)
○ Cheaper as it doesn’t require ○ Limited access
computer hardware and ○ Larger amounts of physical storage
software space
○ One person only can access it at one
time
○ Longer to organise, analyse,
manipulate and retrieve the data
❖ Logical organisation of flat-file databases, including:
➢ Organises all data into a single table where rows are divided into fields and is suitable for small
applications with basic processing
➢ A database stored into a single table (single file)
➢ Most appropriate when tasks require basic processing and end users have low ICT skills
● Files
○ A block of data, when finished work on the computer it is stored in a file
○ It’s divided into a set of related records
○ E.g : Address database is a file
● Records
○ Collection of facts about one specific entry
in a database (rows)
○ It’s divided into one or more related fields
○ E.g: the information about a person’s name,
address and home phone
● Fields/Attribute
○ Specific category of data in a database
(columns)
○ Data items in a field are made up of
characters
○ E.g: Postcode, Suburb, Given Name
● Key fields (Primary Key)
○ Field which uniquely identifies a specific record
○ E.g : Student ID = unique for everyone in school
● Characters
○ Smallest unit of data that people can use.
○ E.g: letters, numbers, symbols
● Problems
○ Stored in a single table
○ Causes redundant data
❖ Logical organisation of relational databases
➢ A collection of 2D tables that organises data through relationships to provide flexibility in
manipulating data. It allows you to manage multiple DBs and manipulate data by searching and
sorting
● Schemas/Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERDs)
○ It’s an organised plan of the entire database and shows the logical relationship of the data
● Entities
○ Specific thing about which information is collected and stored
○ Separate tables in schema indicate the entities
○ E.g: Student, Teacher, Employee
● Attributes
○ Defined property (characteristics) of an entity
○ Attributes are the same as fields in a flat file database.
○ E.g: First Name, Last Name
● Relationships
➔ One to one (Seldom Used)
 ○ Each record in the first entity is related to only one other in the second entity
○ E.g: Primary school teacher to one class
➔ One to many (Often Used)
○ Each record in the first entity is related to several records in the second entity
○ E.g: One teacher to many students
➔ Many to many
○ Each record in the first entity relates to many records in the second entity, and each record in
the second entity is related to many records in the first entity.
○ E.g: Each student studies many subjects and many students study each subject
● Tables as the implementation of entities consisting of:
➔ Attributes
○ Information in a column (field) of the table is the attribute of the entity and represents the
field
➔ Records/Tuple
○ A row in the table is called a tuple of an entity and represents a record
● Linking tables using primary and foreign keys
➔ Primary Keys
○ A field that stores data that uniquely identifies the record
➔ Foreign Keys
○ An attribute which is the primary key for another table

● User views for

different purposes
➔ Table view
○ Overall view of the data (no images)
○ Used to view inputted data
➔ Form view
○ Each record is displayed separately
○ Commonly used for data input to enter, view and edit data
➔ Report view
○ Data is output for printing and other production uses
○ Used as a summary format and output of data for printing
❖ Data modelling tools for organising databases:
● Data dictionaries to describe the characteristics of data:
○ Used to detail each of the data items used by the system
➔ Field name
○ Name of each field as it appears in a database
 ➔ Data type
○ Describes the type of data
in each field
○ E.g: Boolean, Time,
Alphanumeric, Numeric,
Date, Calculation
➔ Data format
○ Describes any special
formatting in each field
○ E.g: Time may be formatted as HH:MM:SS
➔ Field size
○ Describes the maximum characters allowed in a field
➔ Description
○ A description of the contents in the field
➔ Example
○ An example of an entry in the given field
● Schematic diagrams that show the relationships between entities
○ Graphical tools that are used to describe the database and help in the development of a
relational database
○ They identify the entities and show the relationships between them
● Normalising data to reduce data redundancy
○ Process of organizing the fields and tables into a relational database to minimise redundancy
○ A refinement process by removing repeated fields, grouping them as a new record with two
or more tables and defining relationships between tables
○ Gives a more efficient database that preserves data integrity but more complex because data
is separated into more tables
○ Why do it? Redundant data wastes storage space and creates maintenance problems
○ If duplicate data exists in different locations then when this data requires alteration the
changes must be made numerous times.
○ If all copies are not altered then data integrity problems will emerge
○ Minimises updating needs
○ Eliminates input errors
➔ First normal form
○ Deals with the basic structure of the relation and does not resolve the problems of redundant
information
○ “Eliminate repeating groups,” make a separate table for each set of related attributes, and
give each table a primary key
○ Each field contains a single data item
○ There can be no multiple items in a single record
➔ Second normal form
○ Each column must depend on the entire primary key
○ Every non-key attribute in a database table is dependant on the primary key
➔ Third normal form
○ If attributes do not contribute to a description of a key, remove them to a separate table
❖ Logical organisation of hypermedia:
● Nodes
 ○ A point where links are connected.
○ Any system or device connected to a network that can send, receive, or forward information
○ In hypertext terms, some block of information – perhaps a web page, video etc
● Links/Hyperlink
○ Links are embedded within a node and is taken to another node
○ Allows the electronic connection to another document or page
● HTML
○ Defines the structure and layout of a web document
● Uniform resource locators
○ Identify individual files and resources on the Internet (address)
➔ Protocol
○ Transfer method used to access a particular resource on the Web (HTTP, HTTPS)
➔ Domain Name/Host Name
○ Name for the website on the Internet (Google.com)
○ The representative of the IP address
➔ File Path/Subdirectory
○ Directory structure that leads to the individual file
○ E.g: HTML file named Overview.html is located within the Protocols directory within the
www.w3.org directory

● Metadata such as HTML tags

○ Data that describe other data
○ HTML documents use metadata to describe the content and layout of a webpage (<img
src="name">, <body></body>
❖ Tools for organising hypermedia:
● Storyboards to represent data organised using hyperlinks
○ A graphical model of a website/hypermedia system showing the navigational sequence
➔ Linear
○ Forces the user through a particular sequence of nodes
○ Useful for training where the content of each node requires
knowledge obtained from previous nodes
○ Making online purchases

➔ Hierarchical
○ Sequential path in a top-down design - user moves
down through the website finding more and more
info
○ Suited to information that falls into categories and
sub-categories (Government sites)

➔ Non-linear
○ Allows maximum flexibility of design, but users can get lost in a maze of screens
 ○ E.g: Games with multiple endings

➔ Composite/Combination
○ Combination of all three methods, with different parts of the site having characteristics of
each

● Software that allows text, graphics and sounds to be hyperlinked

○ Text Editors = write HTML files in ASCII format
○ E.g: TextEdit
○ Web Editors = software which allows designers to create a website
○ E.g: Adobe Dreamweaver
○ HTML editors = specialises in writing HTML code and specific features such as built-in tags,
autocomplete and tag/error checkers to aid users
○ E.g: Adobe Dreamweaver

Storage and Retrieval

❖ Database management systems (DBMS) including:

● The role of a DBMS in handling access to a database
○ A software package which allows users to access a database to enter, maintain and view data
within a database file
○ Organised into tables, viewed in forms, retrieved using queries and displayed within reports
○ All help to provide information to viewers in a user-friendly yet comprehensive manner

● The independence of data from the DBMS

○ Data that is created and made can be used with other softwares
○ The data is independent itself because it doesn’t change the DBMS
❖ Direct and sequential access of data
● Direct/Random Access
○ The ability to go to any data item in any order
○ Knows exactly where the item we are looking for is and can access it in any order
○ E.g: magnetic and optical disks, hard drives, CDs, DVDs and flash drives (USB, SD)
● Sequential Access
 ○ Data must be stored and retrieved in a linear sequence
○ Slow and impractical when immediate access is required and is only useful when each record
requires to be manipulated or updated.
○ E.g: magnetic tape and cartridges
❖ On-line and off-line storage
● Online Storage
○ Always directly available for use and is always directly under the user’s control
○ Fastest method of storage and permanently positioned
○ Available immediately to connected computers.
○ E.g: hard disc, network servers, icloud, google drive
● Offline Storage
○ Data stored such that it cannot be accessed until the storage media is mounted into an external
device
○ Needs to be loaded/inserted into the system before use which is slower access
○ Portable and for storing databases that are used infrequently
○ Eg. optical disks and magnetic drives, Usb, Hard disk, CDs, DVD,
❖ Centralised and distributed databases
● Centralised
○ Database that is stored at one central location but is available for use by all computers on the
network
○ Single copy of the database makes data management and security easier
○ No synchronisation required
○ Entire network relies on the single computer that stores the database
○ All reliant on the single computer, if it fails then the entire network fails.
● Distributed
○ Geographically dispersed among different computers at different sites, but acts as a single
database
○ Reduces transmission costs
○ All files are available to authorised users via a network
○ More prone to security issues
○ Synchronisation is required in a distributed database to make sure the database is current or else
issues of data integrity may arise
○ Takes time to travel when transferring money from Adelaide to Sydney or checking bank details
from there
○ E.g: database at warehouse and head office, an order at the warehouse should be
registered/synced in both databases
❖ Storage media
● Hard discs
○ A double sided disk/platter made of metal or glass and covered with a magnetic material in a
vacuum sealed casing to protect disk (pretty mirror disk with needle taken apart from class)
○ Data is arranged into tracks and sectors within concentric circles
○ Direct access to retrieve data and is online storage and can be used for offline backup
○ Fast, reliable, high capacity (measured GB)
● CD-ROMs
○ Optical disks use laser technology to read and write data
○ Stronger lasers used to store data and weaker lasers used to retrieve it
 ○ Inexpensive, reliable and portable
○ Can store reasonable amounts of storage, usually music/pictures
● DVD
○ Much more densely packed tracks each storing up to 4.7 gigabytes of data
○ Dual layered
○ Similar to a CD but stores videos/movies
● Cartridge
○ Magnetic tape encased in a cartridge
○ Comes in different sizes to match tape
● Tapes
○ Long, thin strip of plastic coated with a thin layer of magnetic material
○ Stores large quantities of data inexpensively
○ Often used as a backup medium and has sequential access
❖ Encryption and decryption
● Encryption
○ Process of altering data unreadable by those who do not possess the decryption key
○ Changes the data so it can only be read by someone who has the correct decryption key
➔ Single Key/Symmetrical/Secret Key Encryption
○ Same key is used to decrypt the data as was used for encryption
○ Commonly used to encrypt data held on secondary storage devices (USB, floppy disk)
➔ Asymmetric
○ Ensures the security of information transmitted during communication
○ Alice takes Bob’s Public key and put in her message → Bob receives his public key back and
uses his private key to open it
○ Public Key is open to everyone to use but private is just for you
● Decryption
○ Process of decoding encrypted data using a key. The opposite of encryption.
○ Changing encrypted data back (decoding)
❖ Backup and security procedures
● Backup
○ Aim = to prevent data loss in the unfortunate event that the original data is damaged or lost
○ Reason = Hard disk failures, software faults, theft, fire, viruses, intentional malicious damage etc
○ Regular backups are required should be kept in a fireproof safe or at a separate physical location

➔ Full Backup
○ Usually done once a week
○ Backing up all files
○ Time-consuming and often require a lot of disk or tape capacity
➔ Incremental Backups
○ Only back up the data that has changed since the previous backup
 ➔ Differential Backup
○ Contains all of the data that has changed since the last full backup

● Security
○ Security is an important database issue.
○ Data can be stolen, destroyed, or maliciously modified and there is a greater risk when data is
accessible via a network
○ Usernames and passwords can be used restrict access
○ Can be used to secure individual files, directories and entire storage devices
○ Levels of access can be used to allow only certain users to make changes to the database
○ Physical security measures such as locking the room (keys,passes,biometric)
○ Record locking prevents two people from trying to change a record simultaneously
○ Transaction and master files involves placing daily changes in a temporary ‘transaction file’ and
leave the original database (master file) unaltered. Master file is updated at intervals
○ Firewall restricts unauthorised access from the Internet. It checks the data entering/leaving system.
Checks the password of anyone entering the system
○ Virus protection software protects data from deliberate and malicious electronic attack
❖ Tools for database storage and retrieval, including:
● Extracting relevant information through searching and sorting a database
➔ Searching
○ The process of examining the database to retrieve data based on a search criteria
➔ Sorting
○ The process of arranging the database data in a particular order.
○ Makes the data easier to use by arranging it in a meaningful order
○ Querying is a common method of searching for records that meet a certain condition
● Selecting data from a relational database using Query by Example (QBE) and Structured Query
Languages (SQL) commands, including:
● SQL
➔ Select
○ The data to be displayed
○ E.g : SELECT Students.FirstName, Students.LastName
➔ From
○ The source of the data
○ E.g : FROM Students, Scores
➔ Where
○ The query/search criteria
○ E.g: WHERE LastName = “Mullins
 ○ If multiple tables, Students. LastName=”Chen” AND Scores.Mark > 1000
➔ Order by
○ Order in which the results are to be displayed
○ E.g: ORDER BY LastName DESC
➔ Wildcards
○ *= more than 1 or 0
○ E.g: J* =Jess, John, jonathan
○ ?= just one character
○ E.g: J?m = Jim, Jem, Jam
○ Logical Operators : AND, OR
○ Relational Operators : <,>,=,<=,>=
● QBE
○ A visual technique for specifying a database query.
○ Users don’t need to understand SQL but can use a
simplified form to find data
● Calculation of storage
○ Add all the field sizes x no. of records/1024= Kb

❖ Tools for hypermedia search and retrieval, including:

● Free text searching
○ A program that will look for specific characters in an open document
○ E.g: Find command in a web browser or word processor.
○ Only searches for the specific text characters in the page currently open
○ Limited to the displayable text in open web-page.
○ Will not search through the metadata for any hidden information such as the name of the page
author, creation date, etc
● Operation of a search engine
○ Enables web users to locate web pages about specific topics in the index
○ A program that builds an index of website content
➔ Indexing
○ Index = table that contains information about the location of data
○ A search engine’s index is built by regularly scanning the Web for new sites
○ Indexing software collects information, such as titles and keywords, from the Web sites, then
indexes these words in a database
➔ Search robots
○ Scanning is often completed by programs called spiders, crawlers or robot
○ Gathers information for search engine indexes
○ Each web page is downloaded, examined for hyperlinks and passed onto the indexer
 ➔ Metadata
○ A list of a web page’s keywords embedded in the header section of its HTML code.
○ It is usually defined by the <META> tag so that search robots can easily identify it, without
needing to look through entire page.
○ Search engines robots may look at metadata to find descriptions and keywords of each
webpage they index
❖ Reporting on data found in hypermedia systems
○ Involves search engines using a page-rating or relevance calculation method to decide the order in
which the URLs are displayed on the search results page
○ Can determine the popularity of a web page by the number of links that connect to them
○ If a keyword appears in the title of the page, engine will consider it relevant and place it at the top
of the search results
○ Too many keywords in a page may represent spam

Other information processes for database information systems

❖ Displaying
● Reporting on relevant information held in a database
○ A report is formatted and organised presentation of data and are designed to be an easy way to
present printed output from a database.
○ E.g: invoices, sales reports, performances, reports and telephone lists
○ DBMS contains report generators allowing users to have control over what data is displayed in
different formats
● Constructing different views of a database for different purposes
○ Purpose of the report determines its content, format and style
○ E.g. invoice and inventory reports will have differing data formats and layouts
○ Forms are used to view, enter and modify data in a database
➔ Design principles
○ Headings that identify the purpose of the report and columns
○ Efficient layout
○ Consistency of style
○ White space
○ Page numbers and date

Issues related to information systems and databases

❖ Acknowledgment of data sources

● The source of data is the person or organisation who developed the idea
○ Informal sources - meetings, conversation, observation
○ Formal sources - report, book or official document
● The source of data should always be documented
○ Allows users to check the validity and reliability of data
○ Helps to avoid breach of copyright
○ Illegal to copy the work of another without their permission by the Copyright Act
○ Always acknowledge and get permission of owner to use their information
❖ Freedom of Information Act
○ In NSW, this act gives you the right to
 ➔ Obtain access to information held as records by State Government Agencies,
Government Minister, local government and other public bodies
➔ Request amendments to records of a personal nature that are inaccurate
➔ Appeal against a decision not to grant access to information or to amend
personal records.
○ Individuals have the right to access information where it relates to the individual and does not
invade another person’s privacy
❖ Privacy principles
○ Privacy is about protecting an individual’s personal information
○ Fundamental of our society to have the right to know who holds our personal information and that
they will keep it confidential
○ Privacy principles are codes of practice adopted by organisations to protect the privacy of
individuals whose data they hold and ensures that data is not abused/misused
○ Privacy is protected by the Commonwealth Privacy Act 1988 and NSW Privacy and Personal
Information Protection Act 1998 and Health Records and Information Privacy Act 2002
○ Cannot disclose personal information or use the data for any purpose other than what it was
collected for without violating the Privacy Act
○ Unethical to collect data for one purpose and use it for another without obtaining prior consent
❖ Quality of data
○ Data integrity refers to the accuracy and reliability of data and measures the quality of data
○ Collected data needs to be verified ✅(making sure it is correct)
➔ Manually compare collected data to the source data
➔ Contacting the user to confirm accuracy
➔ Repeating to the operator
➔ Double reading what they’ve entered
○ Accuracy (well written, acknowledgements)
○ Authority (who are the people responsible for information)
○ Objectives (free from advertisements - commercials, trying to sway my opinion)
○ Currency (up to date)
○ Coverage (is the information complete, is it detailed)

❖ Accuracy of data and the reliability of data sources

○ Accuracy of data is the extent to which data is free from errors
○ For data to be reliable, it must be accurate, current and relevant
○ Data validation used during data collection to ensure reasonable data is entered
➔ Data is in an acceptable range
➔ Data is in the required format
➔ Number of characters in a field/record
➔ Implementing cross-checking facilities
❖ Access to data, ownership and control of data
○ Access to data is the extent to which data is available to people
○ Access to private data reveals individual preferences, weaknesses and habits, which are used by
companies to their advantage eg. target advertising using loyalty card data
○ Control is clearly needed if data access is to be restricted, however it gives the controller power
 ○ By the Freedom of Information Act 1982 + Freedom of Information Act 1989 states individuals have
the right to access relating to them and can request amendments
❖ Data matching to cross link data across multiple databases
○ Data is brought together from different sources and computers
○ This can be used to identify and prevent fraud, often done with personal information
❖ Current and emerging trends in the organisation, processing, storage and retrieval of data
● Data Warehouses
○ A place where non-active or old data is collected and stored
○ Supports management decision making and designed for reporting and analysis
○ Data warehouses are extremely large storage areas of raw data
○ High costs due to lots of storage needed and maintenance
○ Used for business analysis, data and market analytics, and business reporting
● Data Mining
○ Process of discovering non-obvious patterns within large collections of data
○ Analysis of large data stores to discover hidden patterns/trends that weren’t obvious or predicted
by conventional querying of a database
○ E.g: Data mining software may detect a pattern indicating that men tend to buy luxury food items
early in the week if they are also purchasing nappies
○ Companies can take this knowledge and exploit it to target customers

● Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

○ A technique for providing business decision makers with statistical evidence, based on past trends
so they can make decisions
○ Similar to data mining, but the results are displayed visually on a computer screen
○ Able to answer queries quickly and uses more dimensions (cubes) uncover summarised information
○ Pre-calculates for complex queries
● Online Transaction Processing (OLTP)
○ Facilitates and manages transaction-oriented applications
○ Allows transactions to be processed immediately by remote users over the internet
○ Gives consumers choice of how they want to pay, broadens consumer base, fast
○ E.g: ATM, e-commerce, airlines

Communication Systems

Characteristics of communication systems

❖ Communication systems as being those systems which enable users to send and receive data and
information
○ Communication systems enable people and systems to share and exchange data and information
electronically
○ Many communication systems transport data over a network such as a LAN or the Internet
○ E.g: Cup and String, Smoke signals, Email
❖ Framework in which communication systems function

○ The data source produces the data to be sent

○ The transmitter encodes the data into a signal suitable for a transmission medium
○ The transmission medium is a channel such as a cable in which the signal is transmitted to the
destination. The signal may be changed or distorted during transmission
○ The receiver decodes the signal back into the original data or an approximation of the data
○ E.g: radio that converts the signal into the original sounds
○ Switches and routers are where addresses are attached and read so that the data/information
(data packets) are sent on the most suitable path to get to their destination
○ The destination is the receiver of the information
○ E.g: Person listening to the radio
● 3 IPT Levels
○ The simplified version of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
➔ Application Level
○ Actual data to be transmitted is created by a software application and organised in a format
understood by the application that will receive the data
○ The data is reorganised into a form suitable for the application that will receive the data
○ E.g: compressing an image → sequence of ASCII characters for operating system
➔ Communication and control and addressing level
○ Establishes and maintains communication with the network and the destination
○ E.g: Internet banking transaction this layer ensures communication continues until the entire
transaction is completed
○ Correct transmission of each packet of data (TCP protocol)
○ If data packets fail to reach destination then it manages to retransmit it
○ Packets are directed to their destination by the use of IP and routers
➔ Transmission level
○ Defines how the transmission media is actually shared
○ Determine the final size of transmitted packets, the speed of transfer
○ Performs the actual physical transfer, hence it is composed solely of hardware
○ Converts the bits in each message into the signals that are transmitted down the transmission
media (coaxial cable, wireless connection, twisted pair)
❖ Functions performed within the communication system
● Message creation (application)
○ The user creates a message using an application
○ E.g: Writing an email using Outlook
● Organisation of packets at the interface between source and transmitter (control)
○ Happens when the message descends the 3 levels
○ Each level adds its own header and trailer so there are multiple headers and trailers on each packet
○ Includes the address of the receiver within the header (application lvl) and many include some
form of error detection code(control lvl) within their header or trailer
● Signal generation by the transmitter (transmission)
○ The transmitter is the physical hardware that encodes the data onto the medium creating a signal
○ Their task is to represent individual bits or patterns of bits as a wave to be transmitted
○ E.g: Modem converts a computer’s binary signal into a physical signal such as voltage or light wave
● Transmission (transmission)
○ Transmission occurs as the signal travels through the medium
○ Each bit or pattern of bits move from the sender to the receiver as a particular waveform
○ Flow control helps lessen transmission time
○ E.g: network cables, fibre optics or through space using radio
● Synchronising the exchange (control)
○ Both transmitter and receiver use a common clock so transmission can be perfectly synchronised
○ Adding and sending stop and start bits between, start and end of the data packets so sender and
receiver are in sync
○ Synchronous communication transfers large packets of data
○ While the transmitter is encoding the signal, the receiver is decoding the signal at the same time
○ E.g: When you get your shoelace untied people behind you have to wait for you in a queue before
moving
○ Asynchronous is what most communication between computers and devices is, it can occur at any
time and at irregular intervals making it faster
○ Executing multiple things at a time and you don't have to finish executing the current thing in order
to move on to the next one.
○ E.g: When your shoelace is untied and everyone around just keeps walking
● Addressing and routing (transmission)
○ Data packets pass through many different and varied links during transmission
○ Packets travel quite different paths
○ Each communication link will have its own protocol
○ Each packet will ascend each protocol level until it reaches the addressing and routing protocol and
then descend the level as it is prepared for transmission down the next path
● Error detection and correction (control)
○ Occurs when each protocol (at the organisation of packets stage) level adding its own error
detection method
○ When ascends the stack these checks are done again to check if it corresponds with the result
○ Adds the resulting values into the headers and trailers
➔ Parity Check
○ Checking for errors in data transmission using an additional bit called a parity bit
○ If even parity is used, then the sending device adds a 1 or 0 to make the number of 1’s even
○ Unreliable
○ Even # of errors will slip through
 ○ Odd # of errors will always be found
➔ Check Sum
○ Checking for errors in data transmission by counting the number of bits in a data packet
○ Adds together all the bytes in a data block, and the sum is sent along with the block
○ Can’t tell which byte or bytes in the block is faulty, so the entire block has to be retransmitted
➔ Cyclic redundancy check
○ Checking for errors in data transmission using a division process
○ Data is divided into predetermined lengths and divided by a fixed divisor
○ Performs a division calculation on the entire block of data, and the remainder becomes the
CRC value
○ Very reliable
● Security and management (control)
○ Many protocols restrict messages based on user names and passwords, and may encrypt messages
during transmission
○ E.g: Password protection when accessing it via software application (e.g. Outlook, gmail), using a
secure transmission protocol (such as https) that encrypts data being sent when using internet
banking
❖ The roles of protocols in communication
● Protocols
○ Formal set of rules and procedures that must be observed for two devices to transfer data
efficiently and successfully
○ Protocols are categorised according to the level/layer in which they operate
● Handshaking and its importance in a communications link
○ Establishing and agreeing to the protocols from the systems is called handshaking
○ Process of negotiating the rules of communication between two or more devices
● Functions performed by protocols at different levels
➔ Application Level
○ HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) -primary protocol used by web browsers to communicate
and retrieve web pages from web servers, HTTPS encrypts data
○ SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) - for emails, allows connection to the email server,
simple - because most emails and their attachments are sent as text
○ Used to send email messages from an email SMTP client app to an SMTP server
○ FTP (file transfer protocol) - for direct file transfer from one computer to another, regardless
of OS used or whether the devices are clients or servers
○ SSL (secure sockets layer) - for e-commerce, applies encryption of data using a public key to
ensure that the message is not read/tampered by unauthorised agents

➔ Communication and control and addressing level

○ TCP (transmission control protocol) - error checking and data flow control, to ensure that the
messages are actually delivered correctly
○ Ensures that every byte of data is acknowledged once it is received
○ Each TCP segment includes a header with a sequence of bytes in the data packets and
checksum. If there are no errors, then the data packet is acknowledged
○ TCP requires IP to be operating as it considers elements of the IP header
○ Responsible for most transmission of data on the internet
 ○ IP (internet protocol) - routes the data packages over the most efficient pathway for their
destination, using the IP address
○ Does not guarantee data reaches destination (that is the job of the TCP) and doesn’t
acknowledge anything. It just fires off data. Bam bam bam
➔ Transmission Level
○ Ethernet - forms frames to contain the data packets, synchronises the clocks, decides the
speed of transmission
○ Token Ring Protocol - an eight-bit string continually circulates the network
○ When a node transmits a message, the token is altered and the message is “attached” to the
token
○ The token then passes to the next node, if the message is addressed to that node it copies the
message and then the message is passed to the next node
○ If the message is not addressed to that node it is simply passes on to the next node
❖ The client–server model
● The role of the client and the server
➢ Client server architecture describes the software relationship between the client (user) and the
server
➔ Clients
○ Clients request a service, and wait for a response while the server processes the request
○ Client machine performs processing and when requires resources from server it sends a
request
○ Client-server processing occurs sequentially, meaning for each particular client-server
operation, only one CPU is being used at a time
➔ Servers
○ Provide specific processing services for clients
○ A computer with a large storage capacity with a job of providing services to other computers
(clients)
● Advantages and disadvantages of client–server architecture
➔ Advantages
○ Many users have access to timely data and can access it from many computers
○ Different users can share resources located on a central server
○ All users are connected to the server making it easier to manage the network
○ Higher security of data as servers can control access and resources
○ All users are connected to a server = easier to manage the network
➔ Disadvantages
○ Clients may not have remote access to the server and have to carry all their files locally and
other clients will not have access to these or any updates that occur
○ If server fails than users will not be able to access the data/resources stored on the server
○ Usually expensive to install and maintain
○ Network traffic overload, where if the number of simultaneous client requests to a given
server increases, then server overloaded
● Thin Clients
○ Low specification personal computers, often without any secondary storage
○ Takes keystroke and mouse inputs, sends it away to server for processing, receives processed data
and displays it on a monitor
➔ Disadvantages
 ○ No server = useless
○ Little processing, has little (if any) application software installed, may not have a hard drive (it
relies on the server to have the software application it needs)
○ Relies on network connections to the server to complete tasks
● Fat/Thick Clients
○ Performs most of its processing on its own
○ Capable of running most application software stores its data onto a local hard drive
○ Fat clients can continue operating without a server
○ Fat clients have to depend on servers for authentication, data storage and services such as printing
○ Used when users want to do processing on the local computer, not a server
➔ Disadvantages
○ More expensive
○ Security issues (each workstation could potentially have sensitive data, rather than just one
highly secure data server)
● Examples of clients such as web browsers and mail clients
○ A web browser is a client that request services from a web server to display web pages
○ E.g. Chrome
○ A mail client is a client that requests email messages from an ISP’s mail server. The client allows
you to receive the mail
○ E.g. Outlook
● Examples of servers such as print servers, mail servers and web servers
➔ Print server
○ When a user prints a file, it is sent to the print server
○ Manages printing tasks and controls one or more printers on the network
○ Stores data waiting to be printed and places print files in a queue if busy
➔ Mail Server
○ Provides email facilities, stores incoming messages ready for distribution to users and
forwards outgoing mail to appropriate devices.
○ The recipient's mailbox is stored in an electronic post office at the mail server.
○ To access the post office, the recipient must enter the correct login/password, having virus
and spam protection installed
➔ Web Server
○ Provides services to web browsers and retrieves web pages and transmit them back to the
requesting client web browser
○ It stores web pages
○ A web server can be used by an ISP to store the home pages of all its internet users
○ When clients browse the web, they are moving from one web server to another

➔ Proxy Server
○ It acts as a temporary store for data moving between a LAN and other networks, such as the
internet
○ The main function is to cache/store frequently accessed data
○ Tries to perform the request itself without bothering the real server
○ Receives all web requests from all clients. If the files are found in the proxy server’s cache
then there is no need to retrieve it from the original remote web server
○ Provide connectivity between the LAN and the Internet
 Examples of Communication Systems
❖ Teleconferencing systems
➢ A multi-location, multi-person conference where audio, video and/or other data is communicated
in real time to all participants
➢ Use of an electronic transmission to allow a meeting to occur at the same time in different
locations
● Audio Conferencing
○ A single telephone call involving three or more people at different locations
○ Audio data is transmitted/received using existing telephone lines or through internet
● Video Conferencing
○ A meeting that allows people in different locations to see video images of each other on a screen +
hear speech
○ May require special communication arrangements because of the high bandwidth required to
transmit video and hardware requirements
○ Audio and video are difficult to transmit due to the large amount of data as well as the
synchronisation of audio
● Uses of teleconferencing
○ Distant education - teachers & students don’t need to pay for travel/accommodation to attend
lectures
○ Business meetings - meetings and conferences can be held in any city, national, internationally,
without the need for participants to be in the same location
○ Job interviews - possible to interview a job applicant located at a remote location
○ General/personal teleconferencing - with an inexpensive webcam and internet, teleconferencing is
possible (skype)
❖ Messaging systems
➢ Used to send messages to people in different locations who may receive the msg at a later time
● Email
○ Allows communication with other email users by sending and receiving messages using a computer
○ It requires a computer that is linked to the Internet, an account with an ISP or an account with a
web-based service (e.g. gmail), an email address and email software
○ Email addresses consists of the name of the account (which is unique on the domain), an '@'
symbol, and the domain name (the location of the person's account on the internet)
○ E.g: johnsmith@hotmail.com
○ Email messages contain two main parts - header and the body
○ The header contains the
➔ Email address of the recipient (to:),
➔ Carbon copy (cc) - sends same message to non-main recipients (optional),
➔ Blind carbon copy (bcc) - sends to other recipients without revealing that other people
got it
➔ Subject (brief description or topic)
○ The body contains the message itself
➔ The process
○ To create and send a message, the sender logs on to the network with a mail server or email
program, creates a message, and sends the message
○ The email goes to the server of the recipients domain, then when the recipient logs on, it
downloads the message into their own inbox. (is temporarily stored on the domain server)
 ➔ Advantages:
○ Fast (can travel around the world in minutes)
○ Economical and convenient to send messages
○ Easy to organise
○ Easy to read on the go (due to the portability of devices nowadays)
➔ Disadvantages:
○ Requires internet access
○ Not spoken
○ Virus and security issues (spam)
○ Size can affect data transmission speed
● Voice mail
○ Sending:
➔ Voice mail allows communication with other people by storing and forwarding spoken
messages
➔ The sender dials a voice mail number and records a message
➔ The message is digitally stored on a computer system, usually as a sound file, and can only
be retrieved by the intended recipient of the message
○ Receiving:
➔ To retrieve the message, you dial into the voice mail system using any telephone and
enter an account number and password
➔ In the voice mail system, you can listen/delete/save/send messages
➔ Normally used when a caller rings and the receiver is unable to answer, redirecting the
caller to voicemail
➔ It combines the features of a telephone answering system and some concepts of an email
➔ Advantages:
○ Spoken message
○ Expresses the message more clearly
○ Easier access (more people have more access to phones rather than to computer with
internet)
➔ Disadvantages:
○ Cannot communicate complex information (only one-way message and cannot transfer
different types of data e.g. image, video)
○ Can't send different data types
○ Time consuming to sort through and listen to messages
● Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
○ VOIP is a system which allows users to send messages like a telephone over the internet
○ It requires broadband connection and is used to transfer telephone calls using IP addresses
○ VOIP can allow calls to PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
○ VOIP servers translate normal telephone numbers into IP addresses
○ A cheap and easy alternative to transmitting voice messages over the traditional telephone line
○ The sender of the message can connect with the service by plugging a conventional telephone into
a modem that supports VOIP, or can rely on the ISP to provide this support.
○ Alternatively, they can install the appropriate software (VOIP client) onto their computer, and
communicate from there.
○ Recipients do not need a computer as VOIP can interface with the PSTN if necessary.
➔ Advantages:
 ○
Low costs for long distance calls
○
Saves money
○
No extra cabling required
○
Digital services like voice mail available
○
Conference calls easy to facilitate (as data is digital)
○
Can call from anywhere as long as there’s a connection
➔
Disadvantages:
○
Needs good and reliable internet
○
Traffic and delay of connectivity may result in poor quality
○
Relies on internet connection
○
Can't make emergency calls where there’s a power failure as VOIP relies on broadband
internet
○ Overall, more unreliable than PSTN
❖ Other systems dependent on communication technology such as:
● E-commerce
○ The buying and selling of goods and services via the internet
○ Includes most financial transactions that occur over a communication network, such as ATM's,
EFTPOS, electronic banking and shopping on the internet
➔ Advantages:
○ 24-hour availability
○ Global reach
○ Cheaper for both customer and provider
○ The ability to interact and provide customer information
➔ Disadvantages:
○ Subject to fraud
○ Affecting customer trust and loyalty
○ Power failures and internet down-time prevents system from being available
○ User must have a computer and an internet connection
○ Impacts local shops and banks in remote communities

● EFTPOS
○ EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-Of-Sales) is a system which allows people to purchase
goods and services using a credit card or debit card.
○ It is the electronic transfer of money from the customer's bank account to the retailer's bank
account
○ Point of Sale terminals are linked to the computer of the customer's bank using the account
number on the card.
○ The PIN number is a security measure to identify the customer.
○ When a connection is made and approved, the money is immediately transferred
➔ Information Technology Used:
○ Screen and keypad for input
○ Screen and printer for output
○ Communication with financial institutions occur via phone line in shop
○ Wireless connection via mobile network
 ○ Ethernet connection to the internet
○ Public encryption key used for security
➔ Advantages:
○ Makes shopping easier for customers
○ Retailers immediately receive payment for goods
○ Less cash dealing and hence more secure (In terms of cash handling)
➔ Disadvantages:
○ Security issues (can be hacked)
○ Relies on connection to the server (otherwise transaction won't occur)
● Electronic banking
○ Allows customers to view an online interface that in which they can view account balances,
transaction history, transfer money between accounts and make payments
○ Customer's web browser (e.g. internet explorer, chrome) connects directly to the bank's web
server using HTTPS protocol for security (https essentially http protocol + security protocols
(SSL/TLS protocols) in the middle level of protocol stack, using public key encryption)
➔ Advantages:
○ It provides banking services 24/7
○ Physically safe as no money needs to be carried
○ Fast and accessible
➔ Disadvantages:
○ Cannot cater for cash/cheque withdrawals
○ Security issues (may be prone to hacking and network viruses)

Transmitting and receiving in communication systems

❖ Transmission Media
○ The capacity of the transmission media is called the bandwidth, and is measured in bits per second
(bps)
○ Higher bandwidth = higher possible data transfer per unit of time
● Wired Transmission
○ Transmits data through wires/cables
○ They must be protected from damage, take up space and can be difficult to install
○ Can transfer large amounts of data with little interference from other signals
○ Restricts the signal so that it is contained within a cable and therefore follows the path of the cable
➔ Twisted Pair
○ Pairs of copper wire twisted together
○ Each copper wire is contained within plastic insulation and the
twisted pairs of wire are enclosed within an outer sheath
○ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) is the most common and
economical form of copper cable for both LAN and telephone
connections but max length is 100m
○ UTP cable does not include any physical shield against outside
electromagnetic (EM) interference and has 4 pairs = 8 copper
wires
○ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) includes a metal shield or screen and a drain wire
○ More expensive so limited to applications, used where there's excessive EM interference
○ Most common for school networks
 ➔ Coaxial Cable
○ Consists of a single copper/steel wire surrounded by a nylon insulator, a grounded shielding
mesh and an outer insulator
○ Can go up to 500m
○ Used for broadband applications, cable TV
networks, ethernet-type networks
○ Relatively immune to outside electromagnetic
interference compared to twisted pair
○ It is expensive, takes more space, less flexible
and hard to install
➔ Optic Fibre Cable
○ Uses a laser of light to carry data in small glass fibres size of a human hair
○ Consists of many optic fibres of clear glass/plastic, plus several protective layers made of
different glass/plastic to trap light
○ Links connecting major cities and continents use optical fibre
○ Used in: industrial applications due to high
levels of EM interference, aircrafts, military
networks to prevent hackers tapping into it
○ Supports higher data transfer rates over
much greater distances than other 2 cables
○ Completely immune to outside electrical
interference and can go through hazardous
and explosive environments
○ Overseas telephone calls or accessing overseas websites the signal is most likely travelling
through optical submarine cables.
○ Expensive to make and repair, required to boost signals every 100km, need terminators at the
end of each link to convert between light pulses and electrical signals
● Wireless Transmission
○ Moving data through air and space
○ Does not require a solid connection between the source and destination

➔ Microwaves
○ High frequency radio signal sent through space in a straight line from one antenna to another
○ Transmits both voice and data
○ To relay high frequency signals over large distance, stations are built on mountains/buildings
○ Weather conditions or objects such as trees and buildings obstruct the signal and affect
transmission
○ Can transmit over ragged terrain
➔ Satellite
○ Specialised transmitter and receiver that orbits around the earth
○ A signal is sent from one ground station to the satellite dish, and then the signal is transmitted
to another ground station
○ Used for weather forecasting, television broadcasts
(foxtel), international telephone signals, radio
communications and internet communications
○ Satellite Internet is only used in remote locations
○ Noticeable lag in conversations and so primarily for
emergency land and marine applications
○ High production and launch cost
○ Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) has 24+ of them
to create a grid around earth sending signals to
cars and hand-held navigators
➔ Radio
○ Uses a direct line of sight or a wide area
transmission
○ Direct line of sight = Increased security + energy is saved from not sending in all directions
○ Wide area spread spectrum transmission uses more than one frequency at a time.
○ Spread spectrum radio signals jump from one frequency to another, increasing security and
reduces interference
○ Can be detected in wide area around transmitter
○ Cheap and easy to install but limited range and restricted speed of transmission (6Mbps)
○ Used for contactless smart card readers, remote control toys
➔ Infrared
○ Uses waves with a higher frequency than microwave (for communication purposes), and is
used between portable devices (smartphones), computers as well as remote controls
○ Requires a direct line of sight so it has short range (10m) as it cannot transmit through objects
○ Does not interfere with the transmission of signals from other devices
○ Simple and inexpensive
○ Security is not strong as light pulses which represent binary signals can be easily replicated
and sunlight can interfere with signal
➔ WIFI/WLAN
○ WLANs communicate using microwaves with frequencies in the vicinity of 2.4GHz
○ Form of radio communication and can be used to connect different devices together
○ Is wireless and can connect multiple devices together making it accessible
○ It is more expensive than wired counterparts, but overall will save cost and labor as wires
need maintenance
○ Can be highly susceptible to environmental influences (electromagnetic radiation from
household appliances)
○ Limited area coverage and is not secure if multiple people know the password
○ Speed is limited to 54 Mbps and does not match speeds found in wired transmission methods
(100 Mbps - several Gbps in coaxial or optic fibres), however one of the fastest wireless
transmission speeds
➔ Bluetooth
○ A communication system for short-range transmission and designed to replace the cables
that connect portable devices
○ E.g: car and home audio systems, laptop computers, portable speakers etc
○ First handshaking occurs to establish connection between devices
 ○ Then frequency hopping occurs, causing the signal to hop over a wide band of frequencies to
minimise interference and if interference does occur, it will occur for longer than 1/1600th of
a second
○ Bluetooth packets include different error checks depending on the connection being used –
some types use a CRC calculated over the entire packet whilst others include error checks
over just the packet’s header data.
❖ Characteristics of media in terms of speed, capacity, cost and security
● Speed
○ Refers to how fast data is sent
○ Bits per second (bps) = number of bits transferred each second
○ It is the speed of binary data transmission
○ Baud rate is the number of signals transferred each second
○ Bandwidth refers to telecommunication in which a wide band of frequencies is able to transmit
information
● Capacity
○ Refers to the max. rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path and also
how much can be stored
● Cost
○ Looks at the amount of money required to set up and maintain
○ E.g. optic fibres are expensive to set up and maintain
● Security
○ Refers to protection against interference and interception
○ E.g. optic fibres are immune to interference from electrical signals
➔ Twisted pair
○ 10 mbps to 100 mbps (megabit) , cost is cheap and has some protection from interference
➔ Coaxial Cable
○ Up to 10 Mbps (megabyte), cost Is moderate, substantial protection from interference
➔ Optic fibre cable
○ 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps, cost is expensive, security is high (cannot tap into an optic fibre
transmission without disrupting the signal), completely unaffected by EM interference
➔ Microwave
○ 2-100 Mbps, faster than coaxial cabling and telephone line but inferior to fibre optic, security
is limited (people can intercept easily)

❖ Strategies for error detection and error correction

● Error Detection (refer back)
● Error Correction
➔ Retransmission
○ Receiving computer requests part of the message be sent again
○ May involve resending only the corrupted blocks OR the whole message
○ Most common form of common error correction
○ Size of data blocks is important
○ The smaller the blocks of data the less time wasted in retransmission
➔ Symbol substitution
○ Receiving computer replaces faulty characters with a special symbol
○ E.g. “*”
 ○ Works well with text transmitted with parity bit check
○ Faulty characters can be easily identified by a spell checker
○ E.g. If the message received was “* narrowly escaped”
○ The user could guess that the symbol “*” is “I”
➔ Error correction code
○ Adds an extra byte of data to every 8 bytes so that the receiving computer can correct faults
○ Used mostly in satellite transmission when retransmission is a slow and expensive process
○ 2 and 3 bit data errors can be detected also but not repaired
○ File sizes increase
○ Transmission is slowed and efficiency is reduced
❖ Network Topologies
➢ Topology of a network describes the way in which the devices (nodes) are connected.
➢ Node = any device connected to network (printers, computers, routers, switches etc)
➢ Physical topology = physical layout of devices on network and how the cables and wires connect
these devices
➢ Logical topology = How data is transmitted and received between devices on a network
● Star
○ All nodes connect to a central node (switch that inclu. multiple ports) via their own dedicated cable
○ Used on almost all LANs, wireless LANs and Wireless Access Points (WAP)
➢ Advantages and disadvantages of Star topology
➔ Advantages
○ Each node has own cable and so can be connected and disconnected without affecting any
other nodes
○ Adding nodes don’t have to disable the network to do
○ Better performance than bus and ring topology
○ Signals aren't transmitted to all nodes (higher security)
○ If a cable to a node is broken, the rest of the network can still operate
○ Identifying faults is easy as single nodes can simply be disconnected from the central node
until the problem is resolved
○ Centralised management makes it easy to monitor network
➔ Disadvantages
○ More cabling is required (more
expensive)
○ If central node fails, entire network
fails
○ Performance depends on the
processing capability of the central
node/device
● Bus
○ All devices attached to a direct line called the single cable or backbone
○ Terminators/resistors on each end prevents old signals from being reflected back into the network
by absorbing the energy from the msgs and turn them into heat which is dissipated
○ Cable carries data packets to all nodes
○ Fibre optics are used for the backbone
○ Nodes checks the cable via a T-connector and retrieve their messages as data travels along the bus
 ○ Each device is considered to be connected to every other device and can communicate directly to
any other devices
➢ Advantages and disadvantages of Bus topology
➔ Advantages
○ Easy and cheap to set up
○ Nodes can be easily added and removed
○ Can still operate if one node fails
○ Little cabling only need one
○ Main advantage is COST
➔ Disadvantages
○ Cannot accommodate many nodes + limit on central cable length
○ Fault in the bus affects all nodes
○ Difficult to locate problems
○ Maintenance is difficult and can be expensive
○ Not suitable for networks with heavy traffic
○ Problems can occur when two nodes attempt to send at the same time as the frames will
collide and become corrupted
● Ring
○ Each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a complete ring
○ Data packets circulate the ring in just one direction
○ Each data packet is received and then retransmitted by each node, hence all nodes must be
powered at all times if the network is to operate so seldom used in LANs
○ Token ring protocol is the most common form of access for ring topology
○ FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) for connecting organisation’s buildings not over 30km and
can be used for LAN
○ SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) for LARGE distances like 100km
➔ Advantages
○ Single cable is used to connect all the nodes
○ Uses token ring protocol which is very organised
○ Good performance during heavy network traffic
➔ Disadvantages
○ If ring is broken or cable is faulty, the entire network
ceases to work
○ Each packet of data must pass through all computers
between source and destination (therefore slower)
○ The ring must be broken to add/remove nodes
○ All nodes need to powered up for the network to
operate
○ Ring topology comes at a higher cost than most
other network layouts
● Hybrid
○ Combination of the three basic topologies, which generally involves a bus or ring as the backbone,
which expands off into star networks
○ Allows for expansion of the network
● Wireless networks
○ Nodes have a wireless card/adaptor which connects to the wired backbone via routers
 ➔ Advantages:
○ No cabling required for nodes so users have extensive mobility
○ Data packets can be routed around faults
➔ Disadvantages
○ Security issues
○ Range may be an issue
○ Reliability concerns
○ Interference
● Mesh
○ More than one physical path between pairs of nodes
○ The primary topology of the Internet
○ Routers direct packets over a particular path
○ Excellent fault tolerance as packets are automatically
routed around faults
❖ Functions performed by hardware components used in
communication systems
● Modems
○ Modem = modulation and demodulation
○ Modulates or changes the signal into a form suitable for transmission
○ Takes the signals from your Internet Service Provide (ISP) and translates them into an Internet
connection for your Wi-Fi router to broadcast
○ Asymmetrical digital subscriber lines (ADSL) modems change signal to appropriate forms for high
capacity, long distance transmission on a conventional telephone line
○ Cable modems use coaxial cables to connect to the optic fibre cables of the internet
● NIC
○ Converts data between computers into a form suitable for transmission across the network
○ They have their own MAC address
○ Built into the motherboard and can detect collisions

● Gateways
○ Connects 2 networks together that have different protocols
○ A translator for data passing between networks using different protocols
○ Used to connect LAN to internet and the IP address of the gateway is known to all nodes
● Hubs
○ When it receives data from other nodes, it retransmits the data back along the cables on the
network to all computers
○ They’re known as multi-port repeaters and are dumb devices that operate at the physical layer of
the OSI model
○ They make no attempt to identify the destination node for each message
○ All nodes connected to a central hub share the same transmission channel
○ The postmaster taking every piece of mail to every address, asking the resident to pick out the ones
addressed to him/her
○ Causes a lot of traffic and congestion
● Routers
○ Directs messages between different networks with similar protocols over their most efficient path
to the destination
 ○ Stores information about surrounding networks with similar protocols and the paths it can use to
access them
○ As conditions change (e.g. path congested or drops out), router updates its database so that it can
send data over another path
○ Includes security features such as blocking access to and from website and IPs, preventing data
entering/leaving a network
○ Allows multiple computers in a LAN to connect to the internet
○ Connects networks together
● Switches
○ Sets up a direct connection between sender and receiver and identifies where the data (MAC
address) is to go and sends it to the destination node
○ The intelligent hub, is central connecting point for cables in a star network
○ Reduces the amount of traffic flowing over each cable, resulting in improved data transfer speeds
○ They create a LAN network as they connect all the devices
○ Able to simultaneously receive and forward messages from and to multiple pairs of nodes.
○ Switch is like mail being pre-sorted and then the carrier only brings you what is addressed to you
● Repeater
○ Any device that receives a signal, amplifies it and then transmits the amplified signal down another
link
○ Used to increase the physical range of the transmission media
● Bridge
○ Bridges can connect two LANs together in a simple network topology
○ The bridge enables two devices attached to different LANS that use the same protocol
○ While a switch is between nodes on a network, a bridge is between network/network
segments
● Wireless Access Point (WAP)
○ Central node on a wireless LAN which broadcasts all data packets to all wireless nodes
in the local area (Wireless hub)
○ Connects nodes wirelessly in the covered area and sends data to them

❖ Characteristics of network operating software

○ Allow networks to be centrally controlled by network administrators.
○ Improves the security and efficiency of access to the network’s various resources
○ Greatly simplifies the tasks performed by network administrators
○ Installed on one or more servers where it provides various services to secure and support the

network’s resources and users

○ Vital NOS service being the authentication of users based on their usernames and passwords
○ Supports multiple users
○ Allows for sharing of devices, software and files
 ○ Secures workstations on the network (file access and download)
○ Examples: Microsoft Windows → It Functions much like a regular version of windows but with
added networking capability and options (Windows Server 2008, 2003, 2000)
❖ Similarities and differences between the Internet, intranets and extranets
● Internet
○ Publicly accessible network made up of many LANs and WANs
○ It’s not owned by any individual/company so it can be accessed by any individual in the world
● Intranet
○ Private network maintained by a company or government organization
○ Based on the IP to securely share any part of an organization's information or Network Operating
Systems within that organization
○ Main purpose = share information and computing resources for the employees of an organisation
○ Usually has a connection to the Internet, and through a firewall which monitors the flow of data in
both directions for security
○ It avoids many of the security problems that can occur when a LAN is connected to the internet
● Extranet
○ An extension of an intranet to allow access to customers and other users outside the organisation
○ Allows companies to share their services with other companies
○ E.g: A large bank may provide online banking services to other smaller banks via its extranet
○ It’s private and requires authentication to access
○ May be hosted by an external agent
○ Organisation are making extranets easy to use and a source of valuable information

● Similarities between Internet and intranets

○ Both have the main purpose of sharing information
○ Both consist of computers, server(s) and LANs
● Differences between internet and intranets
○ Internet not owned by any one particular body, intranet is a privately owned network
○ Internet is a world-wide network of nodes, intranet can be created by designating one computer to
act as a server
○ Internet can be accessed by the public via ISP, intranet can only be accessed by specific authorised
users
○ Internet is not very secure (accessible by all), has very little protection against viruses; intranets can
be protected from intruders and viruses by the use of security software
○ Intranets may include VPN that use the internet infrastructure
● Similarities between intranets and extranets
○ Both have the purpose of sharing information
○ Both a network of nodes
○ Both have security measures - protection against intruders and viruses
○ Both may have VPN (virtual private network)
● Differences between intranets and extranets
○ Intranet used for employees within the organisation
○ Extranet is used for external access to specified bodies (e.g. customers, suppliers etc)
○ Intranet is privately owned, extranet can also be, however, it can also be hosted by an external
agent
 Other Information Processes in Communication Systems
❖ Collecting such as:
● Phone as the collection device with voice mail
○ Phone collects the voice data through a microphone which is used as the message data
● EFTPOS terminal as a collection device for electronic banking
○ The EFTPOS terminal collects the account data necessary for ATM account functions such as
withdrawing money and viewing the account balance through the use of:
○ Keypad (for the PIN)
○ Card slot (for the card and account details)
➔ Process
○ Generates data through inserting and scanning a card, or typing request on a keypad
○ The data is collected and transmitted to the bank's computer.
○ EFTPOS terminal collects data from the main bank server and displays it on the Display Unit on the
Terminal
❖ Processing
● Encoding and decoding analog and digital signals
○ Encoding converts data from its original form into another form for transmission
○ Decoding converts data from the form used for transmission back into the original form
● Analogue Data
○ Analogue data is represented by continuous variable physical quantities (eg. light, sound, voltage).
Sound, images and video are naturally in analog form
○ Analog signal is a series of pulses, electrical or optical, in a continuous wave

● Digital Data
○ Digital data is represented in the form of 1s and 0s digits
○ Numbers, text and other characters are naturally in digital form
○ Information technology works with data in a digital form
● Analog data to analog signal
○ The wave shape of the data is encoded into the signal
○ If the signal is corrupted, there is no way of restoring the original analog data
○ E.g: Microphone converts a soundwave into an analogue electrical signal, telephone encodes
analog data in the form of sounds into analog signals suitable for the telephone line
● Analog data to digital signal
○ Analog information is transmitted by modulating a continuous transmission signal by amplifying a
signal's strength or varying its frequency to add or take away data
○ The wave shape of the data is encoded into a series of 0s and 1s
○ This process of generating digits or numbers is called digitising
○ Transmitting audio and video data within all types of communication networks are examples of
analog data to digital signal
● Digital data to analogue signal
○ Digital data, in the form of 1s and 0s, is encoded into a continuous analog wave.
○ A modem modulates the digital data from a computer into an analog signal for the telephone line,
does the reverse on the receiving end
➔ Amplitude modulation: varies amplitude to show 1/0, reliable up to 1200bps
➔ Frequency modulation: higher for 1, lower for 0, more tolerant of noisy lines
➔ Phase modulation: changes the phase of the signal cycle when there is a change
 ● Digital data to digital signal
○ A series of 0s and 1s is transmitted by sending it through a channel as a series of on and off pulses
digital data is encoded into a digital signal by the device which translates it to a series of on/off
pulses (e.g. electrical pulses, light in fibre optics)
○ Digital data can be changed to a digital signal using different voltage levels.
➔ Non return to zero-level (NRZ-L) represents 0 as high voltage, 1 as low voltage
➔ Non return to zero - invert on ones (NRZ-I) uses voltage change at the beginning of a one and
no voltage change at the start of a 0.
➔ Manchester encoding changes signal in the middle of the bit. e.g. 1 starts with a high voltage,
then drops to low. Vice versa.
● Formation of data packets
○ Formed unit of data used for transmission, which is encoded by the protocols installed in a system
for transmission across the network and/or internet
○ Each protocol adds a header and a trailer that may include:
➔ Start bit pattern
➔ Packet number
➔ Address of sender/receiver
➔ Protocol
➔ Error checking code
➔ End bit pattern

● Routing
○ Process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic
○ Finds and uses the best possible route to maximise speed of transmission
❖ Displaying such as:
● Phone as the display device with voice mail
○ Phone displays the received audio though the speaker
● EFTPOS terminal as a display device for electronic banking
○ The EFTPOS terminal displays the requested account details on the screen or prints it in a physical
form (receipt)
➔ Account balance
➔ Transaction details
○ For electronic banking, the EFTPOS terminal will display the type of account selected, amount of
cash to be withdrawn and/or the amount that you wish to spend on the transaction.
○ It asks for the PIN number, displaying messages regarding current processes being performed
within the terminal and then whether the transaction is approved or not
Managing Communication Systems
❖ Network Administration Tasks such as:
➢ Responsible for the ongoing maintenance of network hardware and software.
● Adding/removing users
○ Setting up new user accounts and services and removing old users
○ Allows new users to access the system
○ Reduces clutter by removing older users
● Assigning users to printers
○ Printers can be assigned to specific work stations or to specific users
 ○ Manages security for printers
○ E.g. protection against intercepting of sent documents
● Giving users file access rights
○ File access rights are also known as permissions.
○ File access rights determine the processes a user can perform on a file or directory at the file
○ level (e.g. which files they can access).
○ Network admin assigns these permissions to ensure that people access what they need to access
○ Permissions are stored on the NOS within an Access Control List (ACL) - specifies who created file
and who has permission to access.
● Installation of software and sharing with users
○ Admins must install appropriate software on each individual workstation so that all/appropriate
users can have access to the software which are used to complete their individual tasks
○ NOS are able to automate the installation of software to multiple users = Saves time for admins
○ Specialised applications can be installed for particular users when the user next logs on
● Client installation and protocol assignment
○ Creation of a client involves installing networking software on a stand-alone computer to allow it to
access the file server on the network
➔ Ensures the system has a compatible network interface card
➔ Ensures operating system is compatible with network operated software
➔ Installing protocols
➔ Connects network with the network interface card
● Logon and logoff procedures
○ Logon used to gain access to a network. The user is identified by entering their ID and password
○ Once verified, the user is granted the level access specific to their account
○ It’s vital for network security, and reduce the risk of unauthorised persons gaining access to the
network.
○ Can also be required when using resources such as printers, modems and certain files.
○ Logoff procedures ensures that all data is correctly saved and programs are closed in the correct
manner
○ Prevents the user's data from being open to others (if not logged off).
○ Some systems may have automatic logoff if they have not used the workstation for a period of time
○ The network must keep passwords secure - password file should be encrypted and protected from
unauthorised access, password change frequently
● Network-based applications
○ Network based applications involve the use of a thin client.
○ It is a network/personal computer without any disk drives
○ It uses a network file server to store all its software and data files to minimise storage usage on
individual machines
○ Since application is stored on the file server, and shared among all the users, there is only one copy
that has to be installed, updated and maintained
Issues Related to Communication Systems
❖ Security
○ Security involves protecting data and individual property from accidental or deliberate abuse
○ Back-up and Lock-up
➔ Negative
 ○ Security of data must be considered as transferring data over a communication system can
pose security issues if data is intercepted or damaged along the way (use encryption and
backing up data to combat this)
○ Security software – to track and/or disable the smart phone in the event of it being stolen.
○ Smart phone theft – may increase due to the use of the wireless technology

➔ Positive
○ Communication systems have made it more secure to transmit information in some cases,
when compared to physically transmitting information (using electronic banking rather than
shipping money)
○ Communication systems allow this type of information to be transmitted easily and safely (with
safeguards such as encryption)
❖ Globalisation
○ Communication systems are a reason for globalisation
○ Globalisation = removal of physical boundaries, allowing individuals and organisation to be
connected around the globe.
➔ Positive
○ Virtual Communities can be created without regard to geographical location.
○ These can arise due to interest, collaboration purposes or to form relationships.
○ E-commerce is a form of globalisation which allows people to buy overseas, and
communication systems make this possible
○ Telecommuting is where work and employment can be done at a global level while residing
only at home
○ Political power is where communication systems have allowed people from around the globe
to get behind a global cause hence empowering people. A larger amount of people are able to
have their voices heard
➔ Negatives
○ Impacts on local business as globalisation allows larger companies to trade with partners
across the world, but smaller agents and communities may feel disempowered by this
○ Ambiguity of identity - difficult to determine if online businesses are real
○ Language barriers restricts user's ability to understand and communicate with other cultures.
○ Opportunities for E-crime - criminal activity and evasion of tax law can occur due to
exploitation of globalisation
❖ Changing nature of work
○ Communication systems lead to a change in the nature of work
○ E.g: Telecommuting and E-business
➔ Positive
○ Telecommuting allows flexibility for workers
○ Benefits for physically impaired people
○ New jobs are created to manage the systems
➔ Negatives
○ Less interaction with social and professional contact
○ Jobs are lost, no more phone cards
○ Maintenance of the IT equipment needed
❖ Interpersonal relationships
○ Changed the way many form relationships
 ○ Lack of non-verbal clues (e.g. smiling, winking, laughter etc.) restricting the ability to form
meaningful personal relationships
○ Online dating sites are different to meeting them irl
○ Misinterpretation of reading text msgs and emails rather than hearing it in person
○ Relationships can be affected by access to data/information e.g. private emails and data files
○ Everyone is equal when communicating electronically (disabilities are disregarded)
❖ E-crime
○ There are more opportunities to commit e-crimes like phishing, frauds, scams and spam
○ People are prone to scams and frauds from those who use the anonymity of the internet to hide
their identities
○ Fraud - is a criminal offence but internet fraud is hard to be convicted with and it’s very common
○ Spam - mail/messages convincing users to purchase goods at extremely cheap prices. Users enter
their bank/credit card details, which are stolen by fraudsters
○ Identity theft - form of fraud where someone assumes the identity of someone else.
○ Criminal obtains personal details about the person to convince organisations that they are the
person, enabling the criminal to take out loans, make transactions, purchase goods, withdraw
money from bank etc.
○ Phishing - form of spam where the email contains a message that pretends to be from a trusted
source. Common scam is where the criminal offender pretends to be a particular organisation and
asks recipients to update their details by clicking on the hyperlink. The hyperlink leads to a false
site, which collects the username/password and forwards it to the real criminal organisation's site.
❖ Legal
○ Legal issues such as copyright and ownership of material can arise.
○ Communication systems rely on private and government organisations to provide backbone
connections and data switching systems, so they control the information
○ These corporations have a large amount of power due to their control over much of the world's
news and entertainment media
○ Criminal law – applies in the case of money and/or personal information being stolen or misused.
○ Identity theft – when a person’s identity information is misused to gain financial advantage
○ Criminal activities which break security and legal considerations are identified as e-crime
❖ Virtual communities
○ Communication systems allow the formation of groups across the world.
○ However, activities like on-line dating and media-sharing activities can have negative
consequences.
○ Virtual communities can be created without regards to geographical location.
➔ People with common interests can connect
➔ Collaboration on large projects can occur
➔ Relationships can be formed with people geographically distant
○ However, there can be legal implications such as criminal activities
❖ Current and Emerging Trends in Communications
● Blogs
○ Essentially a journal that is made public by placing it on the web.
○ People regularly update blog to express their personal views/opinions or detail their day-to-day
activities.
○ They’re mostly in date order and is common for people to include a blog on their personal website
● Wikis
 ○ A website where users are able to freely add new content and edit existing content.
○ Well-known and largest wiki is Wikipedia; an online encyclopaedia created and edited by members
of the public.
○ Information within a wiki is produced by the general public it should never be accepted on face
value; rather alternative sources should be used to verify the accuracy of the information.
● RSS feeds (Really Simple Syndication)
○ Syndication is a process to have content published in many different places.
○ E.g: Neighbours produced in Australia but is syndicated and shown in many other countries.
○ RSS implements a syndication process over the internet - users subscribe to the feed and receive
the data whenever it is published
● Podcasts
○ An audio RSS feed that is automatically downloaded to your computer and copied to your MP3
player as a collection of MP3 files
○ Podcasts deliver audio files in a compressed format - an ideal method for communication over the
internet
○ Podcasts allow users to be in control of what they listen to, when, how and where
○ Typically, podcasters create radio-like audio content on a regular basis, or as a series of programs

● Online radio, TV and Video on Demand (VOD)

○ Online/internet radio is used by traditional or new radio broadcasters to deliver their programs
over
○ the internet
○ Streaming software is used to transmit and receive the data, and programs can be listened to in
real-time or later
○ VOD systems distribute video content directly to users over a communication link – like an online
video/DVD store.
○ Aim of all VOD systems is to provide users with high-quality video immediately in real-time
● 3G technologies for mobile communications
○ Third generation mobile communication networks that provides higher data transfer rates than
GSM and CDMA, and as a consequence, access to much richer content is possible
○ Supports video calls, web browsing and virtually all other Internet applications
Decision Support Systems

Characteristics of decision support systems

❖ Decision support systems – those that assist user(s) in making a decision
○ Assist users to make a choice between two or more alternatives by providing information, models
and analysis tools
○ Allows users to manipulate data directly, to incorporate data from external sources and to create
data models of “what if” scenarios
○ Supply evidence to assist decision makers determine alternatives and then prioritise one
alternative over other possible alternatives.
❖ Interactive nature of decision support systems
○ Developer needs to have an understanding of analytical tasks and must understand the problem
and all factors that may have an effect on the decision
○ Interactivity allows the user to determine what data is to be entered, choose the sequence and
therefore determine the content of the information displayed
❖ Nature of decision support systems which model, graph or chart situations to support human
decision making
○ Decisions lie on a continuum
○ Decision support systems are most useful when the decision lies between extremes

Categories of decision-making

❖ Structured
● Decisions are automated
● Decision support systems are not required
○ Problems where ALL variables are known and decisions are automated
○ Solution is reached using an algorithm (a series of steps that will solve the problem in a finite time)
○ Always result in the same solution if the values of the parameters remain the same
○ Do NOT require a DSS
❖ Semi-structured
● There is a method to follow
● Requirements are clear cut
○ They follow a method to reach a decision, but the correct decision is not guaranteed.
○ The requirements are clear cut, but there are too many factors or some unknown factor that may
affect the decision.
○ Requires some degree of subjective judgement
○ Financial investment, weather prediction, horse racing
❖ Unstructured
● There is no method to reach the decision
● Judgements are required
● Requires insights into the problem
○ DSS are used as a guide but will not generally give a definite answer/solution
○ Requires insight into the problem
○ Unstructured decisions require human intuition, feelings, emotions and insight
○ No structured method for reaching a decision, too many variables, many are unknown and their
interactions are highly complex and poorly understood
Examples of decision support
❖ Semi-structured situations, such as:
● A bank officer deciding how much to lend to a customer
○ They assess the risk involved in lending the money and make a decision on the most suitable loan
1. The customer’s income is sufficient to meet the regular repayments
2. The customer’s income will continue at current levels for the term of the loan
3. The bank will be able to recover their funds if the customer is unable to meet their
repayment obligations
● Fingerprint matching
○ Automated fingerprint identification system used to help fingerprint experts match prints
○ It generates a list of possible matchers , but an expert is still sometimes required to make a
decision and use judgement regarding the degree of similarity between the 2 prints
❖ Unstructured situations, such as:
● Predicting stock prices
○ Info. on share prices is stored in a spreadsheet or database used to predict future stock prices
○ Unforeseen events occur which affect decisions made, therefore decisions cannot be guaranteed
○ Data inputs to stock market prediction decision support systems include:
➔ Past sale prices and quantity of shares traded for each public company’s shares
➔ Data specific to individual companies
➔ Industry specific data
➔ Overall historical measures of stock market performance
➔ Advice and predictions from politicians and stock market experts.
● Disaster relief management
○ Disasters unexpected and thus relief organisations generally respond after disaster has occurred
○ Decision making in these situations determine the effectiveness of the response to the disaster
○ DSS’s can
➔ Store data describing the details of the disaster
➔ Actions required to relieve the situation and resources available to perform these actions
❖ Use of systems to support decision making, including:
● Spreadsheets
○ Organises data into one or more worksheets within a grid of columns and rows
○ Valuable for performing “what-if” analysis to alter inputs and view the effect on the outputs
Overall Adv. Businesses Scientists

➔ Calculations are quick and
accurate with the large
range of in-built functions
➔ Data is easily formatted
and can be presented with
a variety of graphs/charts
➔ Data can be copied and
integrated with other
programs
➔ Storage of data + retrieval
is faster and takes up less
space
➔ Perform cost-structure and
break-even analysis
➔ Produce reports
➔ Show and forecast trends
➔ Prepare and store budgets
➔ Compile profits and loss
statements
➔ Produce and store invoices
➔ Perform ‘What if’ trials
➔ Compiling statistical data
➔ Produce graph results
➔ Test and simulate a range
of variable conditions
➔ Build scientific models of
data
 ○ 3 basic types of data to be entered
1. Labels - non-numeric data, text
2. Values - numeric data used in calculations
3. Formulas - carry out calculations
● Databases
○ They enable users to access large amounts of data to make a decision.
○ Retrieving data to make a decision usually requires the use of a query (QBE).
○ Data warehouse is a database that collects information from different data sources. It is a storage
area of raw data that can be analysed to assist organisations to make decisions.
○ Data Mart focuses on a single subject or functional organization area and summarises the data
➔ Meet the needs of an individual system or department in an organisation
○ Data Mining is funding unobvious patterns to make relationships and predictions
➔ Decision Tree Algorithm
➔ Rule Induction
➔ Non-Linear Regression
➔ K-Nearest Neighbour

● Expert systems
○ They provide information and solve problems that would otherwise require a person experienced
in that field (an expert).
○ A software application that simulates the knowledge and experience of a human expert
○ Their conclusions are not guaranteed so it’s up to the user to accept or reject the decision.
○ Low cost compared with the expense of paying an expert specialist team.
○ Two important components are:
○ The knowledge base and the inference engine – a set of general facts and if-then rules supplied by
an expert.
○ The system generates questions using the knowledge base and carries out reasoning using the
inference machine
○ Errors can occur as the expert system cannot adapt to a changing environment
● Neural networks
○ A DSS that uses artificial intelligence to make decisions with the capability of learning
○ An attempt to simulate the complex structure and processes performed by the human brain
○ They process things by going through the input layer, hidden layer, and output layer
○ Trained using sets of sample inputs together with known outputs
○ Once trained the network is able to determine the most likely outputs based on new unseen input
data from interacting with new users
○ They have to ability to match, generalise, cope with new situations
○ Well suited to unstructured situations but need lots of processing time
○ Neural networks have applications in numerous fields including:
➔ Economic forecasting by financial firms
➔ Decision support systems for business, government, research and science
➔ Weather forecasting systems
➔ Voice recognition systems
➔ Predicted sales of products
➔ Handwriting recognition
● Group decision support systems (GDSS)
 ○ An electronic meeting system designed for large groups of people wanting to collaborate about
complex decision-making issues
○ Each participant at the meeting has access to a computer and can enters their ideas anonymously
for each topic
○ The computer sorts the ideas and displays the results so people can vote for the ideas
○ Can provide participants with a meeting summary at the end by storing, categorising and then
printing out all the ideas, comments and vote tallies
○ Time is saved during the meeting as discussions can occur while the computer is collating results
= increase in the productivity and efficiency of the group.
● Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
○ Represent geographical real world data using maps
○ The system collects data from various sources and interprets it and displays the result on the map
○ Areas of research that benefit from GIS technology include managing resources, scientific
investigations, and planning future developments
○ Used in industries like transport, real estate, surveying and mining
○ Assists users to uncover patterns, relationships and trends by letting users look, and understand,
question and interpret data in a variety of ways
● Management Information Systems (MIS)
○ Summarise data within an organisation’s systems into information to assist in the management of
the organisation’s day-to-day operations
○ Can provide past, present and prediction information to help in decision making
○ Helps the organisation to run more efficiently
○ Solve structured problems
Organising and decision support

❖ Designing Spreadsheets
● Creating a pen and paper model
○ Useful in the first step in planning and constructing a spreadsheet, particularly for deciding on the
layout and design of the interface
● Identifying data sources
○ Data is collected for a spreadsheet from a variety of data sources
○ Sources of data include:
➔ Internet – web sites and newsgroups
➔ Interviews and surveys
➔ Observations and measurements
○ Data should be gathered in an organised way to ensure nothing is omitted
○ After collection, it must be carefully interpreted to ensure the resulting information is valid
● Planning the user interface
○ A spreadsheet must be well designed and easy to use
○ No correct way to design a spreadsheet – each particular problem has its own design requirements
○ Well designed spreadsheet has four areas:
○ Instruction area: provides information about the spreadsheet or directions for the use of the
spreadsheet. Usually at the top and includes a title, description, the authors and the
creation/revision date.
○ Input area: includes labels for headings and the values on which calculations are based.
○ Calculation area: contains the formulas and functions that complete the work of the spreadsheet.
 ○ Output area: displays the results of the spreadsheet
● Developing formulas to be used
○ A formula is an instruction to perform a calculation.
○ Whenever values are changed, the formulas are recalculated and produce new results.
○ Built-in functions are more effective than user-developed formulas
○ When a formula is copied, the content in its new location may change or it may remain exactly the
same depending on the use of absolute and relative referencing
○ Absolute referencing: the formula is copied exactly, with the cell references the same, using $ to
separate it. So (B9*C3)*$E1$, (B10*C4)*$E1$, (B11*C5)*$E1$
○ Relative referencing: result is based on the location of the input that you entered. So it is just
B9*C3, B10*C4, B11*C5 etc
❖ The knowledge base of if-then rules in an expert system
○ A set of general facts and if-then rules supplied by an expert
○ If the condition is true, then a certain deduction
○ Knowledge base is often constructed using expert system shells that are a ready-made expert
system except that they contain no knowledge
○ They provide an interface to assist the user in creating an expert system. A majority of shells
represent knowledge using if-then rules.
○ When a set of if-then rules is completed, the shell builds a knowledge base and an inference
engine. They allow quick development
○ E.g: IF it has four legs AND it has a tail AND it has fur AND it barks THEN it is a dog
Processing and decision support

❖ Structure of expert systems

● Knowledge base
○ Contains the rules for the system in the IF -THEN format
○ The IF _____ (Premise) THEN ______ (Consequent)
○ It contains the detailed knowledge and is in the form of rules, such as if-then rules
● Database of facts
○ The data that relates to the specific situation being analysed.
○ It is used by the inference engine when it is working on a problem
○ Stores the known and learnt facts
○ Some of the facts were inputted by the users as they answer questions
○ Records which rules have been fired and in what order, which is useful for the explanation
mechanism
● Inference engine
○ The brain of the expert system; its processes simulate the reasoning of a human expert
○ Aim of the inference engine is to reach conclusions that satisfy the goal or goals of the expert
system
○ It logically applies the rules and facts to efficiently reach conclusions that meet these goals
○ It uses the 2 strategies of Forward Chaining and Backward Chaining to determine the order in
which rules are tested
● Explanation mechanism
○ Expert systems are able to explain how they reached conclusions. Essentially the explanation is a
replay of the inferences made by the inference engine. Inferences occur every time a rule fires and
new facts are established.
 ○ Evidence of how it got to the conclusion
● User interface
○ Where the user and software interact and communicate
○ The interface makes use of rules within the system to output questions to the user and to indicate
the status of the solution
○ Outputs the conclusion when found
❖ Types of inference engines
● Forward Chaining
○ User supplies all the data before the question is asked or the inference is made
○ Begins with data and works forward to see if any conclusions can be reached
○ Used when there is no clear goal and the system is just attempting to determine all of the
conclusions implied by the data
○ Data driven
○ E.g: Classifying animals,
● Backwards Chaining
○ Starts with one or more possible solutions and searches back through the system to determine the
questions to be asked
○ Starts with a tentative conclusion and searches back through the rules for the questions or facts
that support that conclusion.
○ E.g: Should I wear a jumper today? = Decision, this guides me into finding what data I should use so
I Check my phone to look at temp. today = Data
○ E.g: Person has died, how did they die?
❖ Certainty factors as a means of dealing with unclear situations
○ Describes the level of certainty that a fact or a consequent is correct on the scale of 0 - 1
○ Certainty factors are specified directly as part of each consequent and they can also be entered by
the user as they answer questions
○ E.g: If it is known that Kermit is green it might be concluded with 85% confidence that he is a frog,
or if it’s known he is a frog then 95% sure that he hops
○ These numbers are meant to imitate the confidences humans use in reasoning rather than to
follow the mathematical definitions used in calculating probability
❖ Pattern matching in neural networks
○ Artificial neural networks (ANNs) simulate the organisation, analysis and processing information
processes performed by the human brain
○ ANNs are trained using sample data that includes the desired results
○ Once trained the ANN can recognise the words within bitmaps even when the handwriting and
fonts are different
○ Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is largely a pattern matching exercise – problems that involve
such pattern matching decisions are well suited to solution using ANNs
❖ Use of macros to automate spreadsheet processing
○ Macros are used to automate processing in all types of applications including spreadsheets
○ A single command or keyboard shortcut that causes a set of predefined commands to execute
○ Combines a series of repetitive actions or complex steps into one action to reduce time, minimise
mistakes and improve ease of use when using spreadsheets
Other Information Processes

● Identification of data for decision support systems

 ○ Source of data needs to be determined
○ Data collected first-hand (primary data) = meaningful and reliable but time-consuming to collect
○ When data is collected or created by someone else (secondary data) = less meaningful and reliable
● The role of the expert in the creation of expert systems
○ Role of an expert experienced in the field is to supply the knowledge base and the inference engine
to the knowledge engineer
○ The quality of an expert system depends on the knowledge of the expert and the skill of the
knowledge engineer
● The role of the knowledge engineer in the creation of expert systems
○ A specialist who builds the knowledge base in an expert system.
○ The programmer assists the expert in the particular subject to structure the knowledge base by
learning from the expert and coding this information into the rules of the knowledge base
○ When they’re familiar with the domain of the expert system and the type of questions asked by
users, they decide which programming language to use and which control strategy to adopt, that is
forward chaining, backward chaining or both.
○ This will determine the expert system shell best suited to solving these types of problems
❖ Storing and retrieving using intelligent agents to search data
○ Pieces of software used to search through the databases for relevant data and patterns
○ Used in data mining to find relationships and patterns in data stored in databases
○ Their ability to act without human intervention by beginning to process data based on changes
they perceive or recognise
○ Operates on their own, however don’t display human-like intelligence
○ Characteristics = Autonomous (Independent and guide themselves) , Proactive (Doesn’t wait to be
told), Responsive (recognises changes and alters them), Adaptive (change their behaviour or learn
new behaviours according to user preferences)
○ E.g: Spell checker in a word processor automatically underlines misspelt words, filtering web
content to remove adult material, popup ads and other unwanted material’
❖ Reasons for decision support systems, including:
● Preserving an expert’s knowledge
○ Knowledge supplied by the expert is available to others to use even when the expert is unavailable
○ It can be distributed and utilised by many users without requiring an expert to be in attendance
● Improving performance and consistency in decision-making
○ People make decisions in a limited amount of time-based on limited information and with limited
processing
○ Expert systems assist in the decision- making process and can produce a solution in a short period
of time
○ It reaches the same conclusions each time it is presented with the set of inputs
● Rapid decisions
○ Produces rapid and reliable decisions, unaffected by stress or emotion
○ Can reach conclusions many times faster than humans
○ Data mining can process and analyse large amounts of data that would be almost impossible for a
human to achieve
● Ability to analyse unstructured situations
○ The ability for a decision support system to deal with unstructured situations is largely due to the
ability to find patterns in the data and develop generalisations from the data that model the
patterns
 ○ Human brain develops complex links and new knowledge is continually being added and existing
knowledge modified and updated
○ Contrastingly, a DSS is limited in its ability to make inferences, it is restricted to knowledge
(perhaps vast quantities of knowledge) in one particular area
❖ Responsibilities of those performing data mining, including:
● Erroneous inferences
○ Inevitable that some inferences made will prove to be incorrect
○ Critical that participants understand DSSs are there to support decision-making so shouldn’t blindly
accept the recommendations made by a DSS
○ Occurs because many patterns occur by chance, and there is no relationship between the data
○ People need to apply common sense when analysing the results from data mining
○ Decisions made from data mining must be checked to avoid using erroneous inference.
● Privacy
○ The ability of an individual to control personal data
○ Data mining finds relationships between the customers’ buying habits and their customer profiles
○ This information is very valuable for marketing products and providing better services to customers
○ People’s personal data is being used without their permission = invasion of privacy
○ Customers must be informed of the purpose of collecting any private data and it will be sold or
otherwise provided to other organisations.
○ They clicked agree for T’s and C’s when opening an account
❖ Responsibility for decisions made using decision support systems
○ The 4 participants involved in the development and use of an expert system
➔ Expert
➔ Knowledge engineer
➔ Professional who uses the expert system
➔ Person affected by the decision of the expert system
○ Expert can provide inadequate knowledge
○ Expert system can be built poorly
○ User might have applied the system incorrectly
○ Affected person might have supplied the wrong information
○ Responsibility of the user to assess the final decision and determine if it is appropriate.
○ Regardless of which DSS was used, users and participants should understand the relevance of such
systems, and their responsibilities in using them appropriately
❖ Current and emerging trends of decision support systems
○ DSS information technology is constantly being developed for new situations. As data stores get
larger and processors get faster, systems become more powerful in their application. Particularly
the following applications are often being used business situations
➔ Data warehousing and data mining
➔ On-line analytical processing (OLAP)
➔ On-line transaction processing (OLTP)
➔ Group decision support systems (GDSS)

Automated Manufacturing Systems

Characteristics of automated manufacturing systems

❖ Automated manufacturing systems as information systems involved in production, inventory
tracking, record keeping, production scheduling and actual production
● Inventory Control and Tracking
○ This includes all items needed for production being counted and stored, and orders placed
automatically when minimum numbers of any item are reached
○ A component that keeps track of the locations of products and parts
● Record Keeping
○ An accounting system that keeps account of financial or cost responsibilities, which department
was responsible for the work, when it was started and completed, what resources were required or
have been requested, and how well the work was done

● Production Scheduling
○ The timely allocation of resources for the production of all the components
○ All the resources should be present in the required numbers and configurations to allow the
scheduled production to commence at the designated time and be completed within the allocated
time frame
○ Information from sensors is fed to the controlling computers then determine whether everything is
in order for production to proceed on schedule
● Actual production
○ Occurs while sensors are continuously feeding information back to the controlling computers
○ Also interacting with the controlling computers are the actuators, which receive command data
from the controlling computers to activate or deactivate some automated process
❖ The direct users of these systems as
● Supervisors overseeing operation
○ Responsible for overseeing operations and dealing with routine problems; makes sure production
does not fall behind schedule.
○ Monitors system operation in a control room through information provided by the system
○ Are deemed direct users as their task is dependent on the system to provide information
○ They help to reduce cost through assisting the operation to run smoother with less wasted work
and increased final quality.
● People whose task is dependent on the system for information
○ Production supervisors: See above
○ Production planners: analyse information provided by the system to match system production to
customer demands
○ Production designers: use the information system to design the products produced by the AMS,
perhaps using CAD/CAM software
○ Maintenance engineers: fix problems based on detected errors or diagnostic reports
○ People who operate machinery: those who work alongside the machinery to produce the final
product
❖ Ability of these systems to collect data from the environment through a wide range of sensors,
process this data into information and use this information to complete a physical task
● Collecting
○ An input device such as a sensor is used to measure environmental factors
○ Motion, Light, Temperature, Flow
● Processing
 ○ Microprocessors are used to receive data from sensor and changes the information so it can be
understood
○ E.g: Analog to digital convertor or digital to analog converter
● Performing
○ Actuators are used to carry out the work
○ Take a signal from the controller and create physical motion
○ Accurate positioning is needed at each stage of the assembly line
❖ Use of microprocessors in these systems as the controller
○ Controllers are devices that regulate the operation of the system.
○ Most are microprocessors allowing computer control of input data from sensors, processing of this
data, and signals being sent it to actuators to make changes to the manufacturing process
○ A microprocessor is a computer processor that incorporates the functions of a CPU on a single
integrated circuit, or at most a few integrated circuits
❖ Block diagrams as a tool for describing the interactions between information technology items
within these systems
○ Graphical method used to show the relationships between the processes, controller, sensors and
actuators of an AMS
○ Processes and controller are placed in rectangular boxes
○ Sensors and actuators are represented by circles
○ Arrows show the flow of data or processes between these components

Examples of automated
manufacturing systems

❖ Specific Examples
● Assembly line production such as the car industry
○ Chassis moves along a conveyor belt so that all components are attached in succession, with the
correct rate of supply and correct positioning of all parts
○ Along the line are workstations. Each workstation is assigned a set of processes.
○ As the work in progress moves along the line, more components are assembled and fixed to the
gradually constructed product
● Materials and production scheduling
○ Involves the component materials of a product being assembled and the product itself being put
together while moving along a production line with workstations
○ Participants include the warehouse and assembly line workers, IT staff and so on, who use the
information technology incorporating the robotic and computer hardware and the CAM software
 ○ Any assembly line production requires sensitive monitoring equipment to detect any breakdown
problems along the line and assess the levels of material supply at each workstation
○ If a workstation suffers a mechanical or electrical breakdown, or doesn’t have enough material the
sensors should detect it
○ Controlled by special computers called programmable logic controllers
○ Programmed to respond to different environments
○ Used for data capture, actuator control and to perform timing and sequencing functions
○ Information needs to be kept about production times, machine maintenance, faults in production
and total number of cars produced
○ Assembly line production maintains good quality control as well as reducing the cost of production,
machines do not need good working conditions, workers are safer

● Automated Warehouse
○ Automated warehouses are used to store and dispatch products where all the stored stock may be
barcoded
○ Each section of the warehouse would be mapped onto central computers where quantity of type of
stock and its location would be recorded in a database, allowing the stock to be easily located
when required
○ By automatically tracing all stock entering and leaving the warehouse, the system is able to inform
management of the following matters:
➔ When stock parts in the warehouse are running low
➔ The turnover rate of particular stocks
➔ Availability of stock for customer orders-some retailers do not stock certain items in shop but
place customer orders for such products directly from the warehouse
➔ Utilise warehouse space efficiently
○ Participants include the warehouse workers and IT staff who use the information technology
incorporating the robotic and computer hardware and software programs
○ Most supervision is still performed by people, with managers and supervisors overseeing the
smooth running of operations.
○ Operators are still needed to carry out certain tasks, but not to the same extent as before
automated warehouses existed
○ The managerial staff may act as operators when the system is for maintenance and provide
management with instant Up-to-date information on stock movement, both inwards and outwards,
as well as about how the warehouse capacity is being used
○ Reasons for automating include better utilisation of warehouse space, safety, productivity gains,
and the resultant cost reductions
● CAD (Computer Aided Design System) /CAM (Computer Aided Design Manufacturing)
○ CAD software allows the user to create drawings of an object to scale and allows for three-
dimensional imaging
○ Architects using CAD software can enter the latitude and longitude of a proposed building and it
can illustrate the light and shadow effects at any season and time of day
○ Engineers or designers may assign different materials to each part and the CAD system is able to
model the properties of each object
○ CAM systems can take a CAD design and translate the design into instructions and data that
computer- controlled machinery can understand
 ○ The greater the complexity of a CAM system, the greater the flexibility that system offers in the
types of materials and design processes it may be able to handle
○ CAD/CAM systems are a combination of computer- aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing systems.
○ They’re popular in the fashion industry where patterns can be designed using CAD systems
○ The CAM systems control the robot fabric .cutters, cutting many patterns with minimal material
waste
○ Some reasons for using CAD/ CAM systems are
➔ CAD systems provide precise positioning and drawing tools
➔ CAD systems allow designers and engineers to model 'what scenarios with different designs and
materials
➔ CAM systems can take a CAD design and translate it into a series of instructions for computer-
controlled machinery
➔ CAD and CAM systems lead to reduced safety hazards for workers
➔ Consistent quality control is feasible
○ Operator can determine the amount of waste material that will be generated from the operation
○ A disadvantage is that operators require a very high level of training
● CNC (Computer Numerical Control)
○ Converts the design produced by CAD, into numbers to be the coordinates of a graph and they
control the movement of the cutter
○ The computer controls the cutting and shaping of the material
● Rapid prototyping
○ An additive technique used to create physical models of a physical part using 3D CAD data.
○ Prototype is defined as a model of a concept or part, built in order to understand the product
better
○ Software takes a design, and slices it into multiple layers (many digital cross sections)
○ Design sent to the machine where it builds a physical model layer by layer, with a liquid/powder
plasticky material
○ Adds upon each successive layer until final physical 3D model is complete.
● Mail sorting
○ Automated mail sorting requires scanning devices that use OCR and barcode' reader software to
scan postcodes on the mail items
○ Large organisations generates their own barcode
○ Bar-coding mail items ensures faster sorting and delivery times through the postal system
○ Mailed items without postcodes are diverted for human handling
○ Reasons for the automation of mail sorting are:
➔ Faster mail sorting times by program
➔ Cost reduction
➔ Automated systems have the capacity to handle large volumes of mail
➔ Reduction of repetitive tasks
➔ Reduced safety hazards
➔ Quality control
○ Disadvantage = fewer jobs for unskilled labor and automated system cannot cope with mailed
items that lack postcodes
○ The participants include the sorting and loading workers and IT staff who use the information
technology incorporating the robotic hardware and the scanning software.
❖ Reasons for automation

● Repetitive tasks ● Quality control

● Faster decision-making ● Precision and acceptable
● Safety tolerance range
● Cost reduction ● Customisation
● Productivity Gains

● Gains through simulating and modelling, such as:

➔ Automated structural calculations
○ Models built into the software allow for component strengths and ratios to be calculated
automatically and for a range of materials
➔ Automated ordering of components
○ Lower limits are set on component numbers and when these are exceeded, that
component is ordered automatically to restore minimum number
Collecting in automated manufacturing systems

❖ Systems that collect data and information from participants via computer aided design (CAD)
software and directly link this to the rest of the system through computer aided manufacture (CAM)
○ CAD/CAM systems rely on data needs to be collected, processed in the design stage and passed on
to the manufacturing stage
○ The integration of CAD and CAM enables the manufacturing process to be fully automated
○ Some data is collected from participants CAD software and linked to for use by CAM software
○ Other data is collected V18 sensors.
❖ Identification of the data to be collected and the most appropriate input device
○ Identifying the types and forms of data to be collected is a critical element when planning the most
appropriate input device for an automated system
○ If the automated system is to replace a manual or only partly automated one, then the human
workers and their supervisors are often the best source of useful information about the strengths
and weaknesses of existing systems and the requirements of proposed ones
❖ Physical operation and scientific principle(s) underlying sensors used to collect data, including:
● Sensors/Transducers
○ Sensors are input devices that measure data from the environment
○ They convert input provided by the environment into a signal that can be communicated to a
control program.
○ They convert one physical quantity into another
● Temperature
○ Temperature sensors are devices that measure the temperature of the air, a fluid or an object
○ Temperature is detected using the resistance of a conductor
➔ Thermostats
○ Two different types of metal strips (bimetallic) which
adhere to each other
 ○ Bends as it heats up (bent and contact broken) or cools down (strip straight and in contact),
due to the different expansion rates of the two metals
○ Switches that respond and remain open until
a certain adjustable temperature threshold is
reached, upon which the switches close
○ switch can turn mains electrical power on and
off when the temperature moves beyond the
set level. E.g. refrigerators and stoves

➔Thermistors
○A resistor that changes resistance in response to changing temperature
○Thermistors are connected to electrical circuitry that enables devices to be turned on or off
○Resistance drops lower as temperature increases
➔Thermocouples
○Consists of two different metals welded together
joined at two points
○ When heated, a small electric voltage is generated,
proportional to the heat increase
➔ Semiconductors
○ Which are silicon chips that improve their electrical
conductivity as the temperature increases
○ Used to sense temperature in devices such as DVD players
● Pressure
○ Since pressure may need to detected in liquid, gases, and solids, sensors
were created
➔ Manometre
○ Uses a U-shaped tube to detect gas pressure differences between
points 1 and 2
➔ Diaphragms
○ Based on an elastic component which alters
its shape as the pressure pushing on it alters
○ As the pressure increases the is deformed
more and the electric signal increases
➔ Piezoelectric crystals
○ Quartz crystals are placed between two
plates to produce an electric current when deformed by pressure
○ Greater the pressure, the larger the current generated
➔ Strain Gauges
○ Operate via a thin metal strip being deformed by pressure and
altering its electrical resistance as a result
● Motion
○ Motion sensors, or velocity sensors, are devices that measure the rate
of change of position. They calculate how far an object has moved from a starting position
➔ Linear Potentiometer
 ○ Generally uses a layer of resistive material in proportion to its length
○ As the sliding part moves, the resistance alters, reducing as the slider moves to the right
○ If the linear potentiometer is curved around into a circle, we call it a tachometer, and it
measures revolutions of the slider or arm
○ If we place several of these at right angles to each other, then rotation in two dimension can
be accurately measured, as in the detection if ball roll direction in a computer mouse

➔ Magnetic Transducers
○ Are devices in which the magnetic field is altered in proportion to the size of the movement,
when one part moves relative to the
another
○ As the metal arm moves through the wire
coil, the magnetic field strength is
changed measurably on the meter
➔ Accelerometer
○ Operates on the effect of inertia of the object (its resistance to motion) to produce a
measurable force
○ This can be achieved using a strain gauge to detect the change in velocity or acceleration
➔ Gyroscope
○ Consists of a rapidly spinning wheels set in three directions
○ Once again, the inertia allows detection if changes in motion in any of the dimensions
➔ Contacts
○ On and off switches that require a small amount of pressure to close, like reed switches
attached to doors and windows in home security systems
● Proximity Sensors
○ Used to determine when two objects are getting close to each other
○ E.g. Lift and the floor at which it would stop
➔ Optical or Light Sensors:
○ works in two main ways
○ First, moving object breaks a light beam (or series of
them) and thus its position is known
○ Second, a light beam is directed at the object and the
degree of reflected light is measured by the light sensor

○ This gives a relative distance between the object and

the light source, the amount of reflected light
increasing as the moving object gets closer
○ The light sensors themselves may be light dependent
resistors or phototransistors
➔ Ultrasound or Radar Position Sensors
○ Mainly for robot guidance systems to allow them to navigate freely inside buildings
○ Use of video cameras to obtain decoded images is another robotic position sensing
technique, though it is no yet in widespread use
● Flow
 ○ Flow sensors are devices that detect the motion of fluids, including liquids and gases
○ Measure flow of liquids and gases through pipes and drains
➔ Vane
○ Uses blades or paddles wheels that are pushed around a central shaft by the rate of flow
○ A rotating potentiometer is used t register the movements
➔ Venturi Tube
○ This method uses a constriction built into a pipe, with the pressure being measured both
before and at the constriction
○ The amount of drop in pressure is
directly related to the rate of flow,
with the flow rate calculated using
two pressures
➔ Hot Wire Anemometer
○ This uses a heated wire that is placed into the pipe and the flow, and the cooling rate of the
wire is then in proportion to the rate of flow
○ With greater flow, there is greater cooling and the resistance of the wire decreases
○ Can be used with most liquids but only some gases
● Light
○ Light sensors, or optical sensors, are devices that can detect changes in the level of light.
➔ Photoelectric cells
○ Uses silicon to convert light into direct electric current
○ The more light present, the greater the current
○ Enables automatic lighting systems to switch on when light levels fall below a certain level,
and allows exposure meters in cameras to give light readings
○ Used in the operation of traffic light controls, burglar alarms and door openers
○ This ability to detect light and dark lines is also the basis behind barcode readers
➔ Photo-resisters/Light-dependent resistors
○ They operate by measuring a change in their electrical resistance as the light level alters
○ Light meters in cameras may be of this type, where the resistance decreases as the light levels
reaching the camera sensor decrease
○ They are generally not made of silicon and can detect light other than visible (including
infrared and nuclear radiation)
➔ Phototransistors
○ Act as light-sensitive switches, as they turn on and allow the electric current to flow only
when it is exposed to light
○ It can also detect colours at very low light levels
○ A charge-coupled device (CCD) is made up of a grid of phototransistors on an integrated
circuit chip. CCDs are used in digital photo and video cameras
○ They can be used to turn stronger currents on or off
❖ Integration of sensors into manufacturing machinery to automate processing
● Robotic Arm
● Conveyor Belt
❖ Barcode readers, radio frequency identifier tags (RFID) and inventory tracking and production
● Barcode Readers
○ Barcode reader use a type of photoelectric cell to detect the presence of light or dark lines
 ○ An input device for collecting data, they’re faster and more accurate than a person is at entering a
numerical and/or letters via keyboard
○ Each product has its own Universal Product Code, which is scanned by a light reflected from the
barcode being detected by the photoelectric cell in the reader
○ This code identifies the product so that counting in or out can be completed automatically by the
computer software
○ Inventory control and tracking is automated with incoming and outgoing products tailed
immediately, allows for the location of product to be known at all times
○ Predetermined levels allow for automatic restocking and recording of new supplies whenever
required such as daily, weekly etc.
○ Location of all components on a manufacturing process may be tracked by scanning the barcode as
the product passes certain stations in the process
● Inventory Tracking
○ Uses a type of photoelectric cell to detect the presence of light or dark lines
○ Light from the white spaces between the black or coloured bars is reflected into the photodetector,
which produces corresponding electrical signals
○ A combination of a barcode scanner and a computer together create a barcode reader
○ The computer provides the processing capacity to translate the electrical signals
○ Each product has its own Universal Product Code
○ Inventory control and tracking is automated with incoming and outgoing products tallied
immediately
○ Predetermined levels allow for automatic restocking and reordering of new supplies whenever
required
○ Locations of all components in a manufacturing process may be tracked by scanning the barcodes
as a product passes certain stations in the process
○ E.g: stock control and pricing of grocery items in supermarkets
● Radio frequency identifiers tags (RFID)
○ Radio frequency identifier may be either passive (ID chips put in and cats) or active (those with a
power source) and work as a transponder
○ This allows an RFID to be attached or incorporated into a product so that the radio waves emitted
by the can be used to identify them by their unique frequency as they pass a receiver (for up to
several metres)
○ Good for inventory tracking and management within a manufacturing business, though not
presently used much once the product leaves the factory (for purposes such as delivery tracking
and so on).
❖ Analog nature of the data collected by the sensors and its conversion to digital for use in the
system
○ The majority of sensors produce analog signals that are sent to the controller (which can only
process digital data).
○ After controller has processed the input data collected by the sensor, a signal is usually sent to one
or more actuators to make some change to their operation
○ Actuators are also analog devices since they too must often make movements oversize or direction
ranges.
○ Therefore, controller's output digital signal must be converted
○ The interface device/s that perform these conversion tasks are called either analog to digital
converters (ADC) or digital to analog converters (DAC)
 ○ Both converters are normally found within the same interface, along with a buffer to hold the data
while the converter performs its function
○ E.g: temperature =15.5 → ADC → 00101→ Controller

❖ Damping as the process that modifies the signal to the output device based on the input signal
○ A technique used to control the operation devices (actuators) and process of modifying the signal
to the output device based on the input sensor signals
○ Important aspect of damping is the rate at which the system responds to the controller
○ Controller responds to the sensor input and adapts the output to the actuator/s quickly = feedback
○ Too rapid feedback = system output to fluctuate wildly
○ The controller is too slow at malting changes to the output = system takes too long to return to
correct operations
❖ Types of Damping
➢ Purpose = modify the magnitude of response in an actuator such as a motor that opens and closes
a gate. Ensures the smooth operation of the components, minimising severe or jerky movements,
decreased vibration, bouncing or potentially damaging acceleration during movement.
● Underdamping
○ A quick response to change leading to rapid fluctuations
○ The change or command to stop is received too late and the target is overshot
○ E.g: door closes too quickly hitting someone’s heels
● Overdamping
○ A slow response to change without fluctuations
○ Sensors data is modified too much so the actuator takes longer to reach the desired target point
○ E.g: door closes too slowly causing flies to come in
● Critical damping
○ A quick response to change and quick return to stability
○ Damping level is such that a desired rate of change occurs in the output of the system
○ Effective removal of fluctuations enable AMS to return to its normal state
○ E.g: door closes at the right moment so no flies and no hits
Other information processes in manufacturing systems

❖ Trend to mass-production while meeting the needs of individuals

● Processing
➢ Processing data for an automated manufacturing system is the manipulation of the data
● Mass Production
○ Mass production is the manufacture of products in large quantities by standardised mechanical
processes.
○ Production is divided into specialised tasks that are relatively simple and highly repetitive.
○ Standardisation of parts, such as dimensional tolerances, allows parts to be readily fitted to other
parts without adjustment
○ Specialised machines, materials and processes to minimise the amount of human effort and
maximise the output.
○ Systematic planning of the total production process permits the best balance between human
effort and machinery
● Manufacturing systems that quickly adapt to a particular need
 ○ Car industries are now designed to adapt quicker to individual needs
○ If blue cars popular then the system directs the paint section to increase blue cars
○ Bicycles are also the same

● Different types of systems including:

➔ Continuous
○ Capable of operating 24 hours per day for weeks or months without stopping
○ No set starting or finishing point with system repeatedly performing the same overall job
○ E.g: Oil Refining, Power stations, electronic security system
➔ Batch
○ Discontinuous system that produces specific quantity of product for specific period of time
○ Clear start and end points with each ‘batch’ being produced for a set period of time
○ Modular in design so easy reorganisation of components for the next batch
○ E.g: Apple canning, peach canning, drink flavours
➔ Discrete
○ The system deals with a single item but often performs multiple tasks to that one item
○ Designed for slower production operation dedicated to making the one product
○ Highly skilled labor and are expensive
○ E.g: Automated car wash, all parts of machines need to be made individually
❖ Displaying
● Actuators
○ Specialised display devices that perform a mechanical action under the control of the system
○ Actuators perform the actual work of the system and are output devices
❖ Types of actuators
● Solenoid
○ Electromagnetic switch which has a rod push out – it essentially pushes something
○ A coil of wire around a movable magnet
○ When an electric current passes through the wire, a magnetic field is generated that will move the
magnet in the centre of the wire coil in one direction or the other
○ E.g. a starter motor solenoid in a car engages the drive gear when the ignition key in turned to
provide power, water fill in washing machine is activated by solenoid
● Motor
○ Electric motors are either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) and both are used to
produce movement.
○ Most commonly used actuators, often combined with gears or lever systems to achieve a wide
range of movements
○ All electric motors operate via reactions between electric currents in wires and magnets positioned
around the wires
○ The result is a spinning of the central shaft due to the forces between the two sets of magnetic
fields
○ AC motors are used when a constant motor speed is required
○ DC motors operate on current from batteries or a transformer
○ Allows easier control of the motor speed and provide a large starting force
● Stepping motor
○ Special motors that convert digital or pulsed signals into small step rotational movements
 ○ The control of the precise movements of robot arms and hands are achieved through stepper
motors, which are powered by pulses
○ This makes interfacing with the computer easier, as each pulse is a binary signal
○ E.g: computer disk drives use stepper motors for precise control of the movement of the
read/write heads, to locate tracks above the spinning floppy disks
● Relay
○ Provides the interface between the low voltage circuity and the high voltage actuators such as
motors
○ An electromagnet operating on a few volts may be used to activate a heavy-duty switch to control
the current flow to the
○ high voltage circuit
● Hydraulic pumps
○ These use a master piston/ cylinder containing a liquid that allows movement to several locations
with little friction.
○ E.g: the service station hoists that are used to lift cars are hydraulic
Issues related to automated manufacturing systems

❖ Changing nature at work resulting from automation in manufacturing technology

● Employment
○ Whenever manufacturing is automated, employees fear for their jobs
○ Manufacturers employ automation in the belief that it will improve productivity and reduce current
costs or future cost increases
○ A reduction in the need for unskilled labour and a relatively smaller increase in demand for skilled
labour
○ People with expertise in information technology and skilled equipment operators, may increase as
more industries automate.
○ Some people prefer tasks that are repetitive and narrowly skilled, others may get bored
○ This provides the opportunities for job rotation
● Nature of Work
○ Greater emphasis on knowledge and technical skill rather than on physical work
○ Many operations outsource their main information technology needs, leawhg skeleton IT staff on
the premises for day-to-day operations
❖ Advantages of semi-automation by utilising the skills of people which leads to job satisfaction
● Flexibility
● Common sense
● Ingenuity
○ Semi-automation occurs when some tasks are performed by humans and some by machines
○ Most factories are only partially automated as they get better results by automating some of the
functions
○ The manufacturing process can be designed to take into account the strengths and weaknesses of
people and machines
○ This has led to improved job satisfaction, with people obviously being more flexible and able to use
common sense to handle problems and unusual circumstances
○ Human ingenuity will normally produce quick and easy solutions to occurrences that would totally
defeat a computer programs
○ E.g: In food industry, a person can check food while machinery packs and wraps the boxes
❖ Need to develop systems that are human-centred and assist participants to complete tasks, as
opposed to machine-centred systems where humans assist machines
● Human-centred
○ Human-centred systems are those that make participants' work as effective and satisfying as
possible
○ Allows people to do their work without wasting time and effort dealing with information
technology
○ Participants and users are most important and the machine is just a tool.
● Machine-centred
○ Designed to simplify what the machine must do at the expense of participants
○ Tasks of the machine have priority over the human user
❖ Reliability and quality of performing repetitive tasks such as: automatic painting, spot welding,
newspaper production and computer embroidery
● Automatic Painting
○ Program directs one or more robot spray through a series of rotations and other movements to
completely coat selected items with paint
● Spot Welding
○ Where thousands of metal parts on a production line need to be welded.
● Newspaper Production
○ Drawn through large printing presses and then cut and positioned rapidly and automatically so that
various editions are possible.
● Computer Embroidery
○ Program will automatically and accurately produce the required letters or images
● Reliability
○ Automated manufacturing systems perform manufacturing processes with greater control and
consistency of product than a human worker.
○ They also make more efficient use of materials, and this results in less wastage
○ Machines can repeat a given task almost endlessly and with a great degree of accuracy
○ REQUIRES QUALITY CONTROL
❖ Improved safety as a result of automated manufacturing
○ Automated manufacturing systems have improved safety in the workplace.
○ Machines are doing dangerous and hazardous jobs, such as spot welding
○ Most automated manufacturing systems include safety-monitoring systems
○ Sensors detect that a safety condition has developed that may be hazardous to the equipment or
to people
○ On the other hand, unsafe practices and poor machine design can cause accidents
○ In dangerous environments, such as near grinding machines, suitable protective gear should be
worn
❖ Charts Purposes
● Column Graphs
○ Displays data values vertically
○ Well suited to sets of data where the categories or entities are not numeric or have no inherent
order
 ○ Works well in showing data changes over a period of time by displaying the comparisons among
subjects on an overall chart
● Bar Graphs
○ Displays data values horizontally
○ Compare things between different groups or to track changes over time
○ Best when the changes are larger
● Line Graphs
○ Used to track changes over short and long periods of time
○ Better to use when measuring change over a shorter amount of time
○ Plot individual points on the two axes and join neighbouring points up using straight lines
● Pie Charts
○ Good for displaying data for around 6 categories or fewer
○ Best to use when  trying to compare parts of a whole
○ They do not show changes over time
● Scatter Plot
○ Used to plot pairs of points
○ Best when comparing large numbers of data points without regard to time
○ Good when trying to show the relationship between two variables
○ E.g: person's weight and height

Glossary:
Actuators = Specialised display devices that perform a mechanical action under the control of the system.
They perform the actual work of the system and are output devices

Sensors = Sensors are input devices. They detect light, heat, pressure etc. Sensors need to receive the
data in order to activate an actuator to work

Controller = Controllers process the data given by the sensor and send sout the resulting signals to
actuators in order to make changes to the manufacturing process

Relational Database = collection of 2D tables that organises data through relationships to provide
flexibility in manipulating data. It allows you to manage multiple DBs and manipulate data by searching
and sorting.

Flat-file Database = Organises all data into a single table where rows are divided into fields and is suitable
for small applications with basic processing

Chassis = base frame of a car, carriage, or other wheeled vehicle.