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Electromagnetism
Lecture 2
Maxwell’s equations in integral form

Bruce H J McKellar
In 2008:
Room 701 — Phone 8344 5122
Geoffrey Taylor
email: mckellar@physics.unimelb.edu.au
Room 704
gntaylor@unimelb.edu.au
1
 The lecture plan
• Magnetic Material --- Phenomenology
✔ Maxwell's Equations in Free Space
• Magnetic Material --- Microscopics
--- Integral form
• Maxwell's equations in Differential • Magnetic circuits
Form • Electromagnetic Induction
• Electrostatics and the Scalar Potential • Maxwell's induced magnetic fields
• Conductors and Insulators
• Forces and Energy
• Solutions of Laplace equation -1
• Solutions of Laplace equation - 2 • Electromagnetic Waves in Uniform
Media
• Magnetostatics and the Vector
Potential • Reflection and Transmission of Waves
• Radiation from an Oscillating Electric
Dipole

2
 Revision of Line and Surface integrals
Revision of Line and Surface integrals

Vector Fields are vectors which vary over space and time,
Vector Fields are vectors which vary over space and time,

!
! through a surface S = ΦS (E)
Flux of E ! = !
! · dS
E
!
! through a surface S = ΦS (E)
Flux of E !S = !
! · dS
E
S
!
! around a closed curve ∂S = C∂S (E)
Circulation of E ! = !
! · d#
E
∂S
!
of E ! around
Circulation Notation: a closed
Closed curve: curve
A surface S has a
∂S =C
closed
∂S
!
curve(as
E) its= ! · d!
E
boundary, the notation ∂S is used for the boundary of S. ∂S
Closed Surface: A volume V has a closed surface as its boundary,
Notation: Closed curve:surface
and that boundary A surface S ∂V
is denoted as has
as it
. a closed curve
2
boundary, the notation ∂S is used for the boundary of S.
3

Closed Surface: A volume V has a closed surface as its boundary

 Helmholtz’ Theorem
Helmholtz proved that knowledge of the flux of a vector
field through an arbitrary closed surface, and its
circulation around an arbitrary closed curve determines
the field to an additive constant

4
 V 0
" =0
B) "
Gauss’ Law for B
d " The Electric
" = − ΦS (B)
E) Faraday and
dt
d Magnetic
" = µ0#0 ΦS (E)
Fields
" + µ0ΦS (")
B) Ampère – Max
dt
The Electric and Magnetic Fields are defined by
the Lorentz Law for the force on a charge q
and magnetic fields are defined by the Lorentz fo
" = q(E
F " + "v × B)
"

current density, so that ΦS (") = I, the total

S.
5
 Maxwell’s Equations for Free Space

Φ∂V (E) " = QV /#0 Gauss’ Law forE "

Φ (B) " =0 Gauss’ Law for B "
• The∂Vflux of the Electric Field through a closed surface is proportional to the
charge " = −bydthe
C∂S (enclosed
E) ΦSsurface
"
(B) Faraday
dt
• The flux of a magnetic field through a closed surface vanishes
d
• The
C∂S " =µ
circulation
(B) of0the
#0 electric
ΦS (E) "field+around
µ0ΦSa ("
closed
) curve is the negative
Ampère of the
– Maxwell
dt of the magnetic field through a surface bounded by the
rate of change of the flux
curve
• The circulation
Electric of the magnetic
and magnetic fieldare
fields around a closedby
defined curve
theis Lorentz
proportional to law
force
the sum of the rate of change of the flux of the electric displacement through a
surface bounded by the curveF "and
=the q(E" + "v ×
electric " through that surface
current
B)
" is the current density, so that ΦS (") = I, the total current
through S.
4
6
 Units
Units

The constants !0 and µ0 are dependent on the units used.

Whatever the units c = √!1µ is the velocity of light.

0 0

In SI units, µ0 = 4π × 10−7Hm−1 by definition, and so !0 ≈

1 −9 −1
36π 10 Fm .

7
 Physics

!
Gauss’ Law for E Physics

!
Gauss’ Law for E

! = QV /#0
Φ∂V (E)

Gauss’s law for E ! = QV /#0

Φ∂V (E)
! says that the sources of the electromagnetic
field are charges.
OR

! begin or end on charges

all lines of E
! says that the sources of the electrom
law for E
6
charges.
OR
8
 Gauss and
Gauss and Coulomb
Gauss Gauss
and and Coulomb
Coulomb
Coulomb
Gauss and Coulomb

Gauss’ Gauss’
LawLaw
Gauss’
!E
forLaw
E !isfor
Gauss’
for
! is for
E
isequivalent
Law
equivalent !Coulomb’s
equivalent
toto
E to law
Coulomb’sCoulomb’s law
lawto Coulomb’s
is equivalent law
!! = 1 1qr̂
E
1
! qr̂ 1
E =4πr2 E =!
qr̂
4πr2E = 4πr 2 qr̂
4πr 2
and the superposition principle:
and theand
superposition
theand theprinciple:
superposition principle:principle:
superposition
If two charges q1 and q2 independently give electric
If fields
two If !charges
and E ! 2q andtogether
, 1then independently
they the give
electricelectric
E 1 two charges qq12 and q2 give
independently give electric
field! !
E = !
E !+! !
E If . two!
charges q1 and q2 independently gi
fields Efields
1 andEE
1 , then
2
1 2and ! E2,together they give
then !together thegive
they electric
the electric
field ! =E
E ! 1 !+ fields
E! 2!. E!1 and E2, then together they give t
The equations
field Eof =electromagnetism
E1 + E2 .
! =E !1 + E! 2. are linear in the fields
fieldand
E the charges

7
9
 How good is Gauss’ Law
or Coulomb’s Law? Howgood
goodisisit?
it?
How
The exponent
Theexponent
The exponentininCoulomb’s
Coulomb’slaw
lawisis22±±!,!,with
with! !==(2.7
(2.7±±3.1)
3.1)××
−16 .
10−16
10 .
Breakdown at short distances
Weknow
We knowfrom
fromatomic
atomicand
andnuclear
nuclearphysics
physicsthat
thatCoulomb’s
Coulomb’slaw
law
holdsdown
downtotodistances
distancesof
of10 −13 m, below which there are cal-
10−13
holds m, below which there are cal-
culablecorrections
culable correctionsfrom
fromrelativistic
relativisticquantum
quantummechanics.
mechanics.
Breakdown at large distances
mechanics. These corrections are small down to distances of order 10−15 m, as shown
by the success of Rutherford’s analysis of alpha particle scattering.
Torsionbalance
Torsion balancemeasurements
measurementsshow
showthat
thatthe
thephoton
photonhas
hasaamass
mass
Torsion balance measurements
−16
−16 show
22 that the photon has a mass less than 2×10−16 eV/c2 ,4
lessthan
less than22××10 10 eV/ceV/c , ,which
which indirectlyshows shows thatCoulomb’s
Coulomb’s
which indirectly shows that Coulomb’s lawindirectly
is good at least upthat
to distances of order
lawisγiscgood
(!c)/(m
law 2goodat
) ≈ 10at m.least upto
To up
9 least
set todistances
the distances
scale oforder
the earth
of order (h̄c)/(m
- sun (h̄c)/(m
distance is c2))≈≈10
2
γ γcabout 10
10
99
11 m. A
m.
m.
moreToindirect
setthe determination
the scalethe is
theearthfrom- -the
earth sunsolar magnetic
distance field, which
1011 11gives
m. the limit
To set scale sun distance isisabout
about 10 m.
6 × 10 eV/c , . A new version of the torsion balance experiment was done in 2003,
−17 2 5

but the result has been challenged, and I do not give it here. 22
22
Coulomb’slaw
Coulomb’s lawisisgood
goodover
overdistances
distanceswhich
whichvary
varyby
by10
10
2. Faraday’s Law is the law of electromagnetic induction — a changing magnetic 88 field
produces an electric field. The minus sign is an expression of Lenz’ law: if a conducting 10
wire is laid along the curve the curve ∂S, a current will be induced in the wire which will
generate a magnetic field which opposes the change in flux of B " across S. Remember,
 Faraday’s Law is the law of electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s Law is the law of electromagnetic induction

C∂SC(E) " "= − ddΦS (B) ""

∂S (E) = −
dt ΦS (B)
dt
A changing magnetic
A changing field
magnetic produces
field produces an electricfield.
an electric field.

Faraday’s law is the basis of the generation and transmission of

Faraday’s law is the basis of the generation and transmission of
Faraday’s Law is the basis of the generation and
electric power.
electric power.
transmission of electric power

11
 Gauss’ law for B

!
Gauss’ law for B
! =0
Φ∂V (B)
There are no magnetic “charges”, or magnetic
monopoles
Φ (as ! they
B) =are
0 called.
are no magnetic “charges”
∂V (ie magnetic poles).
Lines of magnetic field form closed loops, they
cannot begin or end anywhere
ts are the only source of the magnetic
re no magnetic “charges” (ie magnetic poles). field, even in
t magnets. The magnetic Gauss’ law ensures that ANY
surface with the same boundary has the same
magnetic flux through it — without this law,
s are the only source
Faraday’s
of the
law would
magnetic field, even i
not matter which surface webeuse
ambiguous
to calculate the flu
magnets.
ugh a closed loop in applying Faraday’s law. 12
 Ampère – Maxwell
Ampère
Ampère –– Maxwell
Maxwell

• Ampère
• Ampère built
built onon work
work of of Oersted,
Oersted, and
and Biot
Biot and
and Savart,
Savart, toto
Ampère built on work of Oersted, and Biot and Savar
obtain
obtain C∂S
C∂S (B) "= =
"(B) Φ0SΦ("
µ0µ )("=
S )=µ0µ
I 0I
"Magnetic
btain C∂S (B) =µ
Magnetic Φ
field
field
0 S ("
lines
lines ) = about
circulate
circulate µabout
0Ithethecurrents.
currents.

• Maxwellshowed
• Maxwell showedthatthatAmpère’s
Ampère’slawlawwas
wasinconsistent
inconsistentwithwith
Magnetic field lines
conservation
conservation
circulate
of of charge.
charge. But
But with
about
withthethe the
addition
addition of of
µ0µ
currents.
$0[dΦ
$00[dΦ S (S
"
"(E)]/[dt]
E)]/[dt]
asas
anan additional
additional source
source of of
thethe magnetic
magnetic field,
field, consistency
consistency was
was
restored.
restored.

Maxwell showed that "

Ampère’s
"
(B)
d d " " law was inconsistent
C∂S
C∂S (B) == $00$0ΦSΦ(S
µ0µ E)(E)
++ Φ0SΦ("S
µ0µ )(")
dt dt
onservation of charge. But with the addition of µ0$0[dΦ
11 11
s an additional source of the magnetic field, consistency
estored.
13
 Light is Electromagnetic
Light is Electromagnetic

Maxwell showed that this new term gave rise to electromagnetic

waves with a velocity

c = (!0µ0)−1/2
≈ 3 × 108ms−1

The coincidence between this number and the velocity of light

was so strong that Maxwell suggested that light was electromag-
netic waves

The observation of Electromagnetic radiation was made by Hertz

in the 1880s.

12

14
 Electromagnetism and
Relativity
Electromagnetism and Relativity

Consideration of the Lorentz force law in different frames of

reference shows that there must be a transformation between
electric and magnetic fields in changing reference frames.

Re-writing the Maxwell Ampère law as

" + 1 ΦS (")
" = d ΦS (E)
c2C∂S (B)
dt #0
suggests a strong relationship between electromagnetism and
relativity.

13

15
 Magnetism and Relativity
Magnetism is a Relativistic Effect

One can regard the magnetic field as a relativistic effect — in

spite of the fact that for typical currents in wires, v ≈ 10−4ms−1,
and v/c ≈ 0.3 × 10−12. The relativistic effects become important
because the primary electrostatic effect is canceled out by the
electric neutrality of the wires.

The 3rd edition of Sears and Zemansky “University Physics” in

This
fact approach
introduces was explored
magnetism in this way,asasadid
way of teaching
many texts in the
electromagnetism,
1960s, eventechnique
but as a pedagogical in somethisschool textbooks.
approach has largely
But thatin pedagogy
been abandoned terms of thehas never approach.
traditional caught on
If it interests you, read G §18.7 and try as a project G problem
If18-36.
you want to find out about it, read G, sec 18.7 and
try problem 18-36 as a project, it is quite a long
14

problem
16