CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 . SHEET METAL:

Sheet metal is simply a metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms
used in metal working and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless
everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although
extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are
considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

The thickness of the sheet metal is called its gauge. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges
from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Gauge is
measured in ferrous (iron based) metals while nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper are
designated differently; i.e., Copper is measured in thickness by Ounce.

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as galvanized iron
aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet
metals include silver, gold and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a catalyst.)

Sheet metal also has applications in car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for
buildings (Architectural) and many other things. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with
high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in
transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in plate
armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses, including in
horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "Tin Bashers" ("Tin Knockers") which is
derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.
There are three primary procedures in Layout
1 Parallel
2 Radial
3 Triangulation

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1.2. SHEET METAL CUTTING:
Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a great
enough force to cause the material to fail. The most common cutting processes are performed by
applying a shear force, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes. When a
great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will exceed the ultimate
shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut location. This shearing force is
applied by two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether these tools are a punch and
die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a quick downward blow to the
sheet metal that rests over the lower tool.

A small clearance is present between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates the
fracture of the material. The size of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material thickness
and depends upon several factors, such as the specific shearing process, material, and sheet
thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible on the edge
of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance between the
tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and “rollover” the edge. As the tool penetrates the
sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of material.

Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr
formed at the edge. The height of these portions of the cut depends on several factors, including
the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

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 CHAPTER 2: COMPONENTS USED

1. Double acting cylinder

2. Pneumatic hand operated valve
3. High speed steel blade
4. Compressor
5. Lever shear

SPECIFICATIONS

1. Pneumatic Cylinder-
Quantity: 1
Total Length: 375mm
Bore: 40mm
Stroke: 200mm
Piston Rod Diameter: 20mm
Max Working Pressure: 8 bar
Weight: 3kg
2. DC Valve-
Quantity :1
Operation : Manual
Type : Hand Lever, Detent Type
Number of Ports: 5
Number of Positions: 3
Construction : Sliding spool type
3. Pneumatic Pipe-
Quantity : 5000mm
Diameter : 8mm
Thickness : 1mm
4. Fork End Nut-
Quantity :2
Length : 16mm

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 Size : M16

Sheet cutter

Length of cut : 7 inch

Thickness : 0.5-6 mm

Compressor

Engine : 1HP
Capacity : 1-10 kg
Power : 12 volts

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 CHAPTER 3: PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use the
power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.

Like hydraulic cylinders, pneumatic cylinders use the stored potential energy of a fluid, in this
case compressed air, and convert it into kinetic energy as the air expands in an attempt to reach
atmospheric pressure. This air expansion forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved. Engineers prefer to use pneumatics sometime because they are quieter, cleaner, and do
not require large amounts or space for fluid storage.

Figure 1: Pneumatic cylinder figure 1

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics is
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppet.

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 Figure 2: Pneumatic cylinder figure 2

They are two types of pneumatic sheet cutting machine

1) Single acting cylinder

2) Double acting cylinder

1. SINGLE- ACTING CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use the

power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion hydraulic cylinders
something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The piston is a disc or cylinder, and
the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be moved. [1] :85 Engineers sometimes
prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do not require large amounts of
space for fluid storage.
Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a

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requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney pneumatics are used to
prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets

2. DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extend and retract strokes.
They have two ports to allow air in, one for out-stroke and one for in-stroke. Stroke length for
this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling and bending.
Addition calculations should be performed as well by using design data hand book using some
relations between cylinder and pressure we can accurately find out bending and buckling of tie
rod.

Figure 3: 2D view of pneumatic cylinder

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 CHAPTER 4: DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Directional control valves perform only three functions:

1. Stop fluid flow
2. Allow fluid flow, and
3. Change direction of fluid flow.

These three functions usually operate in combination.

The simplest directional control valve is the 2-way valve. A 2-way valve stops flow or allows
flow. A water faucet is a good example of a 2-way valve. A water faucet allows flow or stops
flow by manual control.

A single-acting cylinder needs supply to and exhaust from its port to operate. This requires a 3-
way valve. A 3-way valve allows fluid flow to an actuator in one position and exhausts the fluid
from it in the other position. Some 3-way valves have a third position that blocks flow at all
ports.

A double-acting actuator requires a 4-way valve. A 4-way valve pressurizes and exhausts two
ports interdependently. A 3-position, 4-way valve stops an actuator or allows it to float. The 4-
way function is a common type of directional control valve for both air and hydraulic circuits. A
3-position, 4-way valve is more common in hydraulic circuits.

The 5-way valve is found most frequently in air circuits. A 5-way valve performs the same
function as a 4-way valve. The only difference is an extra tank or exhaust port. (Some suppliers
call their 5-way valves, “5-ported 4-ways.") All spool valves are five ported, but hydraulic valves
have internally connected exhaust ports going to a common outlet. Because oil must return to
tank, it is convenient to connect the dual tank ports to a single return port. For air valves,
atmosphere is the tank, so exhaust piping is usually unimportant. Using two exhaust ports makes
the valve smaller and less expensive. As will be explained later, dual exhausts used for speed-
control mufflers or as dual-pressure inlets make this configuration versatile. Following are
schematic symbols for commonly used directional control valves

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 Figure 4: Directional control valve

TYPES OF DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

1) 2-way directional control valves
2) 3-way directional control valves
3) 4-way directional control valves
4) 5-way directional control valves etc…,
In most of case we can be used the 2-way direction control valve.

Figure 5: Two way directional control valve

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4.1 2-WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

A 2-way directional valve has two ports normally called inlet and outlet. When the inlet is
blocked in the at-rest condition, as shown in Figure 8-1, it is referred to as "normally closed"
(NC). The at-rest box or the normal condition is the one with the flow lines going to and from it.

The boxes or enclosures represent the valve’s positions. In Figure 8-1, the active box shows
blocked ports, or a closed condition, while the upper box shows a flow path. When an operator
shifts the valve, it is the same as sliding the upper box down to take the place of the lower box.
In the shifted condition there is flow from inlet to outlet. Releasing the palm button in it allows
the valve spring to return to the normal stop flow condition. A 2-way valve makes a blow-off
device or runs a fluid motor in one direction. By itself, a 2-way valve cannot cycle even a single
acting cylinder.

Figure 6: Normally open (NO) 2-way directional valve

Energizing the solenoid on this valve stops fluid flow. Valve operators come in different types. A
solenoid pilot operator using solenoid-controlled pressure from the inlet port to move the
working directional spool cam -operated valve. A moving machine member usually operates this
type valve.

4.3 3-WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

A 3-way valve has three working ports. These ports are: inlet, outlet, and exhaust. A 3-way
valve not only supplies fluid to an actuator, but allows fluid to return from it as well. schematic
symbols for 3-way directional control valves.

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 Figure 7: Three way valve

In all-ports-blocked, 3-way, 3-position valve. A valve of this type connected to a single-acting,

weight- or spring-returned cylinder could extend, retract, or stop at any place in the stroke.
Some 3-way valves select fluid flow use a spool-type valve for this operation. Another flow
condition is the diverter valve A diverter valve sends fluid to either of two paths.
4.4 4-WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
It shows different configurations available in 4-way directional control valves. They range from
the simple, two-position, single, direct solenoid, spring-return valve to the more complex three-
position, double solenoid, pilot-operated, spring-centered, external-pilot supply.

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 Figure 8: 4-way directional control valves

Lines to the boxes show flow to and from the valve, while lines with arrows in the boxes show
direction of flow. The number of boxes tells how many positions the valve has. shows a single
solenoid, spring-centered valve. This valve has a third position but there is no operator for it. Use
this spring-centered, single solenoid valve in control circuits for special functions. In the past, to
get this configuration, you only had to wire one solenoid of a double-solenoid, three-position
valve.

4.5 5-WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Most spool-type air valves come in a 5-way configuration. Because air usually exhausts to
atmosphere, the extra exhaust port is no problem. Many valves use the two exhaust ports for
speed control mufflers. Mufflers not only make the exhaust quieter, but throttle the exhaust,
which in turn controls cylinder speed in a meter-out circuit.

Figure 9: 5-way directional control valves

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 CHAPTER 5: COMPRESSORS

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline
engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized. The energy can be used for the variety of
applications. Usually by utilizing the kinetic energy of the air it is depressurized

5.1 TYPES OF AIR COMPRESSOR

1) Reciprocating
2) Rotary screw
3) Centrifugal
Compressor types are further specified by:

 The number of compression stages

 Cooling method (air, water, oil)
 Drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)
 Lubricating (oil, oil-free where oil free means no lubricating oil contact the compressed
air)
 Packed or custom -built

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive displacement compressor that
uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure. The intake gas enters the
suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by a piston
driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then discharged. Applications include oil
refineries.  gas pipelines., chemical plants. Naturally processing plants and refrigeration plants.
One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate
(PET).

In the ionic liquid piston compressor many seals and bearings were removed in the design as the
ionic liquid does not mix with the gas. Service life is about 10 times longer than a

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regular diaphragm compressor with reduced maintenance during use, energy costs are reduced
by as much as 20%. The heat exchangers that are used in a normal piston compressor are
removed as the heat is removed in the cylinder itself where it is generated. Almost 100% of the
energy going into the process is being used with little energy wasted as reject heat

The compressor in single and double stage reciprocating compressor are commercially available

 Single stage compressors are generally used for the pressure in the range of 70 N/mm 2 to
100 N/mm2
 Double stage compressor are generally used for higher pressure in the range of 100
N/mm2 to 250 N/mm2

The reciprocating air compressor is single acting when the compressing is accomplished using
only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double
acting. Load reduction is achieved by unloading individual cylinder typically this is
accomplished by throttling the suction pressure to the cylinder or by passing air either within or
outside the compressor. Capacity control is achieved by varying the speed in engine-driven unit
through fuel flow control. Reciprocating air compressor are available either as air cooled or
water cooled in lubricated and non-lubrication configuration and provide a wide range of
pressure capacity selection.

Figure 10: Air compressor with tank

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ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR
A rotary-screw compressor is a type of gas compressor that uses a rotary-type positive-
displacement mechanism. They are commonly used to replace piston compressors where large
volumes of high-pressure air are needed, either for large industrial applications or to operate
high-power air tools such as jackhammers.
The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping motion, so there is very
little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with piston compressors.
Since the cooling take place right inside compressor the working part never experience extreme
operation temperature. The rotary compressor, therefore is a continuous duty part air is cooled or
water cooled compressor package.
Rotary screw compressors are easy to maintain and operation. Capacity control for these
compressors is accomplished by varies speed and variable compressor displacement. For the
latter control technique, a slide valve opens bypassing a portion of the compressed air back to the
suction. Advantage of the rotary screw compressor include smooth pulse-free air output in a
compact size with high output volume over a long life

Figure 11: Oil free compressor

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Oil free rotary screw compressor utilizes special design air ends to compress air without oil in
the compression chamber yielding true oil free air. Oil free rotating screw air compressor are
available air cooled and water cooled and provide the flexibility as oil flooded rotaries when oil
free air is required

Operation

Rotary-screw compressors use two meshing helical screws, known as rotors, to compress the gas.
In a dry-running rotary-screw compressor, timing gears ensure that the male and female rotors
maintain precise alignment. In an oil-flooded rotary-screw compressor, lubricating oil bridges
the space between the rotors, both providing a hydraulic seal and transferring mechanical energy
between the driving and driven rotor. Gas enters at the suction side and moves through the
threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the
gas exits at the end of the screws.
The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on precisely fitting clearances between the
helical rotors and between the rotors and the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities.
However, some leakage is inevitable, and high rotational speeds must be used to minimize the
ratio of leakage flow rate over effective flow rate.

Size

Rotary-screw compressors tend to be compact and smoothly running with limited vibration, thus
not requiring spring suspension. Many rotary-screw compressors are, however, mounted using
rubber vibration-isolating mounts to absorb high-frequency vibrations, especially in rotary-screw
compressors that operate at high rotational speeds. Rotary-screw compressors are produced in
sizes that range in pumping speeds from 10 cubic feet per minute to several thousand CFM.
Rotary-screw compressors are typically used in applications requiring more airflow than is
produced by small reciprocating compressors but less than is produced by centrifugal compressor

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
In a centrifugal compressor, energy is transferred from a set of rotating impeller blades to the
gas. The designation “centrifugal” implies that the gas flow is radial, and the energy transfer is

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caused from a change in the centrifugal forces acting on the gas. Centrifugal compressors deliver
high flow capacity per unit of installed space and weight, have good reliability, and require
significantly less maintenance than reciprocating compressors. However, the performance
characteristic of centrifugal compressors is more easily affected by changes in gas conditions
than is the performance of reciprocating compressors. On this page, the performance
characteristic curve is presented with emphasis on process control of capacity by speed variation,
suction throttling, or variable inlet guide vanes. Process control to avoid operation in a damaging
surge condition is also addressed.

The physical size (diameter) of a centrifugal compressor is determined by the volumetric flow
rate at the inlet. The compression ratio (or head) determines the number of stages (length). The
rotating speed of a centrifugal compressor is an inverse function of diameter to maintain a
desired peripheral speed at the outer diameters of the impellers regardless of the physical size of
the compressor. Very large (i.e., high-volume) flow compressors may operate at speeds as low as
3,000 rpm. Conversely, low-volume flow compressors may operate at speeds up to 30,000 rpm.
Power requirement is related to mass flow, head, and efficiency. Depending on the particular
application, centrifugal compressor powers can range from as low as 500 hp (400 kW) to more
than 50,000 hp (40 MW).
At low volume flow rates, the width of the gas passages in a centrifugal compressor becomes
narrow, and the effects of friction become significant, resulting in reduced efficiency. For this
reason, reciprocating compressors often are more appropriate for low-volume flow applications.
For further discussion of this subject, see the section below on compressor selection
The API has produced an industry standard, API Standard 617, which is frequently used to
govern the design and manufacture of centrifugal compressors. A typical centrifugal compressor
package is shown in figure below. The compressor shown is mounted on a single base plate and
is driven by an electric motor.

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Figure 12: Centrifugal compressor

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 CHAPTER 6: LEVER SHEAR

A bench shear, also known as a lever shear, is a bench mounted shear with a compound
mechanism to increase the mechanical advantage. It is usually used for cutting rough shapes out
of medium sized pieces of sheet metal, but cannot do delicate work.  For the small shear, it
mostly designed for a wide field of applications. Light weight and easy efficient operation, yet
very sturdy in construction. The cutting blades fitted are carefully and accurately ground to give
easy, clean quick cuts, and free of burrs. These special features help the operators save a great
deal of their energy. But some shearing machines can cut sheet bar and flat bar up to 10mm. It is
electrically welded together to make it a sturdy stable unit capable to withstand highest stresses
due to heavy duty usage. The footplates are reinforced with bracing angles so that they give firm
stability to the shear. The machine is provided with section knives with sliding blades which can
be adjusted by hand to make 90 cuts on angles and T-sections of different sizes as well as with
openings for cutting round and square bars.

Figure 13: Lever Shear

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 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS
Pneumatic shearing machine is very cheap compared to hydraulic shearing machines. The range
of cutting thickness can be increased by arranging a high pressure compressor and installing
more hardened blades. The machine is advantageous to small sheet metal cutting industries as
they cannot afford the expensive hydraulic shearing machine, however, sheet more than 2 mm
thickness cannot cut easily.

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REFERENCES
o Khurmi, R. S., and J. K. Gupta. A textbook of machine design. Eurasia, 2005.
o Bhandari, V. B. Design of machine elements. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.
o Shigley, Joseph Edward. Shigley's mechanical engineering design. Tata McGraw-
Hill Education, 2011.
o Majumdar, S. R. Pneumatic systems: principles and maintenance. Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, 1996.
o Watson, Donald R., Kevin L. Woolbright, and Russell L. Schreiner. "Universal
pneumatic parts locating system." U.S. Patent No. 4,747,589. 31 May 1988.
o Singh, Rajender. Introduction to basic manufacturing processes and workshop
technology. New Age International, 2006.
o Smith, Graham T. Machine tool metrology: An industrial handbook. Springer, 2016.
o Marinescu, Ioan D., Constantin Ispas, and Dan Boboc. Handbook of machine tool
analysis. Vol. 144. CRC Press, 2002.
o Internet sites.

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