IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO.

7, JULY 2018 8104115

On-Load Back EMF of PMSM Using Maxwell Stress Tensor

Geyverson T. de Paula 1 , José Roberto B. de A. Monteiro2 , Bernardo P. de Alvarenga,1, Thales E. P. de
Almeida3 , William C. A. Pereira2 , and Marcelo P. de Santana4
1 School of Electrical, Mechanical and Computer Engineering, Federal University of Goiás, Goiás 74605-220, Brazil
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 13566-590, Brazil
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Technology–Paraná, Apucarana 86812-460, Brazil
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal Institute of São Paulo, São Paulo 18095-410, Brazil

This paper is focused on the on-load back-electromotive force (EMF) assessment in a permanent magnet synchronous machine
(PMSM) using Maxwell stress tensor along with the frozen permeability method (FPM). Although the back EMF is only measured
at open-circuit condition, it is known that the on-load back EMF is heavily affected by electric loading and magnetic saturation.
Since the main torque component of the PMSM is the mutual torque and it is based on the interaction between the back EMF
and stator current, any distortion in the on-load back EMF will affect the electromagnetic torque and increase the torque ripple.
A misleading on-load back-EMF waveform with some spikes around the commutation points is found if the on-load back EMF is
assessed by means of differentiating the on-load PM flux linkage. This way, this paper proposes a new numerical method to assess
the on-load back EMF in order to avoid all the shortcomings of the existing method. First of all, a quick review on the results
achieved by other researchers is shown. Next, a review on the FPM is done in order to clarify the points where this method will
be changed to overcome the drawbacks highlighted previously. Furthermore, a new method is introduced and explained in small
details. Finally, the results for different rotor configurations and different electrical loads are presented in order to validate the
proposed method’s accuracy against experiments and other numerical techniques.
Index Terms— Back electromotive force (EMF), frozen permeability method (FPM), Maxwell stress tensor (MST), permanent
magnet synchronous machine (PMSM).

I. I NTRODUCTION
 reluctance seen by rotor circuit (A/Wb);
D URING the last decades, permanent magnet synchronous
machines (PMSMs) have been assuring their place in
numerous applications (home, commercial, industrial, and
φM flux linkage due to magnets (Wb).

military applications) thanks to their advantageous character- The first part of (1) is known as reluctance torque and
istics such as high torque–volume ratio, high torque–current deals with the variation of the inductance value. The second
ratio, and high efficiency [1]–[6]. part of (1) is known as cogging torque and deals with the
However, in order to achieve these characteristics and interaction between the magnets and slot opening. The third
comply with all the application requirements, it is important component of (1) is known as mutual torque and deals
to pay special attention to some intrinsic machine char- with the interaction of armature current and back EMF,
acteristics (during the design process) which are directly the most valuable component of the electromagnetic torque
related to machine’s performance, reliability, and robustness: for PMSM.
cogging torque, back-electromotive force (EMF) waveform, The back-EMF waveform depends on the winding distri-
flux-linkage waveform, inductance, reluctance torque, etc. bution, air-gap flux density, flux-linkage waveform, slot–
Although all the intrinsic characteristics work together to pole ratio, load condition, and saturation effects on stator
develop torque and its waveform, the back EMF plays the teeth surface. Therefore, any back-EMF distortion due to the
most important role since its interaction with armature current electromagnetic saturation and/or electric load influences the
results in the major torque value in PMSM [1] electromagnetic torque, the average torque value, and the
1 dL 1 2 d dφM torque ripple. In addition, since the back EMF is a function
TEL = i 2 − φM +i (1) of some design parameters (e.g., tooth shoes, tooth width,
2 dθm 2 dθm dθm
tooth height, relative permeability of the rotor/stator material,
where number of coils, and turns per coil), it is important for machine
TEL electromagnetic torque (N · m); designers to figure out how the back-EMF waveform changes
i line current (A); whereas the electric load increases. Thus, the designer can act
θm mechanical rotor position (rad); on the aforementioned parameters to improve the back-EMF
L line inductance (H); waveform sensibility and machine’s performance in the early
stages of designing a new machine.
Manuscript received December 4, 2017; revised February 9, 2018; accepted
April 16, 2018. Date of publication May 15, 2018; date of current Along with the development of PMSM design techniques
version June 20, 2018. Corresponding author: G. T. de Paula (e-mail: throughout the years, numerous studies (as listed below) have
geyverson@gmail.com). been carried out in order to investigate the electromagnetic
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. saturation effects on PMSM parameters with the aid of the
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMAG.2018.2829692 frozen permeability method (FPM) [5]–[14].
0018-9464 © 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 8104115
A. PM Flux Linkage
The permanent magnet (PM) flux-linkage waveform and
its distortions have been widely discussed for a PMSM fed
with sinusoidal current in [5], [9]–[11], and [15], and it has
been shown that the electromagnetic saturation affects the PM
flux-linkage waveform. In addition, as shown in [16], where a
PMSM fed with square current is analyzed, the distortion in
PM flux-linkage waveform is also produced due to the influ-
ence of armature current waveform that introduces harmonics
in air-gap flux density.
B. Inductance
The electromagnetic saturation changes teeth relative
permeability (μr ) as the electric load increases. Chu and Zhu
[5], Tangudu et al. [9], Azar et al. [11], Schmidt and Susic
[12], Azar et al. [15], and Arellano-Padilla et al. [17] have
described their effects in the inductance behavior (waveform,
amplitude, average value, and frequency), mainly for sinu-
soidal current fed PMSM.
C. Cogging Torque
Some papers, including [5], [6], and [15], have demon-
strated that the cogging torque changes its waveform, ampli-
tude, and average value as the electric load condition
increases. In addition, different numerical techniques, mainly
Maxwell stress tensor (MST) and virtual work, have been
employed to evaluate this torque component. Chu and Zhu [5],
Tangudu et al. [9], Wu and Zhu [10], and Azar et al. [11], [15]
have found out that the results for average value of on-
load cogging torque assessed by means of the virtual work
method diverge from the MST method, since the first method
shows a zero-average torque value and the second shows a
non-zero average torque value, in both cases the machine
has been fed with an ideal sinusoidal current. It is worth
mentioning that although the authors of the aforementioned
papers have made some general statements that their results
could be applied for any kind of PM machine, nothing has
been demonstrated for a PMSM fed with a non-sinusoidal
armature current nor experimental results have been shown.
On the other hand, Paula et al. [18] have pointed out that a
non-sinusoidal armature current waveform results in a non-
zero average cogging torque value either it is assessed by
means of MST or virtual work methods.
D. Reluctance Torque
Due to the variations on inductance behavior noticed in
[5], [9], [11], [12], [15], and [17], reluctance torque has been
observed even though the machine under investigation is a
surface-mounted (SM) machine. (This has no salience on its
rotor.)
E. Electromagnetic Torque
After the evaluation of all the aforementioned parameters
and their distortion whereas the electric load increases, it is
possible to evaluate the electromagnetic torque and its oscil-
lation (ripple). The analysis of each parameter allows the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
machine designer to figure out the main sources of ripple
in electromagnetic torque. Most studies referenced here have
been carried out considering a sinusoidal current waveform,
and the simulations have been carried out with the aid of FPM
by means of the finite-element method (FEM) or magnetic
circuit model. On the other hand, there are some papers that
deal with the PMSM fed with a square current waveform [13],
[16], [18], [19] and do consider the saturation effects.
F. Back EMF
Since most papers (see [5], [6], [8], [9], [11],
[12], [14], [15], [20]–[24]) assume an ideal sinusoidal current
waveform, the distortions introduced in the flux density
along the air gap are usually based on the first harmonic
and do not consider the effects of higher order harmonics
that can change considerably the air-gap flux density and the
flux-linkage waveform, consequently. This way, for an ideal
sinusoidal current waveform feeding the machine, the on-load
PM flux linkage is a continuous and differentiable function
and, at least theoretically, the assessment of the on-load
back EMF by means of differentiating the on-load PM flux
linkage is a proper method even if there are some numerical
errors in PM flux linkage. However, the same statement
seems not to be true for a PMSM fed with a non-sinusoidal
current that includes high order harmonics. As pointed out by
Paula et al. [16], [25], a square current waveform can affect
the air-gap flux distribution which results in unexpected
on-load PM flux-linkage disturbance and, consequently,
a misleading on-load back-EMF waveform with some spikes
around the commutation points if this on-load back EMF is
assessed by means of differentiating on-load PM flux linkage.
Here, for sake of clarity, it is important to mention that
within the aforementioned papers that works with sinusoidal
current, there are some of them (see [10], [21]–[24]) that
have measured the on-load voltage distortion in a PMSM
from the machines’ coil terminals and illustrated some spikes
on the on-load voltage waveform. Since this measurement
procedure has been carried out from machines’ coil terminals,
the measured on-load voltage considers the total voltage, i.e.,
induced voltage (back EMF) + voltage dropped across the
coil resistance + voltage dropped across the coil inductance
(Ldi/dt). In that case, the spikes noticed in the on-load
terminal voltage are due to the voltage dropped across
the coil inductance at the commutation point. Therefore,
the on-load voltage may not be related purely to on-load back
EMF.
In this paper, the task of evaluating the saturation effects
in the on-load back EMF of a PMSM is accomplished with
the aid of FPM, which is widely known method to segregate
the flux contribution of PM and armature in the air gap and
to evaluate each torque component (mutual torque, cogging
torque, and reluctance torque).
The aim of this paper is to introduce a new and global
method to evaluate the on-load back EMF by means of MST
and FPM without the need to calculate the PM flux linkage
and its derivative. Therefore, the new method overcomes the
drawbacks related to the inaccuracy of differentiating the
 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST
Fig. 1. FPM.
on-load PM flux linkage avoiding numerical errors and a
misleading back-EMF waveform and decouples the inductance
effects on the on-load PM flux linkage, but still consider the
saturation and high harmonic order effects.
II. F ROZEN P ERMEABILITY M ETHOD
Since the advent of the FPM in the end of 1990 [7], new
opportunities in electrical machines’ design and analysis have
emerged. Basically, the FPM considers the electromagnetic
load for a chosen machine operating point (OP) over the stator
and rotor dc magnetization curve (i.e., B–H point, since the
stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic material), and then
the relative permeability at OP is evaluated and fixed (μOP )
(see Fig. 1).
Therefore, the sum of each flux density contribution (BPM -
frozen permeability (FP) for PM; Bi -FP for armature) results
in the flux density of OP (BOP ), whereas the sum of each flux
intensity contribution (HPM for PM; Hi for armature) still valid
and results in the flux intensity of OP (HOP ) [5]–[11], [15],
as shown in Fig. 1.
On the other hand, if the FP is not employed, the sum of
each flux density contribution (BPM , for PM; Bi, for armature)
does not result in the flux density of OP (BOP ), although the
summation of each flux intensity contribution (HPM , for PM;
Hi , for armature) results in the flux intensity of OP (HOP ).
As mentioned, with the aid of FPM, it is possible to
segregate the flux components and to employ the superposition
theorem.
The flowchart illustrated in Fig. 2 shows the simulation steps
required to perform the FPM in finite-element analysis, which
is described as follows.
1) Step 1: A no-load simulation, i.e., i A = i B = i C = 0
for 0 ≤ θe ≤ 2π (where θe is the rotor position in
electrical degree), is performed in order to evaluate the
no-load PM flux linkage, no-load back EMF, and
no-load cogging torque. These variables will be
compared to their on-load counterparts in order to assess
the distortions due to the electromagnetic saturation,
current waveform, and electrical load effects.
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8104115
Fig. 2. FPM flowchart.
2) Step 2: In this step, an on-load simulation is performed,
i.e., i A = i A (θe ), i B = i B (θe ), and i C = i C (θe )
for 0 ≤ θe ≤ 2π. Therefore, both PM and armature
are sources of flux in the PMSM. The simulations are
carried out to evaluate the electromagnetic torque and
its ripple. In the same way, for each rotor position (θe ),
the electromagnetic load condition (OP) is evaluated for
each mesh element.
3) Step 3: Based on the OP of each mesh element assessed
in STEP 2, the FPM is employed, and the relative perme-
ability of every element is frozen (fixed) and saved.
As mentioned, this process allows the flux segregation
and the analysis of each torque’s component.
4) Step 4: Now, using the linearized model for each rotor
position (θe ), it is possible to evaluate the contribution
of PM and armature current separately, i.e., it is possible
either to “turn-ON” PM and “turn-OFF” armature current
and evaluate the on-load PM flux linkage, on-load
back EMF, on-load mutual torque, and on-load cogging
torque, or to “turn OFF” PM and “turn ON” armature
current and evaluate the on-load armature flux linkage,
on-load inductance, and on-load reluctance torque. The
simulations carried out in this step do not change the
machine’s OP and do take into account the saturation
effects thanks to FP employed in STEP 3.
III. BACK EMF: C ONVENTIONAL M ETHOD
The back EMF is usually evaluated by the differentiation
of PM flux-linkage (φ M ) waveform according to the rotor
position as
dφ M
ephase = (2)
dθm
where ephase is the phase back EMF (normalized by mechan-
ical rotor speed).
 8104115
Fig. 3. Flux linkage and resultant back EMF for PMSM fed with square
current using (2).
As can be noticed in (2), if the PM flux-linkage waveform
is a continuous and differentiable function, (2) results in a
continuous function that is one order less accurate due to the
differentiation function. It is shown in [9], [11], and [15] that
for a PMSM fed with an ideal sinusoidal armature current,
the on-load PM flux linkage can be mostly considered a
continuous differentiable function with no abrupt variation
on its instantaneous values, and therefore the on-load back
EMF assessed by means of (2) is also considered a continuous
function.
Nevertheless, for a PMSM fed with a square arma-
ture current waveform, which has higher order harmonics,
the distortions introduced in the air-gap field density affect
reasonably the on-load PM flux linkage and, consequently,
the on-load back EMF assessed by means of (2). Thus, even
though the no-load PM flux-linkage waveform is a continuous
function, the on-load PM flux-linkage waveform can be a
piecewise function and can present an abrupt change near the
commutation point [16]. It is illustrated in Fig. 3; the on-
load PM flux linkage and its resultant on-load back EMF are
evaluated by means of (2) for a SM-PMSM fed with square
current waveform (six-step mode).
The same drawback has been found for a PMSM fed with a
current modulator pulsewidth modulation by Wu and Zhu [10],
pointing out that this problem extends for different current
waveforms and different current harmonic contents.
As pointed out in [13] and [19], although the solution for
the magnetic vector potential A has a satisfactory accuracy,
the solution for the flux density distribution B is one-order
less accurate, and then, since the PM flux linkage is evaluated
based on B and the back EMF is obtained by differentiating the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
flux-linkage waveform as in (2), it is two-order less accurate
than vector potential A.
Therefore, the evaluation of the on-load back EMF is
occurred from significant numerical errors, showing that (2)
is not appropriated for the on-load back-EMF calculation,
especially when the machine is fed with non-sinusoidal current
waveform.
A limited solution has been proposed in [16] in order
to overcome such drawback when it comes to the on-load
back EMF for a PMSM fed with square current waveform.
The proposed method evaluates the on-load PM flux linkage
as a piecewise function whose “pieces” are limited between
two commutation points. In this way, each “piece” is then
differentiated and, as a result, six partial on-load back EMFs
are assessed since there are six regions according to the six-
step mode. The resultant on-load back EMF is a piecewise
function composed by each piece of partial on-load back EMF
according to the rotor position [16]. Although it sounds reason-
able to solve the problem, it is restricted to PMSM fed with
square current waveform, and it is not a convincing solution
and presents an inherent error due to the intrinsic harmonic
filter employed to describe each piece of on-load PM flux-
linkage waveform. Another disadvantage is the computational
effort and the time required in the whole process to evaluate
the on-load back EMF, since it needs two simulation steps in
order assess the back EMF by means of (2). Therefore, this
method, as well as the conventional one, does not evaluate the
on-load back EMF properly.
It is worth mentioning that an inaccurate back-EMF assess-
ment affects the mutual torque assessment, and as a result,
it affects the estimation of on-load electromagnetic torque by
means of the summation of on-load mutual torque, on-load
reluctance torque, and on-load cogging torque. On the other
hand, if the on-load back EMF is properly evaluated, it can be
helpful during the design process since the machine designer
can change some design parameters (tooth tip, tooth width,
dummy slot, flux barriers, etc.) in order to keep the back-EMF
constant throughout the machine operating range and reduce
the torque ripple. Besides, when it comes to control strategies,
the acknowledgment of the on-load back EMF can improve
the performance of the machine and can help to achieve low
torque ripple and high efficiency.
Here, in this paper, it is proposed an accurate and convincing
solution for on-load back-EMF evaluation by means of FEM
with the aid of FPM and MST. The proposed method is,
therefore, referred to as on-load back-EMF MST, and is
suitable for any current waveform or back-EMF waveform.
IV. BACK EMF: M AXWELL S TRESS T ENSOR
(P ROPOSED M ETHOD )
As mentioned, the method proposed in this paper is called
on-load back-EMF MST method or simply back-EMF MST.
This method is the combination of the FPM and the MST.
According to the FPM, it is true
BOP = BPM-FP + Bi-FP
HOP = HPM-FP + Hi-FP . (3)
 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST 8104115

In addition, according to the MST method to evaluate the where the subscripts _A, _B, and _C represent the mutual
instantaneous electromagnetic torque over a closed surface in torque contribution of phases A, B, and C, respectively,
the middle of the air gap, it is true 
 lfe r 2 2π
lfe r 2 2π TMutual_ A = (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_ A )T dθ
TEL = (BOP ) R × (BOP )T dθ (4) μ0 0
μ0 0 
lfe r 2 2π
where the subscripts R and T are the radial and tangential + (Bi-FP_ A ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ (12)
μ0 0
components of the function delimited by the brackets, respec- 
lfe r 2 2π
tively, lfe is the active axial length of the electrical machine, TMutual_B = (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_B )T dθ
μ0 0
μ0 is the permeability of free space, r is the radius associated 
with the middle of the air gap. lfe r 2 2π
+ (Bi-FP_B ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ (13)
Applying (3) in (4) results as follows: μ0 0

 lfe r 2 2π
lfe r 2 2π TMutual_C = (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_C )T dθ
TEL = (BPM-FP + Bi-FP ) R × (BPM-FP + Bi-FP )T dθ. μ0 0
μ0 0 
(5) lfe r 2 2π
+ (Bi-FP_C ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ . (14)
μ0 0
Expanding the bracket contents, it leads to
 As mentioned, the mutual torque can also be expressed as
lfe r 2 2π a function of the interaction between the three-phase back
TEL = (BPM-FP ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ
μ0 0 EMFs and their corresponding phase current in the following

lfe r 2 2π equation:
+ (Bi-FP ) R × (Bi-FP )T dθ
μ
⎡ 0 20 ⎤ TMutual = i A (θe )e A (θe ) + i B (θe )e B (θe ) + i C (θe )eC (θe ) (15)
lfe r  2π
⎢ μ 0 (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP )T dθ ⎥ where θe is the electrical rotor position. Once again, it is worth
+⎢ ⎣
0 ⎥. (6)
⎦
lfer 2  2π remembering that the phase back EMFs expressed in (2) and
+ (Bi-FP ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ
μ0 0 (15) are normalized by mechanical rotor speed. Therefore, if
As can be noticed in (6), the electromagnetic torque is the expression (15) is multiplied by the rotor speed (ωm ),
composed by four components that can be summarized in three it results in the expression that relates the electrical power
major components as expressed by the following equations: and mechanical power in a PMSM.
 The expression described in (15) can be seen as (11) and
lfe r 2 2π results in the following equations:
TCog = (BPM-FP ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ (7)
μ0 0
 TMutual_ A = i A (θe )e A (θe ) (16)
lfe r 2 2π
TReluctance = (Bi-FP ) R × (Bi-FP )T dθ (8) TMutual_B = i B (θe )e B (θe ) (17)
μ0 0
 TMutual_C = i C (θe )eC (θe ). (18)
lfe r 2 2π
TMutual = (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP )T dθ
μ0 0 To simplify the analysis, let take just the phase A. The

lfe r 2 2π analysis for the other phases can be done in the same way.
+ (Bi-FP ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ. (9)
μ0 0 Thus, equaling (16) and (12), it will result in the following
The first torque component, expressed by (7), is known as equation:
cogging torque and deals with the interaction between PM
TMutual_ A = i A (θe )e A (θe )
edges and stator slot opening. The second torque component, 
expressed by (8), is known as reluctance torque and deals lfe r 2 2π
= (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_ A )T dθ
with the inductance variation. The third torque component, μ0 0

expressed by (9), deals with the interaction between PM flux lfe r 2 2π
+ (Bi-FP_ A ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ . (19)
and armature flux in the air gap, i.e., the interaction between μ0 0
back EMF and armature current, and it is widely known as
mutual torque. Since the machine model is already linearized in STEP 4
With the employment of FPM, it is possible to state that in of the flowchart illustrated in Fig. 2, it is possible to
the linearized model, the following expression is true: “mix” the results of the simulations of PM contribution
and armature contribution in a way that is feasible to
Bi-FP = Bi-FP_A + Bi-FP_B + Bi-FP_C (10) evaluate the contribution of only one phase. For example,
taking phase A as the phase under analysis, the PM
where the subscripts _A, _B, and _C represent the flux
contribution simulation is performed in the same way as
density contribution of phases A, B, and C, respectively. Now,
it is proposed in STEP 4 in Fig. 2, but the arma-
applying (10) in (9), it will result in the following equation
ture contribution is, now, performed considering only the
that can be divided in three components as (12), (13), and (14):
current of phase A that is constant and equal to 1 A for
TMutual = TMutual_ A + TMutual_B + TMutual_C (11) each simulation step. The other phases are kept constant

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 8104115
Fig. 4. Improved FPM flowchart for back-EMF MST.
and equal to zero. Therefore, applying i A (θe ) = 1,
for any θe , in (19), it results in the following equation:
 optimization.
lfer 2 2π
e A (θe ) = (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_A )T dθ
μ0 0
 contribution of back-EMF MST during a machine design and
lfe r 2 2π
+ (Bi-FP_ A ) R × (BPM-FP )T dθ. (20)
μ0 0
The proposed changing in the employment of FPM in order
to implement the back-EMF MST and evaluate the on-load
back EMF of phase A is summarized, as shown in Fig. 4. The
same procedure can be executed to evaluate phases B and C.
Besides, it can be suggested a variation of (20) based on
the Arkkio’s method [26] in order to overcome the drawbacks
related to the chosen integration path in the air gap for MST
calculation and the dependence of mesh density in the air gap.
This variation of (20) is expressed in the following equation:
 (as it is widely known). But now, with the aid of back-
lfe
e A (θe ) = r (BPM-FP ) R × (Bi-FP_A )T d S
μ0 (ro − ri )
S
 EMF MST formulation has either the tangential PM-only flux
lfe
+ r (Bi-FP_A ) R × (BPM-FP )T d S (21)
μ0 (ro − ri )
S to the mitigation of reluctance torque on PMSM since the
where ri is the inner radius of air gap, ro is the outer radius
of the air gap, and S is the cross-sectional area of the air gap.
The advantages of the back-EMF MST method lie on the
advantageous integrative process expressed by (20) and (21)
that has the same order of accuracy of the magnetic vector
potential A, avoid mathematical errors due to the derivative
process of (2), and, especially in (21), avoid local errors by
mitigating numerical errors due to the differentiation to B
from A. Another advantage lies on the computational effort
needed; the back-EMF MST method needs just one simulation
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
step to be assessed whereas the conventional way of evaluation
of back EMF, described by (2), needs two simulation steps;
this is very useful in early stages of machine design or in finite-
element–electric circuit-coupled analysis when computational
speed is required. Yet, in order to improve the accuracy of the
MST method in software that uses the first-order elements,
the Maxwell stress harmonic filter as described in [13] and [19]
can also be employed, avoiding local errors due to the current
harmonic content and improving the solution for flux density
vector B. In addition, the back-EMF MST method is easy to
be implemented by means of scripting language of any FEA
software. On the other hand, it must be highlighted that the
precision of back-EMF MST is related to the mesh density in
machine air gap.
Another point that can be highlighted is the novelty of
the back-EMF MST method, which differs from others’ inte-
grative approaches that are still used nowadays as described
in [1], [3], and [27]–[30], whereas the other methods basi-
cally consist in an integrative process of only the radial
PM flux density weighted by a winding factor (in order to
consider the deslotting effect), the back-EMF MST brings
more details of the saturation effects over the stator teeth
and consequently over the winding distribution, since there
are radial and tangential current flux densities describing this
effect as never before. Furthermore, it is important because
radial and tangential current flux density distribution exploit
the particularities of the saturation effects over every stator
tooth and provide a valuable insight for PMSM design and
The last point that must be highlighted is the significant
optimization process. Looking at back-EMF MST formula-
tion (20), it is possible to identify four flux density distribu-
tions: two radial (PM only and current only) and two tangential
(PM only and current only). These flux density distributions
affect not only the on-load back EMF but also affect the
production of cogging torque and reluctance torque in PM
machines as indicated in (7) and (8). One example of usage
that can be seen is the mitigation of cogging torque on PMSM,
where any existing technique (skewing, dummy slots, etc.)
works on minimizing the tangential PM-only flux density
distribution and, therefore, will also affect the back EMF
EMF MST, this effect is properly described since the back-
density distribution or the radial PM-only flux density distri-
bution. Furthermore, the same conclusion can be extended
tangential current-only flux density distribution and the radial
current-only flux density distribution are present in back-EMF
MST formulation. Of course, the machine designer should
pay attention on which of these flux density distributions are
more relevant to torque production, how they are affected by
electromagnetic load and how they interact to each other. All
the questions related to the usage of back-EMF MST during
machine design, and optimization process will not be described
in this paper since it is not the focus of this paper. However,
it can be seen as a future work.
 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST 8104115

TABLE I
M ACHINE ’ S D IMENSIONS

Fig. 5. Machine’s stator.

V. C ASE S TUDIES

In this section, three case studies are presented in order

Fig. 6. Rotor topologies under investigation. (a) SM with ferrite. (b) SM
to evaluate the performance of the back-EMF MST method with NdFeB. (c) Surface inset with NdFeB.
and a comparison with the conventional method is made to
figure out the advantages, disadvantages, and accuracy in the
TABLE II
on-load back-EMF calculation.
ROTOR C HARACTERISTICS
It is worth mentioning that even if a search coil is inserted
into the stator slots, the induced voltage measured in this
search coil will be affected by PM and armature flux,
i.e., affected by the resultant flux, and therefore, the measured
voltage cannot be used to evaluate the PM contribution to on-
load back EMF.
Although it is not possible to measure the PM contribution
to the on-load back EMF in a real machine’s voltage termi-
nals due to the influence of the inductance and the power
inverter/drive, the back-EMF calculation accuracy is evaluated
considering the electromagnetic torque assessment. Therefore,
after the calculation of the on-load back EMF by means of
conventional and MST methods, the mutual torque is then
calculated and summed up to the on-load reluctance and
cogging torques in order to result in the estimated electromag- Moreover, these current waveforms contribute to distortions in
netic torque. Then, it is compared with the electromagnetic air-gap flux (consequently, in the flux linkage and in the back
torque assessed by means of non-linear simulation and for EMF) thanks to the abrupt change in the current value after
Case 1, in particular, it is also compared with the experimental the phase commutation (high harmonic content).
torque. In addition, the proposed electric loads are 50%, 100%, and
The three case studies present the same stator and winding 200% that are 5, 10, and 20 A peak value. The load condition
distribution, as illustrated in Fig. 5, and their characteristics over 100% is not a usual condition of continuous operation
are described in Table I. for any electric machine; however, it has been considered to
All the machines are SM-PMSM, and the main difference illustrate the distortions occurred in the back EMF during a
between all the case studies lies on the rotor topology and on transient or a short fault when the machine is overloaded for
the magnet grade as shown in Fig. 6 and detailed in Table II. a short time.
For all cases, neither the stator nor the rotor is skewed; Therefore, with all these critical scenarios (high current,
hence, it is expected at least a minimum cogging torque that square current waveform, and high current harmonic content),
contributes to torque ripple. The square three-phase current it is possible to evaluate the performance and robustness of
waveforms illustrated in Fig. 7 are considered in the simula- the back-EMF MST method.
tion. Clearly, these current waveforms are an approximation The results are divide into no-load PM flux linkage for
for a real current waveform when the machine is running at phase A, no-load back EMF, on-load PM flux linkage for
low speed, and high current values can be drawn by armature phase A, on-load back EMF (conventional and MST methods),
in order to produce high torque values, such as stall torque. and on-load electromagnetic torque comparison. The results

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 8104115
Fig. 7. Square current waveform.
Fig. 8. No-load flux linkage: Case 1.
for on-load cogging torque (7), on-load reluctance torque
(8), and on-load mutual torque (15) are omitted because the
analyses of them are not the focus of this paper.
Case 1: The no-load PM flux linkage and the measured no-
load back EMF are illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
The on-load PM flux linkage, the on-load back EMF (conven-
tional method), and the on-load back EMF (MST method) are
illustrated in Figs. 10–12, respectively.
Differently from the conventional method, the on-load back-
EMF MST method carries the non-linearity of the back EMF
with the saturation effects accounted but with no spikes.
This influences the mutual torque waveform (15) (that is not
presented here) and, of course, the estimated electromagnetic
torque.
Fig. 13 shows a harmonic content comparison between
no-load back EMF, on-load back EMF by means of the
conventional assessment (2), and the on-load back-EMF MST
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
Fig. 9. No-load back EMF: Case 1.
Fig. 10. On-load flux linkage: Case 1.
Fig. 11. On-load back EMF (conventional method): Case 1.
for load condition of 20 A. As shown, the evaluation of the on-
load back EMF by means of (2) can cause a spectral leakage,
i.e., the spectrum spread across other frequencies. Even if a
low-pass filter is employed to mitigate the effect, the resultant
back-EMF waveform will not represent the real back EMF
since some important harmonic will also be affected by the
filtering process. On the other hand, the on-load back-EMF
MST is not occurred of such problem and does not need any
filtering process.
As can be noticed in Figs. 14–16, the estimated electro-
magnetic torque assessed considering the conventional on-
load back-EMF method (2) results in a torque waveform with
spikes around the commutation points (0°, 60°, 120°, 180°,
 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST
Fig. 12. On-load back EMF (MST method): Case 1.
Fig. 13. Harmonic content comparison (20 A): Case 1.
Fig. 14. Torque comparison (5 A): Case 1.
240°, 300°, and 360° electrical degree for phase A). Clearly,
these spikes are not present in the experimental torque (red
line in Figs. 14–16) nor in the estimated electromagnetic
torque based on the non-linear simulation (TEL ). Therefore,
it emphasizes the need for a method that evaluate the on-load
back EMF properly.
On the other hand, the on-load back-EMF MST method
shows a good accuracy compared to the electromagnetic torque
based on the non-linear simulation (TEL ).
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8104115
Fig. 15. Torque comparison (10 A): Case 1.
Fig. 16. Torque comparison (20 A): Case 1.
The maximum relative error between TEL and the estimated
electromagnetic torque based on the on-load back-EMF MST
method is around 0.1%, showing a good agreement between
these two waveforms. Another advantage of the on-load back-
EMF MST method that must be highlighted is the no need for
PM flux-linkage evaluation.
Case 2: The no-load PM flux linkage and the no-load back
EMF are illustrated in Figs. 17 and 18, respectively. The on-
load PM flux linkage, the on-load back EMF (conventional
method), and the on-load back EMF (MST method) are
illustrated in Figs. 19–21, respectively.
Once again, similar to Case 1, the conventional method to
evaluate the on-load back EMF fails, and as a result, there are
some spikes in the on-load back-EMF waveforms. The on-load
back-EMF MST method does not show the same problem.
Fig. 22 shows a harmonic content comparison between
no-load back EMF, on-load back EMF by means of the
conventional assessment (2), and the on-load back-EMF MST
 8104115
Fig. 17. No-load flux linkage: Case 2.
Fig. 18. No-load back EMF: Case 2.
Fig. 19. On-load flux linkage: Case 2.
for load condition of 20 A. As shown, the evaluation of the on-
load back EMF by means of (2) can cause a spectral leakage.
On the other hand, the on-load back-EMF MST is not occurred
of such problem does not need any filtering process.
When it comes to torque results, as shown in
Figs. 23–25, the estimated electromagnetic torque based
on the conventional back-EMF method shows, again, some
spikes around the commutation points, whereas the estimated
electromagnetic torque based on the back-EMF MST method
shows a good agreement with TEL .
Case 3: The no-load PM flux linkage and the no-load back
EMF are illustrated in Figs. 26 and 27, respectively. The
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
Fig. 20. On-load back EMF (conventional method): Case 2.
Fig. 21. On-load back EMF (MST method): Case 2.
Fig. 22. Harmonic content comparison (20 A): Case 2.
on-load PM flux linkage, the on-load back EMF (conventional
method), and the on-load back EMF (MST method) are
illustrated in Figs. 28–30, respectively.
Here, in Case 3, the scenario is somehow “noisier” than
Cases 1 and 2 since the reluctance torque is considerable [see
Fig. 6(c)] and the no-load back EMF presents some “ripple”
yet. Along with the high current, square current waveform, and
high current harmonic content, this scenario puts to test the
on-load back-EMF MST method and can prove the capability
and robustness of this proposed method.
 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST 8104115

Fig. 23. Torque comparison (5 A): Case 2. Fig. 25. Torque comparison (20 A): Case 2.

Fig. 26. No-load flux linkage: Case 3.

Fig. 24. Torque comparison (10 A): Case 2.

As can be noticed, similar to Cases 1 and 2, the conven-

tional on-load back-EMF evaluation method fails and presents
some spikes in the back-EMF waveform (see Fig. 29). These
spikes as mentioned affect the mutual torque and estimated
electromagnetic torque assessment. As known, these spikes
have no correspondence to any experimental torque waveform
as proved in Case 1.
Fig. 27. No-load back EMF: Case 3.
The robustness and capability of the on-load back-EMF
MST method can be seen in Fig. 30 where the on-load back-
EMF waveform is properly described, whereas the electric
load increases. Once again, the on-load back-EMF MST is not occurred of
Fig. 31 shows a harmonic content comparison between such problem does not need any filtering process.
no-load back EMF, on-load back EMF by means of the Furthermore, the results for estimated electromagnetic
conventional assessment (2), and the on-load back-EMF MST torque based on the back-EMF MST method show a good
for load condition of 20 A. As shown, the evaluation of the on- accuracy when its waveform is compared with the TEL (see
load back EMF by means of (2) can cause a spectral leakage. Figs. 32–34).

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 8104115 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018

Fig. 28. On-load flux linkage: Case 3. Fig. 31. Harmonic content comparison (20 A): Case 3.

Fig. 29. On-load back EMF (conventional method): Case 3.

Fig. 32. Torque comparison (5 A): Case 3.

Fig. 30. On-load back EMF (MST method): Case 3.

Therefore, as seen and proved for Cases 1, 2, and 3,

the proposed method, here referred to as on-load back-
EMF MST, is capable of evaluate the on-load back EMF
with high accuracy and with no need of PM flux-linkage
evaluation.

VI. F INITE -E LEMENT–E LECTRIC C IRCUIT-C OUPLED

S IMULATION
Fig. 33. Torque comparison (10 A): Case 3.
As can be noticed, the experimental and simulation results
presented in Section V have been made and carried out with
a static approach. This way, some effects that depend on due to phase commutation, may be omitted and, therefore,
time or speed changing, such as inductance changing over a could raise some doubt about the robustness, capability, and
commutation point or due to rotor position and speed changing precision of the back-EMF MST method.

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 DE PAULA et al.: ON-LOAD BACK EMF OF PMSM USING MST
Fig. 34. Torque comparison (20 A): Case 3.
Fig. 35. On-load back EMF: 200 rpm and 4 N · m.
Fig. 36. On-load back EMF: 200 rpm and 8 N · m.
In order to demonstrate the efficacy of the back-EMF MST
method, two finite-element–electric circuit-coupled simula-
tions have been carried out. The first one is carried out with a
target speed of 200 rpm with shaft load about 4 and 8 N · m.
The second is carried out with a target speed of 500 rpm with
shaft load about 4 and 8 N · m. The machine considered in
both simulations is the same machine presented in Case 1,
and therefore the load condition of 4 N · m will require about
10 A peak (100% of electric load) and the load condition of
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8104115
Fig. 37. Torque comparison: 200 rpm and 4 N · m.
Fig. 38. Torque comparison: 200 rpm and 8 N · m.
Fig. 39. On-load back EMF: 500 rpm and 4 N · m.
8 N · m will require about 20 A peak (200% of electric load).
The time step is 5 × 10−5 s.
For the first simulation, the speed normalized on-load back
EMF (conventional method) and the on-load back EMF (MST
method) are illustrated in Figs. 35 and 36 and compared with
the no-load back EMF for the 4 and 8 N · m of load condition,
respectively.
A similar spectral leakage presented in the static approach
can be noticed in the time-step simulation when the conven-
tional assessment is employed. On the other hand, the back-
EMF MST does not present the same problem and will not
affect the torque estimation.
The results for estimated electromagnetic torque based on
the back-EMF MST method show a good accuracy when its
waveform is compared with the TEL (see Figs. 37 and 38).
 8104115
Fig. 40. On-load back EMF: 500 rpm and 8 N · m.
Fig. 41. Torque comparison: 500 rpm and 4 N · m.
Fig. 42. Torque comparison: 500 rpm and 8 N · m.
For the second simulation, speed normalized on-load back
EMF (conventional method) and the on-load back EMF (MST
method) are illustrated in Figs. 39 and 40 and compared with
the no-load back EMF for the 4 and 8 N · m of load condition,
respectively.
Similar to the first simulation and to the static approach
results, the results for estimated electromagnetic torque based
on the back-EMF MST method show a good accuracy when
its waveform is compared with the TEL (see Figs. 41 and 42).
Therefore, as well as for Cases 1, 2, and 3 (static approach),
the proposed method is capable of evaluating the on-load back
EMF with high accuracy (with no need of PM flux-linkage
evaluation) when employed on finite-element–electric circuit-
coupled simulation, where numerous effects that depend on
time and speed are present. Furthermore, the maximum error
is lower than 0.1%.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2018
VII. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, a new method to assess the on-load back
EMF on PMSM has been presented. The proposed method,
called back-EMF MST, is based on the FPM and on the
MST. As shown in Section IV and in the flowchart illustrated
in Fig. 4, the back-EMF MST method does not require another
step in simulations using FPM, but only a different condition
in the fourth step, according to the flowchart presented in
Figs. 3 and 4. Furthermore, thanks to the MST and with the
aid of the linearization provided by the FPM, it is possible to
assess the on-load back EMF on PMSM with no dependence of
armature current waveform, differently from previous studies
referenced in this paper. In addition, the accuracy is higher
than the conventional method of assessment of back EMF that
is guaranteed by means of the integrative process expressed by
(20), which has the same order of accuracy of the magnetic
vector potential A and avoid local errors due to the current
harmonic content. In addition, it is easy to be implemented by
means of scripting language of any FEA software. As illus-
trated and explained, the experimental and simulation results
have proved the method accuracy.
Future works should deal with the employment of the back-
EMF MST method in other machines taking into account
their own characteristics. Furthermore, the analysis of the on-
load back-EMF components expressed in (20) can bring some
important light on the design process since it can relate the
saturation effects to each stator tooth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by Brazilian National Council
for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) under
Grant 142331/2013-9.
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Geyverson T. de Paula was born in Goiânia, Brazil, in 1988. He received
the B.E., master’s, and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil,
in 2011, 2013, and 2016, respectively.
He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with the School of
Electrical, Mechanical and Computing Engineering, Federal University of
Goiás, Goiânia. His current research interests include electrical machines,
permanent magnet machines, finite-element method, and power electronics.
José Roberto B. de A. Monteiro was born in Piracicaba, Brazil, in 1972.
He received the B.E., master’s, and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from the University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil, in 1994, 1997, and
2002, respectively.
He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with the São Carlos
School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, where he lectures the
disciplines of power electronics and electrical drives. His current research
interests include electrical machines, power electronics, control theory, and
filtering.
Bernardo P. de Alvarenga was born in Uberaba, Brazil, in 1966. He received
the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Brasilia,
Brasília, Brazil, in 1990, the master’s degree in electrical engineering from
the Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlândia, Brazil, in 1993, and the
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of São Paulo,
São Carlos, Brazil, in 2004.
He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with the School
of Electrical, Mechanical and Computing Engineering, Federal University
of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil. His current research interests include electrical
machines and power electronics.
Thales E. P. de Almeida was born in Santa Bárbara d’Oeste, Brazil, in 1989.
He received the B.E., master’s, and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from the São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São
Carlos, Brazil, in 2011, 2014, and 2017, respectively.
He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with the Federal
University of Technology–Paraná, Brazil. His current research interests
include electrical machinery and power electronics and controls.
William C. A. Pereira was born in Bandeirantes, Paraná, Brazil, in 1989.
He received the B.E. degree in technology in industrial automation from the
Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil, in 2012, and
the master’s and Ph.D. degrees from the São Carlos School of Engineering,
University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil, in 2014 and 2018, respectively.
His current research interests include power electronics, electrical drive
systems, and control of electric machines.
Marcelo P. de Santana was born in São Paulo, Brazil, in 1985. He received
the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from the Federal University of Mato
Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Brazil, in 2008, and the master’s and Ph.D.
degrees from the São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo,
São Carlos, Brazil, in 2012 and 2017, respectively.
He is currently a Professor with the Federal Institute of São Paulo,
São Paulo. His current research interests include neural networks, doubly fed
induction generator, identification methods, and control design for electrical
drives.