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Published in IET Electric Power Applications

Received on 10th June 2009
Revised on 6th August 2009
doi: 10.1049/iet-epa.2009.0139

ISSN 1751-8660

Computation of additional losses due to rotor

eccentricity in electrical machines
A. Belahcen A. Arkkio
Department of Electrical Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 3000, 02015 TKK, Finland
E-mail: anouar.belahcen@tkk.fi

Abstract: This study investigates the effect of eccentric rotor on the power losses in electrical machines. The
investigations are carried out for an induction machine with PWM-voltage supply and in the cases of dynamic
and static eccentricity. The time-stepping two-dimensional finite element method, with coupled field and
circuit equations, is used for the simulations. The iron losses are computed through a dynamic loss model. It
is shown that the operation of the machine under eccentricity fault results in an increase of both resistive
and iron losses. Further the eccentricity causes additional torque modulation and unbalance magnetic pull
that result in additional bearing friction losses and wearing.

1 Introduction study on the effect of eccentricity on the power losses in

With the ever increasing need for energy saving, designers of
electrical machines have been exploring many possibilities
to manufacture energy-efficient machines. Nowadays, this
is being achieved by optimising the machine design with
respect to power losses while keeping the manufacturing
and material costs at a reasonable level. On the other hand,
the role of the users of these machines is being emphasised
too. The efficient use of the machine is being achieved,
among others, by increasing the use of frequency converters
and other energy conditioning devices. One of the
unexplored fields in this respect is the effect of extended
use of faulty machines on the losses, especially eccentric-
rotor machines.
Owing to manufacturing tolerances and aging of the
electrical machines, they always present a certain amount of
eccentricity. The rotor eccentricity of induction machines
has been studied from many points of view, although the
emphasis was on the methods to detect the eccentricity at
the early stage and in relation with condition monitoring
of electrical machines. However, in some cases more than
50% eccentric machines are allowed to operate in many
fields of industry as a means to reduce maintenance costs.
However, this may lead to an increase in the operation cost
through increased energy losses and decreased efficiency of
the machine and the frequency converter. An extensive
electrical machines is obviously missing from the literature.
The goal of this paper is to fill this gap by presenting the
methods required to perform such a study and the results
of applying it to a small-size induction machine. More
similar investigations on other machine types and sizes are
still needed to form a complete picture of the problem.
The problems related to eccentric-rotor electrical machines
have been studied for more than a century [1– 8]. All these
studies were concerned with the unbalance magnetic pull
(UMP) and were mainly based on analytical methods
(rotating field theory). The analytical analysis is a fruitful
method as it gives an insight into the causes and effects and
allows the designer to act on different design parameters to
achieve a given goal. Recently, the same problems were
studied once again but the investigation tools changed from
analytical to numerical ones as reluctance networks and
finite element method (FEM) [9– 16]. The use of FEM
allowed more accurate analysis of the eccentricity and
broadened the area of study to the investigation of conical
eccentricity, winding design, iron saturation and control
considerations. In previous works [17, 18], we also studied
the possibility of detecting static and dynamic eccentricity
from the vibrations of induction motors with an emphasis
on its use in condition monitoring. However, none of the
above authors paid any attention to the problem of increased
power losses because of the eccentricity.

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In this paper, we investigate the effect of static and dynamic
eccentricity on the losses in an induction motor fed from
sinusoidal and PWM voltage sources. The investigation
method is described and the results from extensive
simulations are presented. The core losses are computed
with a novel method [19] that allows for time tracking of
these losses. This is very important if we want to access the
phenomena behind the increasing losses in the iron core of
the machine. The losses are separated into core and resistive
losses in both the stator and rotor of the machine. Different
levels of eccentricity are simulated. Furthermore, the total
forces acting on the eccentric rotor are presented for the
reader to obtain an estimate of the increased friction losses.
Although a better estimate of the iron losses can be
achieved with a dynamic hysteresis model of the magnetic
material incorporated into finite element (FE) routines
[20], this option has not been used in this paper for two
reasons. It requires a huge computation time and it is not
possible to apply it in other commercial software. This last
option is an essential condition for the methods presented
here to be applied by other designers using commercial FE
software and not developing their own as is the case in
most manufacturing industry.
2 Computational model
2.1 Time stepping FE
In this study, the magnetic field in the cross-section of the
electrical machine is calculated using the two-dimensional
(2D) FEM with the time-stepping scheme. The FEM is
based on the A  F formulation of the magnetic field (A is
the magnetic vector potential and F the reduced scalar
potential) and the Crank– Nicholson method is used for
time integration. The electrical machine is treated as a
quasi-static magnetic system. The equation to be solved in
the cross-section geometry of the machine is
@A
r  (nr  A) ¼ s  srF (1)
@t
In the simulations of an electrical machine, the stator and
rotor cores are made of laminations and their conductivities
are set to zero so that the right-hand term of (1) is null.
The reluctivity of iron, n is a non-linear function of the
magnetic vector potential, it is given in the program as a
cubic spline of the square of the amplitude of the magnetic
flux density vector. In conductors such as the rotor bars
and stator windings, the reluctivity is that of vacuum and
the gradient of the scalar potential can be defined as
u
rF ¼  ez (2)
l
where u is the voltage over the conductor and l the conductor
length. Integrating the current density over the cross-section
of the conductors leads to a relation between the voltage u,
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the total current through it i, and its dc-resistance R
ð
@A
u ¼ Ri þ R s dS (3)
S @t
The windings and rotor cage circuit equations are formed by
applying Kirchhoff’s laws and (3). The field in the end
windings is modelled by constant impedances in the circuit
equations. The circuit equations are simultaneously solved
with the field equations. A simplifying assumption is made
on the current density in the stator winding that is assumed
to be uniform on each coil side. This is justified by the use of
parallel and series connected thin wires to manufacture such a
winding. If the stator winding is form-wound, the method
proposed in [21] is preferable. This method has not been
applied here for the above-mentioned reasons. A complete
description of the FE model used in this work is given in [22].
The above equations are discretised in space and time.
The obtained non-linear system of equations is then solved
iteratively using Newton – Raphson iteration method.
2.2 Motion and eccentricity
The field and winding circuit equations are written for the stator
and rotor separately and each in its own reference frame. The
field equations are then forced to match in the air gap through
additional air gap equations that are solved simultaneously
with the other cross-sectional equations. The motion of the
rotor is modelled by re-creating the mesh in the air gap after
rotating the rotor with an angle proportional to the time step
and speed. This procedure makes it possible to keep the same
mesh in both the stator and rotor, whereas only the air gap
mesh is changed from step to step. The algorithm for
meshing the air gap after each time step is rather simple
because of the regular geometry of the machine and the fact
that the nodes on the boundary of the air gap (stator and rotor
sides) are prescribed. The eccentricity of the rotor (Fig. 1) is
simulated by either moving the rotor or the stator mesh with
a fixed displacement from its original position to obtain,
respectively, dynamic and static eccentricity. Thus the only
affected part of the models mesh is still the air gap.
2.3 Forces and torque
The total force acting on the eccentric rotor at each time step
is computed in x- and y-component form. The computation
is based on the method of local Jacobian derivative [23],
where a given component of the force is
X ð  T 1 @G ð kH k
T 1 @jGj

Fu ¼ B G Hþ B dH jGj dV
airgap Ve @u 0 @u
elements
(4)
with G is the Jacobian matrix for the transformation from the
reference element to the actual one, jGj its determinant, and u
stands for either x or y. H and B are, respectively, the magnetic
field strength and the magnetic flux density vectors. Detailed
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qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
In (7) – (9), kBk ¼ Bx2 þ By2 is the amplitude of the flux
density vector and u ¼ arctg(By =Bx ) is its angular position.
Bs is the saturation flux density. @ stands for an
infinitesimal variation of the quantities and kc , ke , kh , kr
and b are constants of the material that describe different
loss phenomena.

The power losses are estimated from the energy losses by

Figure 1 Illustration of the static and dynamic eccentricity
When the rotor rotates around its geometrical axis (left), the
eccentricity is static, whereas the eccentricity is dynamic if the
rotor rotates around any other axis (right) while displaced from
the centre axis of the stator. In electrical machines, both
eccentricities coexist
implementation of (4) is given in [23]. A similar equation based
on the method of local Jacobian derivative from [23] is also used
for the computations of the electromagnetic torque.
2.4 A posteriori loss model
The electromagnetic loss in the windings and cores of the
electrical machine are computed step by step from the field
solution and the current densities at each time step. The
resistive winding losses are naturally taken into account in
the field solution because of the coupling between the field
and circuit equations, whereas the core losses are not. This
is an a posteriori core loss computation.
The winding losses are calculated from the computed
current density J as
ð 2
J
Pcu ¼ dw (5)
w s
The core losses are separated into three components, namely
the classical eddy-current, the alternating excess and the
hysteresis losses. The hysteresis losses include a part that is
related to rotational losses.
The core-loss computation model is presented in [19].
The model is based on energy considerations; thus the
energy lost in the iron core of the machine when the flux
density vector undergoes an infinitesimal variation @B is
dividing by @t and integrating over the volume of the iron
core. In the 2D model, the integration is made over the
cross-sectional area and multiplied by the axial length of
the machine.
The methods for field solution presented above have been
previously validated through extensive measurements on a
37 kW cage induction machine fed from sinusoidal and
voltage source frequency converter [22]. The method
for loss computation has also been validated through
measurements on the same machine under different
supply and load conditions [19]. As an example of these
validations, the comparison between the computed and
measured total losses of the machine under no-load (NL)
and full-load (FL) and at different supplies and frequencies
(sinusoidal and frequency converter) is given in Fig. 2.
Some differences between measurements and computations
are naturally present and can be attributed to many reasons
(inaccuracy of the field solution because of the 2D
approach, limited accuracy of the measurements mainly
because of the difficulties related to friction losses etc.).
However, regarding all the assumptions, the agreement
between measurements and computations is rather
encouraging.
3 Computational results
A 35 kW induction machine with the parameters shown in
Table 1 has been simulated using the methods described
above. The goal of the simulations was to assess the effect
of the eccentricity on different working quantities such as

@w ¼ @wc þ @we þ @wh (6)

where the classical eddy current, the alternating excess and

the hysteresis energy losses are, respectively
 
@B
@wc ¼ kc  
 @t k@Bk (7)

 
@kBk 1=2

@we ¼ ke   j@kBkj (8) Figure 2 Comparison between the computed total losses
@t  and measured ones at different voltage sources,
loads and frequencies (NL ¼ no-load, FL ¼ full-load,
1  (kBk=Bs )
@wh ¼ kh kBkj@kBkj þ kr kBkj@uj (9) sin ¼ sinusoidal voltage supply and fc ¼ frequency
1þ b(1  (kBk=Bs ))2 converter voltage supply)

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Table 1 Parameters of the simulated induction machine

Parameter Value Unit

rated power 35 kW
rated voltage 400 V
rated current 64 A
rated slip 3 %
rated frequency 100 Hz
number of poles 4
number of stator slots 48
number of rotor bars 40
Figure 4 Total losses against static and dynamic
connection star
eccentricity levels
Similar trends are visible. The dynamic case shows less loss than
currents, voltages, torque, efficiency and losses both in the the corresponding static one
windings and iron cores. All the simulations are made with
the machine at FL (3% slip). computation, (4) was applied in a one-layer air gap mesh.
The computation of the torque was also carried out on a
In the simulations the machine was fed from a PWM-like single layer air gap mesh. The stator, rotor and air gap
voltage supply generated by the conventional comparison of meshes are shown in Fig. 3. Inserts are added with
the sinusoidal 100 Hz fundamental wave and the triangular zooming at the location of the shortest and longest air gap
carrier wave of 6 kHz. Before the comparison, the third in the case of maximum eccentricity (70%). The regularity
harmonic (300 Hz) with amplitude equal to the sixth of of the air gap mesh even at large eccentricities justifies our
the fundamental harmonic was injected into the use of single layer for the force and torque computations.
fundamental wave to cancel some of the high harmonics
from the final supply wave (this is a feature used by many The computed total losses as function of the eccentricity
manufacturers of PWM frequency converter). To obtain level are shown in Fig. 4 and the efficiency in Fig. 5. The
a steady state as quickly as possible, the time harmonic time-varying eddy-current losses in the iron core of the
approach was used to compute the initial field in the stator are shown in Fig. 6. The peaks in the eddy-current
machine. Further, during the first period of the losses are due to the abrupt change in the amplitude of the
computations, the PWM supply voltage was modulated by voltage supply. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 7, where
a sinusoidal wave of the same frequency as the fundamental the amplitude of the voltage space vector is correlated with
one to minimise the computational transients. A total of the eddy-current losses of the stator. A low value of the
four periods corresponding to 40 ms was computed from voltage results in low values of the field in the machine and
which the results of the two last periods are presented here. thus low eddy-current losses. The increase of the voltage
The simulations solved for the currents and torque among over the rated one results in high values of the field that
other quantities of the machine. For the purpose of forces causes saturation and high values of the eddy-current

Figure 3 Stator, rotor and air gap meshes

A zoom in of the air gap mesh at the smallest and largest locations is shown to justify the use of single layer for the force and torque
computation as well as to exclude the possibility of mesh induced artefacts in the loss computation

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Figure 5 Efficiency of the simulated machine under
different eccentricities
Similar trends can be observed here also with the static case being
more severe
Figure 6 Eddy-current losses in the stator iron core for non-
eccentric rotor and different eccentricity cases as function
of time
Although the trends are the same, a severe increase at some
instants of time can be observed. The presence of the peaks is
explained below in Fig. 7
Figure 7 Correlation of the eddy-current losses in the stator
core with the amplitude of the space vector of the supply
voltage
The machine was fed by PWM at full load in the presence of
no eccentricity. Low-voltage level results in decreased losses,
whereas high-voltage levels result in saturation and increased
losses
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losses. The separation of losses has been performed in [24].
The losses have been separated to stator resistive and iron
as well as rotor resistive and iron losses. Furthermore, the
iron losses have been separated into their different
components, namely eddy-current, hysteresis and excess
losses. The effects of eccentricity on torque and current
modulation have been presented in [24] too. Fig. 8 shows
different components of the UMP as a function of time.
For these results, the computations were continued up to
(11) and (16) periods of the supply, respectively, for static
and dynamic eccentricity. Indeed, owing to the slip, the
relative position of the minimum air gap and the rotating
field is varying continuously; thus a better picture of the
UMP, especially in the case of dynamic eccentricity, is
reached after the simulation of a large number of periods.
Fig. 9 shows the loci of the total force acting on the
eccentric rotor and its trajectory from the beginning to the
end of the computations for both dynamic and static
eccentricity at a level of 10%. The increase of the rotor
force with eccentricity is what causes bearing friction losses
and wearing. At the beginning of the computations for
Figs. 8 and 9, the rotor was displaced gradually from its
centre position to its final position or orbit during the first
period of the supply. This procedure reduces the
computational transient and enhanced the steady-state
accuracy, but it also means that the results of the first
computation period are meaningless. Fig. 10 shows the
difference in the computed torque between the case of
non-eccentric machine and the case when the machine was
operating at 60% dynamic eccentricity. These results have
been obtained by subtracting the computed torque at the
two cases from each other. A modulation of the torque is
observed, although the average change in the torque is
almost zero. This means that although the performance of
the machine in terms of torque is not affected by the
eccentricity, this latter causes undesirable torque oscillations
that might produce vibrations and acoustic noise.
Figure 8 Force components acting on the rotor of the
machine under 10% static and dynamic eccentricity
operation at FL
In the case of static eccentricity the force keeps in the same
direction but in the case of dynamic eccentricity the direction of
the force depends on the rotor position (this is better seen in
Fig. 9)
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Figure 9 Loci of the force acting on the rotor (left) and trajectory of the rotor centre (right) for different eccentricities
The simulations were started with the rotor at its centre position then gradually displaced to its final position or orbit. Although the rotor
was displaced along the x-axis, the static eccentricity produced forces on the y-axis too because of the slip
Figure 10 Difference in the electromagnetic torque
between the cases of non-eccentric rotor and 60% static
eccentricity (the rated torque is 115 Nm)
Strong modulation of the torque is seen but the average change in
the torque is almost zero. In the case of dynamic eccentricity, the
modulation is less pronounced but a net average torque is seen
[24]
4 Discussion
The same machine simulated in this work has been used in
the previous work related to the condition monitoring of
the machine through vibration analysis [17, 18]. In
that work, measurements were made to validate the
computation results. However, the measurement of the
losses under healthy and faulty machine were not possible
to carry out because of the sensitivity of the accuracy of
such measurements to different factors and because of the
fact that these measurements need extensive use of the
machine under faulty condition that would result in
destroying it. The validation of the methods presented here
is done on another healthy machine and extended to the
faulty cases.
The computation results presented above show that
the operation of the machine under eccentric condition
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will produce additional losses and cause UMP that
contribute to the aging of the machine and reduce its
lifetime. Moreover, the efficiency of the machine will be
reduced resulting in increased energy costs. The computed
efficiency in Fig. 5 represents only the electromagnetic
one. The actual reduction in the efficiency is much higher
because of the increase in the bearing losses with increasing
UMP. The friction losses are difficult to estimate even in
the case of healthy machine and present one of the sources
of errors in the measurements of NL losses [25].
The torque and current fluctuations are small additional
stresses for the machine windings and shaft, but they
may have severe effect on the operation of the frequency
converter. On the one hand, the current modulations
may need to be taken into account by oversizing the
frequency converter, which is an expensive solution. On the
other hand, the control software of the frequency converter
may work in an erroneous way when estimating the
operation quantities of the machine. This last issue is very
important in sensorless control of induction machine,
where different estimators and algorithms have been
designed under the assumption of symmetrical (non-
eccentric) machine.
The UMP because of 10% static eccentricity is about half
of the rotor weight (Fig. 9). One can speculate on whether
this could be used intentionally to magnetically support the
rotor of the machine and thus reduce the mechanical stress
on the bearing because of the rotor weight (this method
has been used for a while by some manufacturers but it has
been discarded later). The manufacturing tolerance cannot
guarantee the accurate positioning of the rotor and control
of the static eccentricity. In machines with small ratio
between the rotor radius and air gap length, less than 10%
eccentricity is achievable but in other machines with
relatively small air gap and large rotor radius this is not
possible because of manufacturing tolerances.
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5 Conclusion
The paper presented methods for simulating eccentric rotor
electrical machines and estimating additional losses and
other harmful quantities because of static and dynamic
eccentricity. The methods have been applied to the
simulation of an eccentric induction machine and related
results have been presented. Although these results are
logical and in accordance with the present knowledge and
state-of-art, they cannot be generalised without extensive
analysis of machines of different types and sizes. We
believe that such an analysis and a statistical handling of
its results will generate new knowledge in the fields of
engineering related to electrical machines.
6 Acknowledgment
This study was accomplished as a part of the research project
KOMASI financed by the Finnish Funding Agency for
Technology and Innovation (TEKES) diary no. 852/31/05.
The author gratefully thanks the Agency for the financial
support.
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