Lecture Notes for Advanced Dynamics

(MEAM535)
Chapter 1
Michael A. Carchidi
August 20, 2012

Some Introductory Remarks

The following notes are written by Dr. Michael A. Carchidi at the University
of Pennsylvania for the purpose of teaching the contents covered in the MEAM535
- Advanced Dynamics Course.

Appendices A through E, inclusive, have been written for the student to re-
view before the course begins. Some of the material in these appendices will be
discussed in lecture while the remainder of the material is to be read and studied
by the student.

1. Reference Frames, Rigid Bodies and Coordinate Systems

Dynamics deals with the analysis of changes that can occur within a system
under investigation, which we shall simply refer to as a system. These changes are
taking place in time. For example, if the system is a particle, then one might be
interested in studying the position of the particle and how this position changes
with time, or one might be interested in studying the velocity of the particle and
how this velocity changes with time. If the system is more complicated, such as
a rigid body, then one might be interested in studying the position of the body’s
center-of-mass and the orientation of the rigid body about this center-of-mass,
and how these quantities change over time.
 It should be clear to the student that many quantities make up a description
of the system, and how these quantities change in time, depend on the reference
frame from which the system is being studied. A reference frame is simply a
rigid set of massless axes from which measurements are made. Although, is it not
required, this set of rigid axes is chosen to be three mutually perpendicular axes.

Derivatives Depend on the Reference Frame

Let A and B be two reference frames moving relative to each other, but having
one point O in common at all times, and let P be a point that is fixed in A, and
thus moving in B. For example A might be a carousel that is rotating, B might be
the ground and P might be a bench that is fixed to the carousel. Then the velocity
of P in A (i.e., as measured by observers fixed in A) is equal to zero, whereas the
velocity of P in B (i.e., as measured by observers fixed in B) differs from zero
since P is moving as seen in B. Thus the position of P in A does not change with
time, whereas the position of P in B does change with time. Therefore if r gives
the position of P, as measured from the common point O, then
dr
=0
dt
as measured by observers in A whereas
dr
6= 0
dt
as measured by observers in B. Consequently, it would be confusing to speak of
the time derivative of a quantity, such as
dr d
or more generally
dt dt
without specifying the reference frame from which this derivative is to be cal-
culated. If the derivative, with respect to a scalar variable q, is calculated by
observers fixed in reference frame A, we write this as
A
d
dq

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and if the derivative is calculated by observers fixed in reference frame B, we write
this as
B
d
.
dq
In the carousel example above, we would then have
A B
dr dr
=0 and 6= 0
dt dt
and now no confusion exists. In a similar way, partial derivatives, with respect to
any scalar variable q, will be represented as
A B
∂ ∂
and
∂q ∂q
as computed by observers fixed in reference frames A and B, respectively.

Certain Scalars Are The Same in All Reference Frames

Implicit in each of these derivatives is the assumption that some scalar vari-
ables are the same in both reference frames. For example, this is true when q = t
(time) since we shall assume that passage of time is an absolute in all reference
frames. This means that the time interval between two events is the same in all
reference frames. This assumption is valid in classical dynamics where objects are
moving locally with speeds much slower that the speed of light,

c = 186, 000 miles per second,

but not in relativistic dynamics in which objects are moving locally with speeds
near the speed of light. Note that, in classical dynamics, the distance between
two points is also an absolute in all reference frames. This means that the distance
between two points at any point in time is the same in all reference frames.

Particles, Rigid Bodies and Reference Frames

We shall define a particle as an object that has mass but no spacial dimension
and we shall define a rigid body as a system of particles (finite or infinite) in which
the distance between any two particles within the system is constant in time. For
example, a solid steel ball at room temperature is treated as a rigid body whereas

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a rubber band at room temperature is not regarded as a rigid body. Since the
notion of reference frame contains rigidity, we see that a reference frame can be
embedded in a rigid body and a rigid body can be used to encompass a reference
frame. For this reason, we shall quite frequently view a reference frame as a rigid
body and conversely, we shall view a rigid body as a reference frame. Thus we
shall use the terms reference frame and rigid body interchangeably. The only real
difference between the two is that rigid bodies can (and usually do) have mass
whereas a reference frame does not have mass.

Coordinate Systems

Note that reference frames should not be confused with coordinate systems.
A coordinate system is simply a means in which points are identified and hence
many coordinates systems can be embedded in a given reference frame or rigid
body. For example, within a rigid ball, one may embed a rectangular, cylindrical
or spherical coordinate system, (to name just three out of an infinite number of
possibilities), and points are identified by either (x, y, z): rectangular, (ρ, θ, z):
cylindrical, or (r, θ, ϕ): spherical.

2. Scalar Variables and Scalar Functions

A scalar variable is one whose value is a real number that could (and usually
does) depend on who is measuring the variable. Note that some definitions of
scalars require that their values do not depend on the reference frame in which
measurements are being made. Perhaps a different word (rather than scalar)
should be used, but it is generally not done. For example, in classical dynamics
(not relativistic dynamics) the distance between two points in space is a scalar
variable and this variable does not depend on who is measuring that distance; the
time interval between two events is a scalar variable and this also does not depend
on who is measuring the passage of time; the mass of a particle is a scalar variable
and this too does not depend on who is measuring the mass. However (even in
classical dynamics), the speed of a particle is a scalar variable that does depend
on who is doing the measuring. For example, the speed of a car heading 55 mph
due East (as measured by an observer fixed to the ground) is zero as measured
by an observer sitting in the car.

Examples of scalars include: time, distance, speed, temperature, mass, energy,

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work, and charge, to name just a few.

In this course, we shall not require that our scalars be invariant between ref-
erence frames. The speed of a particle will be considered to be a scalar variable
even though its value depends on who is measuring the speed. As already men-
tioned, suppose you and a friend are riding in a car that is moving as viewed from
someone fixed to the road. The speed of your friend who is sitting next to you
is zero as measured by you, but the speed of this same person is not zero when
measured by someone fixed to the road. Since speed depends on reference frames,
the kinetic energy of a particle (equal to one-half the particle’s mass times the
square of the particle’s speed) is another scalar variable whose value depends on
who is measuring the kinetic energy.

Scalar Functions of Scalar Variables

A scalar function of scalar variables is a rule that takes as input a scalar

variable or an ordered set of scalar variables (an ordered set of real numbers) and
supplies as output, a scalar variable (a real number). For example, the distance
between two particles that are moving in space (a scalar) can be a function of
time (another scalar) and we may write this as D = D(t). Note that in this case,
although the positions of the particles are different for different reference frames,
the distance between them is not. The total kinetic energy of a particle that is
moving in space (a scalar) is a function of speed and mass (other scalars) and we
may write this as K = K(m, v) = mv2 /2. Note that in this case, the value of K
will depend on the reference frame since the value of v depends on the reference
frame.

In this course, a generic set of n scalar variables shall be denoted by

{q1 , q2 , q3 , . . . , qn }

and time shall be denoted by the symbol t.

3. Vector Variables and Vector Functions

A vector variable is one whose value is a vector and this could (and usually
does) depend on the choice of reference frame. Recall that a vector is a quantity
having both magnitude (a non-negative real number) and direction (a unit vector

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which is a vector of length one, not one meter or one second or one kilogram, but
just the real number one with no physical units attached to it). We may think of
a vector as simply an arrow in the space of its units. The length of this arrow is
the magnitude of the vector and the direction in which the arrow is pointing is
the direction of the vector.

Examples of vectors include: position, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,

angular velocity, angular acceleration, and moment, to name just a few.

Vector Functions of Scalar Variables

A vector function of scalar variables is a rule that takes as input a scalar

variable or an ordered set of scalar variables (an ordered set of real numbers) and
supplies as output, a vector result. For example, the displacement between two
particles that are moving in space (a vector) can be a function of time (a scalar)
and we may write this as D = D(t).

4. A Review of Some Rules of Differentiation

The usual rules of differentiation learned in Calculus will be used in this course.
If a rule involving differentiation is valid in all reference frames, then we shall use
the notation
d ∂
and
dq ∂q
instead of
A A
d ∂
and .
dq ∂q
Some of these rules that are valid for all reference frames are as follows.

General Properties for Differentiation of Scalar Functions

Let f and g be differentiable scalar functions of a scalar variable t, then each

of the following is true for all reference frames.

a.) Constant Rule:

df (t)
=0 if and only if f (t) = a constant
dt

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 for all t in the domain of f .

b.) Sum and Difference Rule:

d(f (t) ± g(t)) df(t) dg(t)

= ± .
dt dt dt

c.) Constant Product Rule:

d(αf (t)) df (t)
=α
dt dt
for any scalar constant α.

d.) Variable Product Rule:

d(f (t)g(t)) df(t) dg(t)

= g(t) + f (t) .
dt dt dt

e.) Quotient Rule:

d(f (t)/g(t)) (df(t)/dt)g(t) − f (t)(dg(t)/dt)

= .
dt (g(t))2

f.) Chain Rule:

d(f (g(t))) df(g(t)) dg(t)
= = f 0 (g(t))ġ(t)
dt dg(t) dt
which is NOT the same as f˙(g(t))ġ(t), where the ”dot” is used to denote
differentiation with respect to time only while the ”prime” is used to denote
differentiation with respect to the function’s argument. Thus we have for a
function g = g(x),
dg dg dx
ġ = = = g 0 (x)ẋ.
dt dx dt
Once again, we point out that the d/dt notation is used, and not the A d/dt
notation since these rules are true in all reference frames. For example in rule (b)
above, even through the values of
A A
df (t) dg(t)
and
dt dt

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might be different from the values of
B B
df(t) dg(t)
and ,
dt dt
it will be true that
A A
d(f (t) ± g(t)) df (t) A dg(t)
= ±
dt dt dt
and
B B
d(f (t) ± g(t)) df (t) B dg(t)
= ± .
dt dt dt
To emphasis this point we simply write
d(f (t) ± g(t)) df (t) dg(t)
= ±
dt dt dt
without specifying any particular reference frame.

General Properties for Differentiation of Vector Functions

Note that some of the other rules from Calculus are as follows. Let F, G and
H be differentiable vector functions of a variable t, then each of the following is
true.

a.) Constant Rule:

d
F(t) = 0 if and only if F(t) = C
dt
a constant vector.

b.) Sum and Difference Rule:

d dF(t) dG(t)
(F(t) ± G(t)) = ±
dt dt dt

c.) Scalar-Product Rule: For any differentiable scalar function α(t), we have

d dα(t) dF(t)
(α(t)F(t)) = F(t) + α(t)
dt dt dt

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d.) Dot-Product Rule:

d dF(t) dG(t)
(F(t) · G(t)) = · G(t) + F(t) ·
dt dt dt

e.) Cross-Product Rule:

d dF(t) dG(t)
(F(t) × G(t)) = × G(t) + F(t) ×
dt dt dt

f.) Tensor-Product Rule:

d dF(t) dG(t)
(F(t)G(t)) = G(t) + F(t)
dt dt dt

g.) Triple-Scalar-Product Rule:

" # " #
d dF(t) dG(t)
[F(t), G(t), H(t)] = , G(t), H(t) + F(t), , H(t)
dt dt dt
" #
dH(t)
+ F(t), G(t),
dt

where the Triple-Scalar-Product between three vectors is defined by

[F, G, H] ≡ (F × G) · H = F · (G × H).

h.) Magnitude Rule:

d|F(t)| dF(t)
|F(t)| = F(t) · .
dt dt
i.) Constant Magnitude Rule: If |F(t)| = constant, then

dF(t)
⊥F(t).
dt
Note that for any unit vector, which has a constant magnitude of 1, then,
b (t)
du
b (t).
⊥u
dt

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 j.) Chain Rule: For any differentiable scalar function α(t), we have

dF(α(t)) dF(α(t)) dα(t)

= = F0 (α(t))α̇(t)
dt dα(t) dt

which is not the same as Ḟ(α(t))α̇(t), where the ”dot” is again used to
denote differentiation with respect to only time and the ”prime” is used to
denote differentiation with respect to the function’s argument. Again we
point out that the d/dt notation is used, and not the A d/dt notation since
these rules are true in all reference frames.

Mixed Differentiation Rules - Reference Frames Matter Here

For any differentiable scalar (or vector) function of two independent scalar
variables q1 and q2 , i.e., α(q1 , q2 ), we have
à ! à !
A A A A
∂ ∂α ∂ ∂α
= ,
∂q2 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q2

for any single reference frame A. However, in general,

à ! à !
B A A B
∂ ∂α ∂ ∂α
6 = .
∂q2 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q2

Similarly for a scalar function α, of a single variable q, we have

à ! à !
B A A B
d dα d dα
6 = ,
dq dq dq dq

in general. Therefore when dealing with more that one reference frame, on must
be very careful!

5. A More Detailed Discussion of Rigid Bodies and Reference Frames

A point is simply a geometric place in space that has no dimension. A particle

is simply a point that has mass. This is sometimes referred to as a point particle.
However, since we will very rarely be interested in points without mass, in this
course, we shall use the words ”point” and ”particle” interchangeably. A body is

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defined as a collection of points. A body is called discrete if it consists of either a
finite number or infinitely countable number of points. A body is called continuous
if it consists of an infinitely uncountable number of points. For example, a body
might consist of two particles connected by a massless spring, thus making it a
discrete body having only two points, or a body might be a drop of water or a steel
ball with well-defined volume mass densities, thus making them each a continuous
body.

Rigid Bodies in Dynamics

A body is called rigid if the distance between any two points that make up
the body is fixed in time, even when the body is in motion. Of course, no body
is exactly rigid in nature, since at the atomic scale, all particles that make up the
body (its electrons and protons and neutrons) are moving so that the distance
between them is really not fixed in time. Thus, a rigid body is really an ideal
construct, just like a point particle is an ideal construct. After all, how could a
real physical object have a mass and yet have no dimension.

Ideal Constructs in Dynamics

Ideal constructs are not unusual in the study of dynamics and they are used
as model approximations to real physical objects. For example, other ideal con-
structs that are used in the study of dynamics are: massless springs, massless
and frictionless pulleys and frictionless surfaces, to name just a few. The student
should try to think of others. These ideal constructs are used to simplify the
analysis and are valid when the simplification has no real effect on the difference
between theory and experiment. For example, it is not uncommon to model the
earth as a point particle when predicting its elliptical path around the sun, since
the internal motions of the earth (i.e., its rotation about its axis), does not have
a large effect on its elliptical path. On the other hand, we could not model the
earth as a point particle when it comes to calculating weather patterns, since here
the rotation of the earth about its axis has a huge effect on the weather. Once
again, the guiding principle as to whether a model approximation is valid rests
on how well the simplified model agrees with real physical measurements.

Thus, at least as far as much dynamics is concerned, we can still model some
objects as point particles and we shall model ideal springs and ideal pulleys as

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massless and frictionless and we shall also model some bodies, such as a billiard
ball, as being rigid. Of course, if this billiard ball were to collide with a hard
wall at a very fast speed, then it may break apart, and the rigid body assumption
would not be valid. However, if this billiard ball were to collide with another
billiard ball, both moving at reasonably slow speeds so as not to effect the shape
or mass of each ball, then the rigid body assumption would be valid.

Standard Reference Triads

As mentioned earlier, when dealing with a rigid body, it is convenient to imag-

ine a standard reference triad that is attached (and hence fixed) to the body. This
reference triad is expressed by writing three unit vectors
{eb1 , eb2 , eb3 }
that form an ordered right-handed mutually orthonormal set of vectors. It’s like
thinking of x, y and z axes attached to a billiard ball, with its unit vectors
b, y
{x b, z
b}

and with the point where all three axes intersect (the origin) located at the center
of the ball as shown in the following figure.

A spherical rigid body with

a SRT attached to it

Of course this triad is just imagined to be attached to the rigid body but it is
not part of the body, so that it has no mass, for example. We shall expand upon
these ideas in the next chapter.

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