GRAPHS

Histogram: A histogram is a type of vertical bar chart that is used as a graphical depiction of a
frequency distribution of a set of continuous data. Notice that, unlike a bar chart, there are no
"gaps" between the bars (although some bars might be "absent" reflecting no frequencies).

To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data into intervals,
called class endpoints. Each class intervals contains the number of occurrences of scores in the
data set that are contained within that interval. Specifically, construction involves labeling the x-
axis with the class endpoints (class boundary) and the y-axis with the frequencies.

Let's think the example regarding "monthly amount of sales for 100 salesman". For this data set,
the frequencies in each interval have been tabulated along with the scores that contributed to the
frequency in each interval:

SPSS Output

Class Class Boundary Frequency (fi)

No
1 (-0.5)-2.5 1
2 2.5-5.5 3
3 5.5-8.5 8
4 8.5-11.5 13
5 11.5-14.5 20
6 14.5-17.5 25
7 17.5-20.5 17
8 23.5-23.5 5
9 26.5-26.5 3
10 26.5-29.5 5
Frequency Polygon: A data is graphed for the frequency volume at the midpoint of each class
interval and connecting these midpoint dots completes the graph. Let's think the example
regarding "monthly amount of sales for 100 salesman". For this data set, we obtain the following
polygon:

SPSS Output

Class Midpoint (yi) Frequency (fi)

No
1 1 1
2 4 3
3 7 8
4 10 13
5 13 20
6 16 25
7 19 17
8 22 5
9 25 3
10 28 5
Ogive:It is a cumulative frequency polygon that is drawn for the x-axis with the class boundaries
and the y-axis with the cumulative frequencies.

SPSS Output

Class No Class Cumulative Frequency

Boundary
1 49.95-53.45 6
2 53.45-56.95 12
3 56.95-60.45 24
4 60.45-63.95 32
5 63.95-67.45 37
6 67.45-70.95 38
7 70.95-74.45 40

Stem and Leaf Plots: It is constructed by dividing the digits for each number of the data into
two groups, a stem and a leaf. Stem consists of the higher valued digits. The leaf consists of the
lower values. Specifically, this is a plot where each data value is split into a "leaf" (usually the
last digit) and a "stem" (the other digits).
For example "32" is split into "3" (stem) and "2" (leaf). As more examples:
Stem "1" Leaf "5" means 15
Stem "1" Leaf "6" means 16
.
.
etc.

The "stem" values are listed down, and the "leaf" values are listed next to them.
Ex: Please draw a stem and leaf plot for the given data set:
54, 59, 35, 41, 46, 25, 47, 60, 54, 46, 49, 46, 41, 34, 22.

 Here is the stem-and-leaf plot:

Ste Leaf
m
2 2,5
3 4,5
4 1,1,6,6,6,7,9
5 4,4,9
SPSS-output 6 0
data Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Frequency Stem & Leaf

1.00 2 . 2
1.00 2 . 5
1.00 3 . 4
1.00 3 . 5
2.00 4 . 11
5.00 4 . 66679
2.00 5 . 44
1.00 5 . 9
1.00 6 . 0

Stem width: 10.00

Each leaf: 1 case(s)

Ex: Please draw a stem and leaf plot for the following results:
2.3, 2.5, 2.5, 2.7, 2.8 3.2, 3.6, 3.6, 4.5, 5.0.

 Here is the stem-and-leaf plot:

Ste Leaf
m
2 3,5,5,7,8
3 2, 6, 6
4 5
5 0
Notes:
 Stem "2" Leaf "3" means 2.3
 In this case each leaf is a decimal
 It is OK to repeat a leaf value
 5.0 has a leaf of "0"
Pie Charts:It is a circular depiction of data where the area of the whole pie represents 100% of
the data being studied.

Ex: Make a pie chart that represents what percentage of people in a certain town own certain
types of pets:

1. Dogs (1110 people),

2. Cats (987 people),

3. Rodents (312 people),

4. Reptiles (97 people),

5. Fish (398 people).

SPSS Output