Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The recently released third edition of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD)
is a fully revised version of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine’s manual of sleep disorders
nosology, published in cooperation with international sleep societies. It is the key reference
work for the diagnosis of sleep disorders. The ICSD-3 is built on the same basic outline as
the ICSD-2, identifying seven major categories that include insomnia disorders, sleep-related
breathing disorders, central disorders of hypersomnolence, circadian rhythm sleep-wake dis-
orders, sleep-related movement disorders, parasomnias, and other sleep disorders. Significant
modifications have been made to the nosology of insomnia, narcolepsy, and parasomnias.
Major features and changes of the manual are reviewed in this article. The rationales for these
changes are also discussed. CHEST 2014; 146 (5):1387-1394
ABBREVIATIONS: AASM 5 American Academy of Sleep Medicine; CRSWD 5 circadian rhythm sleep-
wake disorder ; CSA 5 central sleep apnea; CSB 5 Cheyne-Stokes breathing; ICD 5 International
Classification of Diseases; ICSD 5 International Classification of Sleep Disorders; IH 5 idiopathic
hypersomnia; MSLT 5 multiple sleep latency test; NREM 5 non-rapid eye movement; OCST 5 out-of-
center sleep testing; PAP 5 positive airway pressure; PLM 5 periodic limb movement; PLMD 5 periodic
limb movement disorder ; PSG 5 polysomnogram; RBD 5 rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder ;
REM 5 rapid eye movement; RLS 5 restless legs syndrome; SOREMP 5 sleep-onset rapid eye movement
period
Manuscript received April 21, 2014; revision accepted June 16, 2014. © 2014 AMERICAN COLLEGE OF CHEST PHYSICIANS. Reproduction of
AFFILIATIONS: From Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, this article is prohibited without written permission from the American
Lebanon, NH. College of Chest Physicians. See online for more details.
CORRESPONDENCE TO: Michael J. Sateia, MD, Geisel School of Medi- DOI: 10.1378/chest.14-0970
cine at Dartmouth, One Medical Center Dr, Lebanon, NH 03756;
e-mail: michael.j.sateia@dartmouth.edu
journal.publications.chestnet.org 1387
TABLE 1 ] ICSD-3 Major Diagnostic Sections dichotomized in several ways that relate to duration
and presumed pathophysiology. The distinction of acute
Section
and chronic insomnia has existed in most diagnostic
Insomnia
systems since the inception of sleep-wake disorders
Sleep-related breathing disorders
nosology. The ICD system has, at least through its
Central disorders of hypersomnolence 10th edition, clung to the now-archaic distinction of
Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders “organic” vs “nonorganic” insomnia (ie, psychogenic).
Parasomnias ICSD-1, ICSD-2, and the Diagnostic and Statistical
Sleep-related movement disorders Manual of Mental Disorders4 (through the fourth edition)
Other sleep disorders have used the familiar primary vs secondary (or
comorbid) insomnia distinction. ICSD-1 and ICSD-2
ICSD 5 International Classification of Sleep Disorders.
further subtyped primary insomnia into psychophysio-
logic, idiopathic, and paradoxical (sleep-state misper-
must allow some room for judgment in the application ception) insomnia disorders. However, these approaches
of these criteria. In general, unless otherwise specified, to classification, especially the primary vs secondary
all criteria must be met to establish a diagnosis. How- (comorbid) distinction, have been challenged.
ever, there are undoubtedly individuals with clinically
significant sleep disorders who do not meet all the The 2005 National Institutes of Health Consensus
criteria for a given diagnosis. In such cases, provisional Panel on Manifestations and Management of Chronic
diagnoses with careful follow-up and retesting may be in Insomnia in Adults5 noted that considerable uncertainty
order. Application of the criteria should be guided by the exists with respect to the “nature of (the) associations
notes that follow many of the criteria sections. and the direction of causality” in cases of comorbid
insomnia. Furthermore, the panel noted that an
As with ICSD-2, pediatric diagnoses are not distin- emphasis on the “secondary” nature of many insomnia
guished from adult diagnoses, with the exception of disorders may promote inadequate treatment (presum-
pediatric OSA. ICSD-3 consistently refers to the AASM ably as a result of an assumption on the part of physi-
[American Academy of Sleep Medicine] Manual for the cians that treatment of the “primary” condition is
Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events2 for definitions of sufficient to resolve the insomnia condition). Beyond
specific polysomnogram (PSG) findings (eg, respiratory these considerations, other concerns have been regis-
events or movement abnormalities). This will allow tered. It has been clear for some time that the vast
up-to-date accuracy of definitions as scoring rules majority of chronic insomnia conditions (if not all)
evolve prior to the next ICSD publication. share numerous characteristics, regardless of their
Finally, the ICSD-3 provides specific coding information “primary” vs “comorbid” status. Specifically, chronic
for each diagnosis. The International Classification of insomnia disorders as a whole are typically associated
Diseases (ICD)3 coding system for the United States with maladaptive cognitions and behaviors that
(clinical modification version) is in transition from the represent major perpetuating factors. These factors
ninth to the 10th edition at the time of this writing. must be addressed therapeutically to achieve a suc-
Therefore, both International Classification of Diseases, cessful long-term outcome. Beyond the clearly impor-
Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification and International tant management of comorbid disorders such as major
Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical depression or chronic pain, treatment approaches to
Modification codes are included. Because ICD system chronic insomnia are essentially the same (ie, cognitive-
changes inevitably lag behind changes to the ICSD, users behavioral and/or pharmacologic), regardless of the
will note certain discrepancies between the systems in presence or type of comorbidity. Finally, the diagnostic
the coding approach for various diagnoses. The ICD reliability and validity of insomnia diagnoses, especially
codes listed in ICSD-3 represent the best approxima- primary insomnia, have been challenged on the basis of
tions within the confines of the system. several studies.6,7
In light of the concerns raised by these issues, the
Insomnia ICSD-3 task force elected to consolidate all insomnia
The classification of insomnia disorders in ICSD-3 diagnoses (ie, “primary” and “comorbid”) under a
represents a marked departure from that of prior single, chronic insomnia disorder. This decision is not
systems. Historically, insomnia disorders have been intended to suggest that there may not be important
The criteria for this diagnosis are largely congruent Central sleep apnea due to a medical disorder without
Cheyne-Stokes breathing
with those of the general criteria for an insomnia
Central sleep apnea due to high altitude periodic
disorder found in ICSD-2. They include (1) a report of
breathing
sleep initiation or maintenance problems, (2) adequate
Central sleep apnea due to a medication or substance
opportunity and circumstances to sleep, and (3) daytime
Primary central sleep apnea
consequences. The ICSD-3 duration criterion for chronic
Primary central sleep apnea of infancy
insomnia disorder is 3 months, and a frequency criterion
Primary central sleep apnea of prematurity
(at least three times per week) has been added.
Treatment-emergent central sleep apnea
It is also important to note that behavioral insomnia of Sleep-related hypoventilation disorders
childhood is included within the chronic insomnia Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
disorder diagnosis. The unique aspects of presentation Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
in children (specifically, limit-setting and sleep-onset Late-onset central hypoventilation with hypothalamic
association issues) are discussed within the text. dysfunction
Idiopathic central alveolar hypoventilation
Not every patient with poor sleep merits an independent
Sleep-related hypoventilation due to a medication or
insomnia diagnosis. Many individuals experience what
substance
would reasonably be considered poor sleep but have no
Sleep-related hypoventilation due to a medical
complaint and/or do not experience significant daytime disorder
consequences. Moreover, insomnia is an expected aspect Sleep-related hypoxemia disorder
of many medical and psychiatric conditions. A diagnosis
of chronic insomnia disorder should be used only when
the insomnia is especially prominent or unexpectedly
prolonged, and is the focus of clinical evaluation and signs/symptoms (eg, associated sleepiness, fatigue,
treatment. insomnia, snoring, subjective nocturnal respiratory
disturbance, or observed apnea) or associated medical
Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders or psychiatric disorder (ie, hypertension, coronary
Sleep-related breathing disorders are divided into four artery disease, atrial fibrillation, congestive heart failure,
sections: OSAs, central sleep apnea (CSA) syndromes, stroke, diabetes, cognitive dysfunction, or mood
sleep-related hypoventilation disorders, and sleep- disorder) coupled with five or more predominantly
related hypoxemia disorder. The full listing of diagnoses obstructive respiratory events (obstructive and mixed
can be found in Table 3. apneas, hypopneas, or respiratory effort-related arousals,
as defined by the AASM scoring manual) per hour of
OSA (Adult) sleep during PSG. Alternatively, a frequency of obstruc-
tive respiratory events ⱖ 15/h satisfies the criteria, even
The core criteria for a diagnosis of OSA are largely
in the absence of associated symptoms or disorders. The
unchanged from ICSD-2. The diagnosis requires either
most significant change from ICSD-2 is that a respira-
tory event index (based on hours of monitoring time)
TABLE 2 ] Insomnia may be derived from out-of-center sleep testing (OCST).
Disorder The same criterion frequencies of breathing disturbance
Chronic insomnia disorder apply when OCST is used, although OCST often under-
Short-term insomnia disorder
estimates frequency because recording time, rather than
Other insomnia disorder
sleep time, becomes the denominator for calculation of
the index.
journal.publications.chestnet.org 1389
Although not substantially different from ICSD-2 positive airway pressure (PAP) without backup rate.
regarding what qualifies as a “respiratory event,” For cases in which the CSA is attributable to other
ICSD-3 emphasizes that obstructive respiratory distur- causes, dual diagnoses of OSA and CSA with CSB or
bance includes not only obstructive apnea and hypopnea CSA due to substance should be made.
but also respiratory effort-related arousal. The term
Caution is advised in establishing a diagnosis of
upper airway resistance syndrome is discouraged
treatment-emergent CSA. It is well recognized that there
because this represents a variant of OSA and does not
are substantial numbers of patients with central apneic
require distinct nomenclature. As has been the case for
events during PAP titrations that resolve over time once
some time, Medicare standards of qualification for
PAP is well established.
treatment differ from the ICSD criteria when arousal-
based scoring of hypopneas is used. As noted previously,
Sleep-Related Hypoventilation Disorders
the ICSD refers to the current version of the AASM
Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events for Hypoventilation, as defined by the most recent version
definitions of respiratory events and all other specific of the AASM scoring manual, is the hallmark of these
physiologic events during sleep. conditions. ICSD-2 lumped sleep-related hypoventila-
tion and hypoxemia into a single category, allowing
OSA (Pediatric) physicians to infer the diagnosis on the basis of sus-
tained declines in arterial oxygen saturation during PSG.
The criteria for pediatric OSA have been simplified in
This practice, however, is not altogether accurate or
the ICSD-3. Signs and symptoms are consolidated
reliable, because hypoventilation, strictly speaking, is
into a single criterion. One of these findings (snoring,
defined by the elevation of arterial CO2 and there are
labored/obstructed breathing, or daytime consequences
potential causes of sustained hypoxemia other than
[sleepiness, hyperactivity, and so forth]) must be
hypoventilation. Therefore, the criteria for sleep-related
present. The PSG criterion for diagnosis requires either
hypoventilation now explicitly require demonstration of
(1) one or more obstructive events (obstructive or mixed
elevated Pco2 levels, either by direct determination with
apnea or obstructive hypopnea) per hour of sleep
arterial blood gases or, more commonly, by proxy
or (2) obstructive hypoventilation, manifested by
measures such as end-tidal or transcutaneous CO2.
Paco2 . 50 mm Hg for . 25% of sleep time, coupled
When sustained drops in arterial oxygen saturation
with snoring, paradoxical thoracoabdominal movement,
(ⱕ 88% for . 5 min) are seen in the absence of CO2
or flattening of the nasal airway pressure waveform.
measurement, the now separate diagnosis of sleep-related
hypoxemia disorder should be used.
CSA Syndromes
The major change in this section of ICSD-3 is the Obesity hypoventilation syndrome has been added as a
addition of treatment-emergent CSA. This diagnosis distinct hypoventilation diagnosis in the ICSD-3
corresponds to what has been termed “complex sleep primarily because it is so frequently encountered in
apnea.” However, the definition of complex sleep apnea clinical practice. The condition is commonly comorbid
in published studies has varied. Although all definitions with other sleep-related breathing disorders and requires
have included a requirement of persistent or residual careful consideration in the formulation of a comprehen-
CSA following effective treatment of OSA, there has sive therapeutic approach to breathing disturbances.
been substantial discrepancy regarding the nature of the However, in contrast to other sleep-related hypoventilation
CSA. Some studies include patients with CSA with disorders, an obesity hypoventilation diagnosis requires
Cheyne-Stokes breathing (CSB) and substance-induced demonstration of elevated daytime Paco2 (. 45 mm Hg),
CSA, whereas others specifically exclude such patients.8 in addition to BMI . 30. Patients with other forms of
As a result, the term “complex sleep apnea” lacks sleep-related hypoventilation may or may not exhibit
specificity. For this reason, new terminology, “treatment- daytime hypoventilation.
emergent central sleep apnea,” is used in ICSD-3. The
criteria for this disorder require demonstration of Central Disorders of Hypersomnolence
predominately OSA (five or more obstructive respira- These disorders are characterized by excessive daytime
tory events per hour of sleep) followed by significant sleepiness (hypersomnolence) that is not attributable
resolution of the obstructive apnea and emergence or to another sleep disorder, specifically those that result
persistence of CSA (not caused by another identifiable in disturbed sleep (eg, sleep-related breathing disorders)
comorbidity such as CSB or substance) during PSG with or abnormalities of circadian rhythm. The central
journal.publications.chestnet.org 1391
extent patients with IH represent a cohesive group melatonin onset in establishing a circadian rhythm
whose sleepiness is caused by a single, definable CNS sleep-wake disorder (CRSWD) diagnosis,17 although
pathology, as opposed to a diverse population with these are not required to meet the criteria for any
varied causes of their hypersomnolence. As noted diagnosis. The use of questionnaires such as the
previously, sleep deprivation can easily be overlooked as Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire18 to identify
a potential cause for sleepiness, especially in those with chronotype is also encouraged. As in ICSD-2, a general
longer sleep requirements, when adequate pre-MSLT set of criteria applies to all CRSWDs. These include
monitoring is not conducted. A trial of sleep extension (1) a chronic or recurrent pattern of sleep-wake rhythm
may be the only reliable methodology for identifying disruption primarily caused by an alteration in the
this causation, although this can be surprisingly difficult endogenous circadian timing system or misalignment
to accomplish in the routine clinical setting. The core between the endogenous circadian rhythm and the
criteria for IH remain largely unchanged; that is, a sleep-wake schedule desired or required, (2) a sleep-
report of subjective sleepiness, MSLT showing a mean wake disturbance (ie, insomnia or excessive sleepiness,
latency of , 8 min with fewer that two SOREMPs and (3) associated distress or impairment. For all
(including any SOREMP on the PSG from the preceding CRSWDs, with the exception of jet lag disorder, a duration
night), absence of cataplexy and hypocretin deficiency criterion of at least 3 months has been added.
(if measured), and no other identifiable cause. Some
patients may present with long sleep times as a primary Parasomnias
manifestation of their IH. Therefore, in patients who The parasomnias are divided onto three clusters:
do not meet the objective MSLT criterion for sleepi- non-rapid eye movement (NREM) related, rapid eye
ness, 24-h PSG or 1-week actigraphy/sleep logs with movement (REM) related, and other (Table 6).
unrestricted sleep may be pursued. Demonstration
of ⱖ 660 min average daily sleep time in adults satisfies Disorders of Arousal From NREM
the criterion for objective sleepiness in lieu of the MSLT
The NREM group includes confusional arousal, sleep-
findings.13
walking, and sleep terrors. Sleep-related eating disorder
The ICSD-2 subdivided IH into conditions with and has now been included with the NREM group as well,
without a long sleep time. However, further analysis of because it has many features in common with these
the data related to this dichotomy was deemed insuffi- disorders. ICSD-2 addressed the arousal disorders as
cient to support the continuation of this division. separate diagnoses. In light of the great similarity in
The criteria for these diagnoses are also much the same. Sleep terrors
Physicians are more strongly encouraged to consider the Sleep-related eating disorder
journal.publications.chestnet.org 1393
The manual notes that RLS may be precipitated or wors- References
ened by medications, particularly many antidepressants. 1. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. International Classification
of Sleep Disorders. 3rd ed. Darien, IL: American Academy of Sleep
However, when the full criteria for a movement disorder Medicine; 2014.
such as RLS or periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD) 2. Berry RB BR, Gamaldo CE, Harding SM, Lloyd RM, Marcus CL,
are met, those diagnoses, rather than movement disorder Vaughn BV; for the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The
AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules,
due to medication or substance, should be used. Terminology and Technical Specifications, Version 2.0.3. Darien, IL:
American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2014.
The separate criteria set for the diagnosis of RLS in 3. International Classification of Diseases. 9th ed. Geneva, Switzerland:
children, found in ICSD-2, has been eliminated. World Health Organization; 2011.
Pediatric diagnostic considerations are discussed in the 4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric
ICSD-3 developmental section of RLS.22 Publishing; 2013.
5. NIH State-of-the-Science Conference Statement on manifestations
Periodic Limb Movement Disorder and management of chronic insomnia in adults. NIH Consens State
Sci Statements. 2005;22(2):1-30.
As in ICSD-2, PLMD may be diagnosed when the 6. Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF III, Hauri PJ, et al. Diagnostic concordance
frequency of limb movement, as defined by the AASM for DSM-IV sleep disorders: a report from the APA/NIMH DSM-IV
field trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151(9):1351-1360.
scoring manual, is . 15/h in adults (. 5/h in children). The 7. Edinger JD, Wyatt JK, Stepanski EJ, et al. Testing the reliability and
periodic limb movements (PLMs) must be accompanied validity of DSM-IV-TR and ICSD-2 insomnia diagnoses. Results of
a multitrait-multimethod analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry.
by sleep disturbance or other functional impairment to 2011;68(10):992-1002.
establish this diagnosis. Uncertainty has existed regarding 8. Khan MT, Franco RA. Complex sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Disord.
the relationship between PLMs and sleep-wake symp- 2014;2014:798487.
toms (particularly excessive sleepiness). Although PLMs 9. Arand D, Bonnet M, Hurwitz T, Mitler M, Rosa R, Sangal RB. The
clinical use of the MSLT and MWT. Sleep. 2005;28(1):123-144.
are a not uncommon finding on PSG, the presence of 10. Littner MR, Kushida C, Wise M, et al; Standards of Practice
PLMs and a sleep disturbance are not sufficient to establish Committee of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Practice
parameters for clinical use of the multiple sleep latency test and the
this diagnosis; reasonable evidence of a cause and effect maintenance of wakefulness test. Sleep. 2005;28(1):113-121.
relationship between the two findings must be established. 11. Dinges DF, Pack F, Williams K, et al. Cumulative sleepiness, mood
It should also be noted that a diagnosis of PLMD should disturbance, and psychomotor vigilance performance decrements
during a week of sleep restricted to 4-5 hours per night. Sleep.
not be used in conjunction with diagnoses of RLS, 1997;20(4):267-277.
narcolepsy, RBD, or untreated OSA, because the move- 12. Bradshaw DA, Yanagi MA, Pak ES, Peery TS, Ruff GA. Nightly sleep
duration in the 2-week period preceding multiple sleep latency
ment disturbance is a common finding in these disorders. testing. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3(6):613-619.
13. Vernet C, Arnulf I. Idiopathic hypersomnia with and without long
Summary sleep time: a controlled series of 75 patients. Sleep. 2009;32(6):
753-759.
ICSD-3 includes seven major categories of sleep 14. Nishino S, Ripley B, Overeem S, Lammers GJ, Mignot E. Hypocretin
disorders: insomnia, sleep-related breathing disorders, (orexin) deficiency in human narcolepsy. Lancet. 2000;355(9197):
39-40.
central disorders of hypersomnolence, CRSWDs, sleep-
15. Andlauer O, Moore H IV, Hong SC, et al. Predictors of hypocretin
related movement disorders, parasomnias, and other (orexin) deficiency in narcolepsy without cataplexy. Sleep. 2012;
sleep disorders. Key changes from ICSD-2 include the 35(9):1247-1255F.
16. Andlauer O, Moore H, Jouhier L, et al. Nocturnal rapid eye movement
consolidation of chronic insomnia into a single disorder, sleep latency for identifying patients with narcolepsy/hypocretin
the division of narcolepsy into types 1 and 2, and the deficiency. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70(7):891-902.
addition of a treatment-emergent CSA diagnosis. Diagnos- 17. Rahman SA, Kayumov L, Tchmoutina EA, Shapiro CM. Clinical
efficacy of dim light melatonin onset testing in diagnosing delayed
tic criteria have been revised for many disorders. It is sleep phase syndrome. Sleep Med. 2009;10(5):549-555.
essential for sleep medicine physicians and other 18. Horne JA, Ostberg O. A self-assessment questionnaire to
providers to familiarize themselves with these changes. determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms.
Int J Chronobiol. 1976;4(2):97-110.
19. Dauvilliers Y, Jennum P, Plazzi G. Rapid eye movement sleep
Acknowledgments behavior disorder and rapid eye movement sleep without atonia in
Financial/nonfinancial disclosures: The author has reported to narcolepsy. Sleep Med. 2013;14(8):775-781.
CHEST that no potential conflicts of interest exist with any com- 20. Winkelman JW, James L. Serotonergic antidepressants are associated
panies/organizations whose products or services may be discussed with REM sleep without atonia. Sleep. 2004;27(2):317-321.
in this article.
21. Walters AS; The International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group.
Other contributions: The author recognizes the contributions of the Toward a better definition of the restless legs syndrome. Mov Disord.
Task Force for the ICSD-3: Jack Edinger, PhD; Richard Berry, MD; 1995;10(5):634-642.
Michael Silber, MBChB; Phyllis Zee, MD, PhD; Arthur Walters, MD; 22. Picchietti DL, Bruni O, de Weerd A, et al; International Restless Legs
Michel Cramer Bornemann, MD; Richard Ferber, MD; Gerald Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG). Pediatric restless legs syndrome
Rosen, MD; and Karl Doghramji, MD. Carolyn Winter-Rosenberg of diagnostic criteria: an update by the International Restless Legs
the AASM provided invaluable assistance. Syndrome Study Group. Sleep Med. 2013;14(12):1253-1259.