Java Applet on Computation

of Thermodynamic
Properties of Steam
and R134a Refrigerant
F. L. TAN, PATRICK S. K. CHUA
School of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue,
Singapore 639798

Accepted 7 July 2003

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the application of Java programming on the computa-
tion of thermodynamic properties of steam and the HFC-134a, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane
(R134a) refrigerant through the Java applets. The Java applets can compute thermodynamic
properties of steam and R134a refrigerant, such as specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy,
and entropy in the phases of saturated mixture, compressed liquid, and superheated vapor.
The calculated values are accurate compared to the standard reference properties tables for
steam and refrigerant. ß2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Comput Appl Eng Educ 11: 211
225, 2003; Published
online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com.); DOI 10.1002/cae.10049

Keywords: Java applet; thermodynamic properties; steam; R134a refrigerant

INTRODUCTION
The thermodynamic properties of a pure substance
such as temperature, pressure, specific volume,
enthalpy, entropy, and internal energy are essential
in the analysis and computation of various thermo-
dynamic systems (e.g., steam power plant and vapor
compression refrigeration system). A pure substance
is the one that has a homogeneous and invariable
chemical composition, for example steam and refrig-
Correspondence to F. L. Tan (mfltan@ntu.edu.sg).
ß 2004 Wiley Periodicals Inc.
erant. It may exist in more than one phase, like the
water, a mixture of water and water vapor (steam),
solid ice, or a mixture of ice and water. In a ther-
modynamic system, the thermodynamic properties of
the working substances at different phases in the
various thermodynamic processes (e.g., compression,
expansion, heat addition, etc.) have to be determined
before performing calculations on quantities such as
thermal efficiency and power consumption.
Tables of thermodynamic properties of many sub-
stances are available, for example the standard steam
tables. Manual calculations using these property tables
and charts have been used by students in solving ther-
modynamic problems. The use of thermodynamics
211
212 TAN AND CHUA
properties application software can help to reinforce
the understanding of the properties tables and charts.
Some of the more reliable and established software
include STEAM, STEAMCALC [1], R134aTAB, and
ALLPROPS. The FORTRAN programming is a
commonly used programming language in the devel-
opment of the application software. Most of these
computer programs, except for ALLPROPS, are devel-
oped and implemented by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
With the rapid evolution of Internet, there are
several web sites that provide online computation of
thermodynamic properties for steam and other pure
substances. The accuracy of the results generated
through the online website is comparable to those
generated by the desktop application software. In
addition, it is also a time-saving process. Hence,
online thermodynamic computation serves as a con-
venient way to obtain information on thermodyna-
mic properties, especially when other conventional
methods are not available.
Obtaining information from the Internet has
become a trend for most people in the modern day
world. Besides the desktop personal computer (PC),
other devices have been developed to access informa-
tion via the Internet. These Internet capable devices
include personal digital assistants (PDAs) such as
PalmOS, and wireless application protocol (WAP)
compatible devices, which are usually cell phones. As
such, an integration of basic thermodynamic property
computation with the Internet would be desirable.
The equations adopted in the 1967 IFC Formula-
tion for Industrial Use (IFC-67) are used to predict the
properties of water and steam over a wide range of
temperature (from 273.16 K to 1073.15 K) and pres-
sure (from 0 to 1,000 bar). They form the basis for the
thermodynamic tables and charts in the improved
ASME steam tables [2]. In September 1997, the
International Association for the Properties of Water
and Steam (IAPWS) adopted a new formulation for
the thermodynamic properties of water and steam for
industrial use. This new industrial standard is called
‘‘IAPWS Industrial Formulation for the Thermo-
dynamic Properties of Water and Steam’’ (IAPWS-
IF97). The formulation IAPWS-IF97 replaces the
previous industrial standard IFC-67. Based on the
IAPWS-IF97 formulation, a new steam table, entitled
‘‘Properties of Water and Steam’’ by Wagner and
Kruse [3]. This steam table contains a complete
description of the equations of IAPWS-IF97 neces-
sary for using the equations.
The HFC-134a, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, or
commonly known as the R134a, is one of the most
promising alternative refrigerants. As such, its proper-
ties have been obtained by many experimental and
modeling studies. Various equations of states for
R134a has been established by several researchers
[4,5]. A formulation known as the ‘‘International
Standard Formulation for the Thermodynamic Proper-
ties of 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a)’’ was
reported by Tillner
Roth [6]. This formulation is
effective for temperatures from 170 K to 445 K and
pressures up to 70 MPa. It is internationally adopted
as the basis for the preparation of standard thermo-
dynamic property tables and charts for R134a.
This paper describes the development of Java
programs called Java applets for the Internet browsers
to compute the thermodynamic properties of steam
and refrigerant 134a. The Sun Microsystems Java 2
Development Kit is used to develop two Java applets.
One Java applet can generate standard saturated pro-
perties over a specified temperature range. The other
applet can compute thermodynamic properties at a
given single-phase thermodynamic state in the satu-
rated mixture, sub-cooled or compressed liquid, and
superheated vapor regions.
COMPUTATION OF
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Thermodynamic Properties
The pressure-specific volume
temperature relation-
ship for a substance can be represented by a three-
dimensional thermodynamic surface with P ¼ P(v, T).
It shows the regions where only one phase exists such
as solid, liquid, and vapor, and the regions where
two phases exist simultaneously such as solid
liquid
(S
L), solid
vapor (S
V), and liquid
vapor (L
V).
On the P-v-T surface, the triple line is a line of
constant temperature and pressure where all the three
phases (liquid, solid, and vapor) coexist. At pressure
above the pressure of the critical point, the liquid
substance simply changes to the vapor state without a
constant vaporization process. The P-v-T surface may
be projected onto the P-v plane, the T-v plane, and the
P-T plane, thus obtaining the P-v, T-v, and P-T
diagrams. The triple line on the P-v-T surface appears
to be a point, when viewed parallel to the v-axis on the
P-T diagram, is called a triple point.
A constant pressure line is shown on a T-v
diagram as shown in Figure 1 while a constant tem-
perature line is shown on the P-v diagram. A saturated
vapor lies on the saturated vapor line while a saturated
liquid on the saturated liquid line. The region to the
right of the saturated vapor line is the superheated
vapor region and the region to the left of the saturated
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 213

For gases or substance in vapor phase region

that has relatively low density, the pressure, specific
volume, and temperature are governed by the ideal gas
law as follow:
Pv ¼ RT
where R is a constant for a particular gas and is
known as the gas constant. The above equation is
known as the ideal-gas equation of state [7]. Any
gas for which this equation is valid is called an ideal
gas or a perfect gas. The ideal gas law is valid at low
pressure.
The behavior of a gas deviates from its ideal
Figure 1 T-v diagram. gas behavior at higher pressure. The non-ideal gas
behavior occurs when the pressure is relatively high
(>4 MPa for many gases) or when the temperature
liquid line is the compressed liquid region which is
is near the saturation. There are many equations
also known as the sub-cooled liquid region. When the
pressure and temperature are greater than the critical of state that have been recommended for use to
account for such behavior. An example is the van der
values, the substance is in a supercritical state. In the
Waals equation of state [7], which accounts for
region between the saturated liquid line and the
the volume occupied by the gas molecules and
saturated vapor line, the substance is in a saturated
for he attractive forces between the molecules. It is
mixture state. In the L
V region, the substance exists
given by
as both the liquid and vapor phases.
In the saturated mixture region, the tempera- RT a
P¼
ð1Þ
ture and pressure are dependent. Hence, specifying ðv
bÞ b2
the pressure and temperature will not establish the
state of a mixture. To establish the state of a mixture, a where a and b are given by the following:
property other than temperature needs to be specified 27R2 Tc2 RTc
if the pressure is specified. Conversely, if the tempera- a¼ ; b¼
64Pc 8Pc
ture is specified, a property other than pressure must
be stated. Other properties that may be used include Pc and Tc are the critical pressure and temperature,
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy. respectively.
The state of a mixture can also be determined An improved equation is the Redlich
Kwong
indirectly if the quality of the mixture is known. The equation of state [8], which is
quality is a value that describes the relative composi- RT a
tion of the liquid and vapor phases in a mixture. It is P¼
pffiffiffiffi ð2Þ
ðv
bÞ ½vðv þ bÞ T 
defined as the ratio of the mass of saturated vapor to
the total mass of the mixture and is designated by the where
symbol x. The point 3 on the T-v diagram in Figure 1
represents any state (T, v) between the saturated liquid 0:4275R2 Tc2:5 0:0867RTc
a¼ ; b¼
at point 1 and saturated vapor at point 2, liquid and 64Pc Pc
vapor exist as a mixture in equilibrium vf and vg re-
present the specific volumes of the saturated liquid and Another important equation of state that is used
the saturated vapor, respectively. The specific volume for many substances including steam is the Virial
of the saturated mixture can be found as follows: equation of state [8]. This equation presents the
v ¼ vf þ xðvg
vf Þ product Pv as a series expansion. The most common
v ¼ vf þ xvfg expansion is

Other thermodynamic properties such as enthalpy RT BðTÞ CðTÞ

P¼ þ 2 þ 3 þ  ð3Þ
and entropy can also be found in a similar manner as v v v
follow: The functions B(T), C(T), etc., represent the
h ¼ hf þ xhfg
corrections to the ideal gas law and must be specified
s ¼ sf þ xsfg for the particular gas or substance.
214 TAN AND CHUA

From the First law of Thermodynamics, the Substituting Equation (11) into Equation (10) and
following relation between the specific internal integrating over a path of constant temperature, and
energy (u), pressure (P), specific volume (v), and the using dv ¼
dr/r2, one finds
specific enthalpy of a system can be obtained:
ðT ð r  "   #
0 1 @P
h ¼ u þ Pv ð4Þ u¼ cv ðTÞdT þ 2
P
T dr þ u0
T0 0 r @T r
Applying the First law and Second law of
Thermodynamics and Maxwell relations [8], we can ð12Þ
obtain the following relations:
    T0 is a chosen reference temperature. The cons-
@P tant u0 is a term used as a desired datum for u.
du ¼ cv dT þ T
P dv ð5Þ
@T v The entropy is determined from the Gibbs
    equation,
@v
dh ¼ cP dT þ v
T
P dP ð6Þ    
@T P 1 P
c    ds ¼ du þ dv ð13Þ
v @P T T
ds ¼ dT þ dv ð7Þ
T @T v
Using Equations (10) and (11), one finds
where
  c    
@u v 1 @P
cv ¼ ds ¼ dT
dr ð14Þ
@T T r2 @T r
v

As only the changes in internal energy, enthalpy, By adding and subtracting a term
Rdr/r from
and entropy are of practical interest, we can arbitrarily Equation (14), and then integrating on the path of
choose the datum state from which to measure h, u, constant temperature, one gets
and s. From Equation (4), we have
ðT 0
h2
h1 ¼ u2
u1 þ P 2 v 2
P1 v 1 ð8Þ cv ðTÞ
s¼ dT
Rlnr
T0 T
Thus, if we have an equation of state where P is a ð r  "   # ð15Þ
function of T and v (i.e., P ¼ f(T,v)), we can find the 1 @P
þ 2
rR
dr þ s0
change of internal energy (u2
u1) from Equation (5) 0 r @T r
and the change of enthalpy (h2
h1) from Equation (8).
s0 is a constant that can be chosen as a desired datum
for s. Given the analytical expressions for P(r, T) and
Computation of
c(T), together with known constants, the values of P, u,
Thermodynamic Properties
s, and h can be calculated for specified values of T and
The general approach in the computation of thermo- r. There are four basic equations required to compute
dynamic properties of a simple compressible sub- the thermodynamic properties. Given the four basic
stance [9] is illustrated below. Two basic expressions equations and the relevant constants for a substance,
that are required in the computation are the P-r-T the thermodynamic properties for that substance can be
equation and c0v ðTÞ equation, where r is the density of computed. Each substance has a unique set of constants
the substance and c0v is the specific heat of an ideal gas and datum states. The four basic equations for water
at low density. and R134a refrigerant are summarized below:
The general expression for the internal energy of
a simple compressible substance is Basic Equations for Water
u ¼ uðT; vÞ ð9Þ
(i) Saturation pressure equation:
Differentiating Equation (9),    X8
  Psat Tc
@u ln ¼
1 Fi ½aðT
Tp Þi
1 ð16Þ
du ¼ cv dT þ dv ð10Þ Pc T i¼1
@v T
An important thermodynamic relationship is (ii) P-r-T equation:
       
@u @P @Q
¼T
P ð11Þ P ¼ rRT 1 þ rQ þ r2 ð17Þ
@v T @T v @r T
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 215

(
X
7 Equations for R134a
Q ¼ ðt
t0 Þ ðt
taj Þj
2
j¼1
" #) (i) Saturation pressure equation:
X
8 X
10
 Aij ðr
r0 Þi
1 þ e
Er Aij ri
9
i¼1 i¼9 lnðPsat ÞR ¼ TR
1 b
7:6510ð1
TR Þ
ð18Þ þ 1:8458ð1
TR Þ1:5
0:6821ð1
TR Þ2
where
3:059ð1
TR Þ3 c
Ta Ta Ta ð22Þ
t¼ ; t0 ¼ ; ta1 ¼ tc ¼ ;
T T0 Tc where
taj ¼ 2:5; j>1
Psat T
(iii) Saturated liquid density equation: ðPsat ÞR ¼ ; TR ¼
Pc Tc
"   #
X
8
T 1=3 (ii) P-r-T equation:
rf ¼ rc 1 þ Di 1
ð19Þ
i¼1
Tc
9     
TR rR X ai2 ai3
(iv) Internal energy equation: PR ¼ þ ai1 þ þ
Zc i¼2
TR TR2
    ð23Þ
ðT ai4 ai5
þ 3 þ riR
u¼ c0v ðTÞdT TR TR5
T0
ð r  "   # ð20Þ
1 @P P r T Pc
þ 2
P
T dr þ u0 PR ¼ ; rR ¼ ; TR ¼ ; Zc ¼
0 r @T r Pc rc Tc Rrc Tc

(v) Entropy equation: (iii) Saturated liquid density equation:

ðT
c0v ðTÞ rf ¼ rc b1 þ 2:45ð1
TR Þ0:38
s¼ dT
Rlnr ð24Þ
T0 T þ 0:4403ð1
TR Þ1:6 c
ð r  "   # ð21Þ
1 @P
þ 2
rR
dr þ s0 where
0 r @T r
T
The constants in the above equations, a, rc , taj , TR ¼
Aij , Di , Fi , T0 , Ta , Tc are constants in the above Tc
equation, which are obtained from Reference [9]. (iv) Enthalpy equation:

hR ¼ h=T R RZ C
( )
X
9
¼ f R þ TR ½ðai2 =T 2R Þ þ ð2ai3 =T 3R Þ þ ð3ai4 =T 4R Þ þ ð5ai5 =T 6R Þðri
1
R =i
1Þ
lnrR =Z C
i¼2
ð25Þ
X
9
þ ½ai1 þðai2 =T R Þ þ ðai3 =T 2R Þ þ ðai4 =T 3R Þ þ ðai5 =T 5R Þri
1
R þ T R =Z C þ ðT R =Z C Þ
i¼1

 fðC1
1ÞlnðT R =T 0R Þ þ C 2 ðT R
T 0R Þ þ C 3 ½T 2R
ðT 0R Þ2 =2 þ C4 ½T 3R
ðT 0R Þ3 =3 þ CS g

X
9
fR ¼ ½ai1 þ ðai2 =T R Þ þ ðai3 =T 2R Þ þ ðai4 =T 3R Þ þ ðai5 =T 5R Þðri
1
R =i
1Þ
i¼2
ð26Þ
þ T R lnrR =Z C þ ð1=Z C ÞfðC 1
1Þ ½T R
T 0R
T R lnðT R =T 0R Þ
C 2 ðT R
T 0R Þ2 =2

C 3 ½T 3R
3ðT 0R Þ2 T R þ 2ðT 0R Þ3 =6
C 4 ½T 4R
4ðT 0R Þ3 T R þ 3ðT 0R Þ4 =12
CS ðT R
T 0R Þ
Cf g
216 TAN AND CHUA

(v) Entropy equation: volume at the saturated vapor state (vg) for both
substances is determined by iterations and linear
SR ¼ s=RZ C
interpolation of the data from standard property
X
9
tables. The next saturated property to be computed
¼ ½ðai2 =T 2R Þ þ ð2ai3 =T 3R Þ þ ð3ai4 =T 4R Þ is the specific enthalpy at saturated vapor state (hg).
i¼2
For R134a, this is attained by the application of
þ ð5ai5 =T 6R Þðri
1
R =i
1Þ
lnrR =Z C ð27Þ Equations (25) and (26). As for steam, the specific

ð1=Z C ÞfðC 1
1ÞlnðTR =T 0R Þ internal energy at saturated vapor phase (ug) is first
computed using Equation (20). Then, hg for steam is

C2 ðT R
T 0R Þ
C 3 ½T 2R
ðT 0R Þ2 =2
calculated using Equation (32). The specific enthalpy

C4 ½T 3R
ðT 0R Þ3 =3
C S g of vaporization hfg, for each substance is then deter-
mined from Equation (28). Subsequently, the specific
The constants in the above equations, aij , rc , C1 , enthalpy at saturated liquid state hf, for each substance
C2 , C3 ; C4 , C5 , CS , Cf , Pc , R, Tc are constants in the can be found by subtracting hfg from hg.
above equation, which are obtained from Reference [5]. The procedures for determining the saturated
There are other thermodynamic relations that are specific entropies for both substances are similar. The
used in the computation of thermodynamic properties specific entropy at saturated vapor phase (sg) is
for both steam and R134a. The relations are as follow: computed using the respective entropy equation for
each substance (i.e., Equation (21) for steam and
(i) Enthalpy of vaporization equation (from Equation (27) for R134a). Then, the specific entropy
Clapeyron equation): of vaporization (sfg) is found from Equation (30).
  Finally, the specific entropy at saturated liquid phase
dPsat
hfg ¼ Tvfg ð28Þ is determined by subtracting sfg from sg.
dTsat The procedures for generating the thermody-
(ii) Saturated liquid enthalpy equation: namic properties for both steam and refrigerant 134a
(R134a) at a given thermodynamic state are much
hf ¼ hg
hfg ð29Þ more complex and cumbersome. This is because
(iii) Entropy of vaporization equation: seven possible pairs of thermodynamic properties that

hfg
Sfg ¼ ð30Þ
T
(iv) Saturated liquid entropy equation:
sf ¼ sg
sfg ð31Þ
(v) Enthalpy-internal energy relation:

h ¼ u þ Pv ð32Þ

Algorithm for Computing

Thermodynamic Properties
The algorithms for generating saturated thermody-
namic properties for both steam and refrigerant 134a
(R134a) are almost identical. The saturated properties
include pressure, specific volumes, specific enthal-
pies, and specific entropies. The saturated properties
are generated for temperatures within a given tem-
perature range and desired temperature increment.
For each temperature, the saturation pressure Psat
is first determined using the respective saturation pres- Figure 2 GUI components for applet generating
sure equation for each substance. Then, the saturated saturated properties. [Color figure can be viewed in the
liquid density equation is used to compute the specific online issue, which is available at www.interscience.
volume at the saturated liquid state vf. The specific wiley.com.]
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 217

Figure 3 Java applet for generating saturated thermodynamic properties. [Color figure
can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

Figure 4 Table of saturated thermodynamic properties generated by the applet choice box.
218 TAN AND CHUA

specify the state are considered, and algorithms have separate Java applets were developed. One applet
to be written for the determination of the thermo- generates saturated properties over a temperature
dynamic region corresponding to each possible input range. Another applet calculates the thermodynamic
pair. In addition, procedures have to be devised for properties at a given thermodynamic state.
computing all the properties at the given state in all the
possible thermodynamic regions (sub-cooled, satu- Applet for Generating
rated, and superheated regions). The seven pairs of Saturated Properties
thermodynamic properties that may be used to specify
a thermodynamic state are as follows: The main components required in the applet for
generating saturated thermodynamic properties in-
(a) Pressure & specific volume (P, v), clude the following:
(b) Temperature & specific volume (T, v),
(c) Pressure & enthalpy (P, h), (a) Choice box for indicating the choice of the
(d) Pressure & entropy (P, s), substance (water or R134a),
(e) Pressure & quality (P, x), (b) Textfield for higher temperature limit Th,
(f) Temperature & quality (T, x), and (c) Textfield for lower temperature limit Tl,
(g) Pressure & temperature (P, T ). (d) Textfield for temperature increment dT,
(e) Label for showing warnings or instructions,
When the thermodynamic state is specified by (f) Button for activating all calculations,
choices (a), (b), (c), (d), or (g), a comparison is made (g) Button for clearing the textfields.
between the value of the given property at the point
The layout and functions of the graphical user in-
state and the saturated values in order to determine the
terface (GUI) components for this applet is illustrated
thermodynamic region corresponding to that state. For
example, if T and v are given, the value of v will be
compared to the values of vf and vg which are com-
puted using the methods for the generation of sat-
urated properties. If v is smaller than vf, then the
substance is in the compressed liquid region. If it is
greater than vg, then the substance is in the super-
heated state. If not, the substance is in the saturated
state. When the thermodynamic state is specified by
choices (e) and (f), no comparison between any values
is required as it is understood that the substance is in
the saturated region.
Once the thermodynamic region is determined,
computation for all the thermodynamic properties
(except for given properties) in that region proceeds.
The properties that are generated include P, T, v, u, h,
s, and x (if applicable). If the substance is in the sub-
cooled region, the properties are approximated by that
of saturated liquid. In the saturated region, the quality
x, if not given, is first computed so that the rest of the
properties can be determined. The properties in the super-
heated vapor state can be determined using the given
properties and the equations listed in earlier section.

JAVA APPLETS

Java 2 SDK standard edition version 1.3 is used as a

development environment for building applications,
applets, and components that can be deployed on the
Java platform. It includes tools useful for developing
and testing programs written in the Java program-
ming language and running on the Java platform. Two
Figure 5 GUI components for applet generating
thermodynamic properties at a given state. [Color
figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
in Figure 2. To begin, the user will have to indicate
his/her preference of the substance in the choice box.
This is followed by entering the temperature range
and desired temperature increment in the relevant
textfields. Once the ‘‘Generate’’ button is pressed, the
applet will start to scrutinize the inputs before per-
forming the calculations. If the input is found to be
invalid (e.g., out of valid temperature range), no
computations will be carried out and warnings or
instructions for entering valid input will appear in the
‘‘warning’’ label. For valid input, computations will
be carried out and results will be tabulated in a table
that appears in a separate frame that is generated using
JFrame. To perform another round of calculations, the
‘‘Clear’’ button is pressed to clear all the textfields and
the above-mentioned procedures are repeated.
Figure 3 shows the user interface of the Java
applet for generating saturated thermodynamic prop-
erties over a specified temperature range. The R134a
substance is selected. A value of 240 K is entered for
the lower temperature (Tl), and a value of 280 K is
entered for the higher temperature (Th). A tempera-
ture increment (dT ) of 5 K is entered. When the
Figure 6 Java applet for computing thermodynamic properties at a given state. [Color figure
can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
219
‘‘Generate’’ button is pressed, the applet will compute
the thermodynamic properties for the saturated region
and display a window showing the computed proper-
ties of specific volume, specific enthalpy, and specific
entropy in a table as shown in Figure 4.
Applet for Computing Thermodynamic
Properties at a Given State
Compared to the previous applet, there are more GUI
components required in the applet for generating
thermodynamic properties at a given thermodynamic
state. They are:
(a) Choice box for indicating the choice of sub-
stance (water or R134a),
(b) Choice box for indicating the choice of
diagram (P-h or T-s),
(c) Label for indicating the thermodynamic region,
(d) Textfield for temperature T,
(e) Textfield for pressure P,
(f) Textfield for specific volume v,
(g) Textfield for specific internal energy u,
(h) Textfield for specific enthalpy h,
220 TAN AND CHUA

(i) Textfield for specific entropy s,
(j) Textfield for quality x,
(k) Canvas for drawing or plotting of diagrams,
(l) Label for showing warnings or instructions,
(m) Button for activating all calculations,
(n) Button for clearing the textfields.
The layout and functions of the GUI components
for this applet is illustrated in Figure 5. This time, the
user will not only have to indicate his/her preference
of the substance in the choice box (a), he/she also has
to choose a diagram to plot from choice box (b). This
is followed by keying in a valid pair of thermo-
dynamic properties (as specified in earlier section) the
relevant textfields. Once the ‘‘Calculate’’ button is
pressed, the applet will start to check the validity of
the input before performing any calculation.
If the input is found to be invalid (e.g., wrong
combination of input), no computation will be
carried out and warnings or instructions for entering
valid input will appear in the ‘‘warning’’ label. For
valid input, computation for the values of the rest of
the thermodynamic properties will be carried out and
the results will be reflected in the respective textfields.
The thermodynamic region that corresponds to the
given thermodynamic state will also be indicated in
label (c).
Another action performed by the ‘‘Calculate’’
button is the generation of a thermodynamic diagram
(either P-h or T-s). The thermodynamic diagram will
consist of a saturation curve (a plot of saturation
points) and a red dot that pinpoints the location of the
given thermodynamic state. To perform another round
of calculations, the ‘‘Clear’’ button is pressed to clear
all the textfields and the above-mentioned procedures
are repeated.
Figure 6 shows the Java applet for computing the
thermodynamic properties at a given state. The steam
with T-s diagram is selected in the choice box. The
user enters a pressure of 1 MPa and a quality of 0.7.
When the ‘‘Calculate’’ button is pressed, the applet
will compute the saturation temperature, specific vol-
ume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and
entropy. The computed values are shown in the text-
fields. On the T-s diagram, a black dot shows the given
state inside the saturated region.
Java Classes
Java classes were written for the equations used in
the computation of the thermodynamic properties for
steam and R134a. The numerical constants for
these equations are kept in interfaces, which will be

Figure 7 H2OPsat class that contains a method for computing the saturation pressure of steam.
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 221

implemented by the classes that contained the
methods for computing thermodynamic properties.
Figure 7 shows the H20Psat class that contains a
method (lines 7
18) for computing saturation pres-
sure of steam based on Equation (16). The classes and
methods that were developed for the equations in
earlier section were used in the coding of the algo-
rithms for computing thermodynamic properties. The
source code for the computation of saturated proper-
ties of R134a for a given temperature range is shown
in Figure 8. The properties at each temperature value
within the desired temperature range are computed
first (lines 6
25). Then, the results are added to a
property table (lines 27
37).
There are four important mathematical techni-
ques that are essential in the calculation of the ther-
modynamic properties of steam and R134a. They are
numerical iteration, linear interpolation, integration,

Figure 8 Source code on the generation of saturated properties of R134a for a given
temperature range.
222 TAN AND CHUA
and differentiation. These mathematical operations
were carefully coded as they are crucial in determin-
ing the accuracy of the computed properties.
Numerical iteration is basically a trial and error
process used to determine a quantity or variable that
is not represented by any mathematical function or
expression. This method was used to determine vapor
temperature and specific volume. Figure 9 shows a
sample source code that demonstrates the iterative
procedures (lines 6
10) in the computation of vapor
temperature. In this case, a temperature increment of
0.01 K (which is small compared to actual vapor
temperature) was used to ensure that the iterated vapor
temperature converge as close as possible to the
standard value.
Linear interpolation is a mathematical technique
that is used for determining quantity from existing
figures by assuming a linear relationship between
the figures. This technique was employed to determine
the value of specific volume at saturated vapor phase
(i.e., vg). A sample source code written for computing
vg of R134a at a given temperature using the method
of linear interpolation is shown in Figure 10. In this
case, the upper and lower integer approximations of
the given temperature were first determined (lines 7
and 8). Then, the standard values of vg (from standard
property tables) at these temperatures are used to
determine vg at the given temperature through linear
interpolation (lines 10
18).
Figure 9 Source code on the numerical iterations in the computation of vapor
temperature.
The computation of internal energy, enthalpy, and
entropy involves some complex mathematical inte-
grations and differentiations. The methods by which
these operations are performed have a direct impact
on the accuracy of the calculated properties. In the
computation of the thermodynamic properties of
steam and R134a, mathematical differentiations were
carried out based on the fundamental definition of a
derivative. This method is illustrated in Figure 11 for
the computation of enthalpy at saturated liquid phase
(hf), which is based on Equations (20) and (29). In this
case, the derivative ‘dPsat/dTsat’ has to be solved
before hf can be determined. Lines 6
8 in Figure 11
shows that this is achieved using the definition of
a derivative with a differential saturation tempera-
ture value of 0.001 K (i.e., dPsat/dTsat & [Psat(Tsat þ
0.001)
Psat(Tsat)]/0.001).
The mathematical integration in the computation
of the thermodynamic properties of steam and R134a
were performed by using the method of summation of
small elements. This method is illustrated in Figure 12
for the calculation of the internal energy (u) of steam,
based on Equation (20). In this case, the terms
‘[c (T)dT]’ and ‘[(1/r2)(rR
(@P/@T)r)dr]’ have to
be integrated over a given temperature and a given
density range, respectively. The method of summation
of elements is used to integrate the first term with a
differential temperature value of 0.01 K (lines 6
10).
The second term is integrated by the same method
 JAVA APPLET ON COMPUTATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 223

Figure 10 Source code on the determination of vg by linear interpolation.

Figure 11 Source code on mathematical differentiation.

224 TAN AND CHUA
Figure 12 Source code on mathematical integration in the computation of the internal
energy of steam.
with a differential density value of 0.01 m3/kg (lines
12
20).
CONCLUSION
Java applets were developed for the computation of
thermodynamic properties of steam and refrigerant
134a. The performances of the programs were gauged
mainly by the degree of accuracy of the generated
properties based on the comparisons made between
the computed properties and the data from standard
property tables. The applet that generates saturated
properties for a specified temperature was found to be
successful in achieving 99% accuracy. On the other
hand, the applet that computes properties at a given
state is less consistent with the values from standard
property tables. However, most of the computed
properties were within 4% error in the sub-cooled,
saturated, and superheated regions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution
of Benny B. H. Goh in the development of the Java
applets for the courseware.
REFERENCES
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BIOGRAPHIES
Fock-Lai Tan was born in Singapore, in
1959. He received his BEng in mechanical
engineering from the National University
of Singapore in 1984 and his MSME
degree in mechanical engineering from
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
New York, in 1992. He is currently an
associate professor in the School of
Mechanical and Production Engineering
at Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. His primary research interest is in the area of
solidification and melting heat transfer. He has been actively
involved in the development of multimedia courseware for
university teaching and distance learning.
225
Association of Refrigeration; Japan Flon Gas Associa-
tion, 1990.
[6] R. Tillner-Roth, Thermodynamic properties of envir-
onmentally acceptable refrigerants, Berlin: Springer
Verlag, 1995.
[7] M. J. Moran and H. N. Shapiro, Fundamentals of
engineering thermodynamics. SI version. Chichester;
New York: John Wiley, 1998.
[8] M. C. Potter and C. W. Somerton, Schaum’s outline:
thermodynamics for engineers, USA: McGraw-Hill,
1995.
[9] W. C. Reynolds, Thermodynamic properties in SI:
Graphs, tables, and computational equations for forty
substances. Stanford, CA: Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Stanford University, 1979.
Patrick S. K. Chua was born in Singapore.
He worked as an R&D manager prior to
joining Nanyang Technological Univer-
sity, Singapore. Currently, he is an asso-
ciate professor at NTU. His research
interests are in the areas of fluid power
technology, automated assembly, condition
monitoring, and biomedical engineering.
He is also actively involved in the devel-
opment of e-learning courseware.