BIOLOGY
of materials throughout the cell
CELL THEORY
1. All living organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
2. Cell is the basic unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
DISCOVERY OF CELL
1. Robert Hooke (1665) – observed tiny empty
chambers in cork called cells. Hooke thought
that plants and fungi were the only ones that is
made up of cells; micrographia; Father of
Cytology
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1676) – tiny living
organisms are observed; first person to observe
an animal cell; animalcules
3. Robert Brown (1831) – first person to observe
the dark dense spot called nucleus
4. Matthias Schleiden (1828) – concluded that all
plants are made of cell
5. Theodor Schwann (1839) – concluded that all
animals are made of cell
6. Rudolf Virchow (1858) – concluded that all cells
come from pre-existing cells
TYPES OF CELLS
1. Prokaryotic Cells
 “pro” – before
 Do not have nucleus
 Possess cell walls
a) Eubacteria - true bacteria e.g.
cyanobacteria
b) Archaebacteria – ancient bacteria; can
live in extreme weather
2. Eukaryotic Cells
 “eu” – true
 Possess nucleus
a) K. Protista – single celled organism
a. Animal-like – flagella, ciliates
sarcodines, amoeba
b. Plant-like – Algae
b) K. Fungi – Saprophytes
c) K. Plantae – autotrophs
d) K. Animalia – heterotrophs
CELL STRUCTURE (EUKARYOTIC)
 Nucleus – control center of the cell; houses the
genetic material
 Nucleolus – produces ribosomes
 Ribosome – site of protein synthesis
 Smooth ER – site of lipid synthesis and
carbohydrate metabolism
 Rough ER – site of membranes and proteins;
holds some ribosomes; produce glycoproteins
when sugar is added to protein
 Golgi apparatus – modifier, sorter, and shipper
 Lysosome – digests cellular materials and
transports other materials throughout the cell
 Vacuoles – storage sac for water and nutrients
 Mitochondrion – powerhouse of the cell; site of
cellular respiration
 Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
 Cytoplasm – gel-like substance that fills the cell
and holds the organelles
 Centrosome – site of microtubules organization;
regulates the cell division cycle
 Cell membrane – semi-preamble layer that
surrounds the cell
 Cell wall – surrounds and protects the cell
membrane
CELL STRUCTURE (PROKARYOTIC)
 Glycocalyx – slimy layer of polysaccharides
outside the cell wall
 Flagella – provide motility
 Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout
from the cell surface
 Sex pili – rigid tubular structure to pass DNA
from cell to cell
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
Endomembrane System – system that is composed of
membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that
works together to modify, package, and transport lipids
and proteins
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosome
 Vacuole
 Vesicles
 Cell membrane
Vesicles – transport and secretes materials; sphere of
membrane that holds protein and other materials;
digests foreign substances
 Peroxisome – transport and secrete materials; it
comes from its parent peroxisome
 Lysosome – transport and secrete materials; it
comes from Golgi bodies
Cytoskeleton – support system of the cell. It is made up
of protein. Made from tubulin
 Microtubules – made of tubulin; came from
centrosome; large
Ex. Centrioles, flagella, cilia
 Intermediate filament –medium; cell
reinforcement, support and strength
 Microfilament – made of actin; supports cell’s
movements; small
 Ex. Phagocytotic & amoeba movement
Cisternae – stack piles of Golgi bodies and ERs
Non-membrane Organelles
1. Ribosomes
2. Microtubules, microfilaments
 3. Centrioles
Compartmentalization
1. Divides the organelles into sections
2. Allows conflicting reactions
3. Serves as protection against foreign substances
that may harm the organelles
4. Increase the surface area while the volume is
constant
5. Separates the DNA of Nucleus, mitochondria
and chloroplast
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
 A theory that explains how eukaryotic cells may
have evolved from prokaryotic cells; a theory
stated by Lynn Marguilis
Phagocytosis – capability of a cell to engulf a solid
particle to form an internal compartment
Evidence of Endosymbiosis
1. DNA 2. Ribosomes 3. Double Membrane 4.
Reproduction (binary fission)
Most important organelles
1. Mitochondrion – site of cellular respiration
 Cristae – the folding of the inner
membrane
 Matrix – the spaces between cristae
that is the specific site of cellular
respiration
 Outer membrane – site of electron
transport chain
2. Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
 Granum – stack of thylakoid
 Thylakoid – site of light reaction of
photosynthesis
 Stroma – liquid that surrounds the
thylakoid where dark reaction of
photosynthesis occurs
 Lamellae – connects two grana
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
 States that life came from non-living things
1. Aristotle - first stated the notion that life can
arise from non-living organisms
2. Francisco Redi (1668) – opposed this theory
using an experiment where he left meat in 6
containers, two were open to the air, two were
tightly sealed, and two were covered by a cloth.
However, there were only maggots in the
containers that were open to air and covered to
cloth and he concluded that maggots came
from the flies not from the meat.
3. John Needham (1745) – opposed Redi’s
conclusions where he conducted his own
experiment. He heated the broth in a flask to
kill pre-existing microbes and seal the flask. He
concluded that there were numerous microbes
inside the broth after seeing the results.
However, he likely did not boil the broth
enough to kill all pre-existing microbes
4. Lazzaro Spallanzani (1765)– opposed
Needham’s conclusions by creating the same
experiment but the heating process is much
longer and removed the presence of air. His
findings suggest that microbes were introduced
by the air not by broth itself.
5. Louis Pasteur – supported Spallanzani’s findings
by creating a long, twisted neck-shaped flasks.
This allows air inside the flasks to be exchange
with the air from outside and it also prevents
the introduction of any airborne
microorganisms. This experiment disproves
Spontaneous Generation
CELL MODIFICATIONS
 Microvilli – finger-like extensions which increase
surface area for absorption
 Cilia – short, hair-like fibers that move in a
wave-like motion to carry materials along the
surface of the cell
 Flagella – for motion
 Hemidesmosome – link cytoplasmic filaments
(cytoskeleton) to basal lamina (extracellular
matrix)
 Tight Junction – holds cells together; help
maintain polarity of cells by preventing lateral
diffusion of integral proteins
 Adhering Junction – found beneath the tight
junction; maintain integrity of cell to better bind
 Gap Junction – connexons of one membrane
aligns with connexons of adjacent membrane so
hydrophilic membrane can be transported; for
cell communication
 Desmosome – helps to resist shearing forces
and found in simple & stratified squamous
Nervous Tissue – type of animal tissue; composed of
nerve cells that support cells
 Dendrite – receives impulses
 Axon – impulse is transmitted to other
neurons
Connective Tissue – animal tissue; connects, supports,
binds or separates other tissues/organs; embedded in
an amorphous matrix
 Connective Tissue Proper (CTP) – made
of loose connective tissue found in the
skin and fibrous connective tissue made
of collagenous fibers found in tendons
and ligaments; ex. Adipose tissue
 Cartilage – collagenous fibers
embedded in chondroitin sulfate
 Blood – made up of plasma (water, salt,
dissolved proteins, erythrocytes,
leukocytes & platelets)
 Bone connective tissue – mineralized
connective tissue made by cells called
osteoblast which deposit collagen
Muscle Tissue – composed of long cells that allow the
body to move voluntary and involuntary
  Cardiac – striated with intercalated disk  SYNTHESIS – replication of DNA
for synchronized contraction;  GAP 2 – ensures that the DNA is being
involuntary duplicated; 5-6 hours
 Skeletal – striated; for voluntary  GAP 0 – apoptosis/programmed cell death
movements
 Smooth – not striated; involuntary M phase – cell division occurs; approx. 1 hour

Checkpoints – G1, G2, and M checkpoints

Epithelial Tissue – commonly seen outside the body as
covering of organs; closely joined cells with tight  Cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase reacts
junctions chemically to produce maturation promoting
factor (MPF)
 Simple Columnar – brick-shaped cells
for secretion and active absorption; MITOSIS
Ciliated tissues including the bronchi,
uterine tubes, and uterus; smooth 1. Prophase
(nonciliated tissues) are in the digestive  Nuclear envelope disappears
tract bladder  Chromatid finds its pair
 Cuboidal – used for secretion; found in  Centrosomes moving opposite to each
ducts and secretory portions of small other
glands and in kidney tubules  Nucleolus not visible
 Stratified Squamous – multilayered and 2. Metaphase
generates quickly; for protection; Lines  Alignment of chromosome to the
the esophagus, mouth, and vagina
equatorial plate
 Simple Squamous – plate-like cells used
3. Anaphase
for diffusion; Air sacs of the lungs and
the lining of the heart, blood vessels  Chromatids separate
and lymphatic vessels 4. Telophase
 Pseudostratified Columnar – single  Formation of cleavage furrow/cell plate
layer of cells with varying height; lining  Nucleolus and nuclear envelope start to
of respiratory tract, lined with cilia – reappear
sweeps the mucous  Chromatids start to decondense
 Stratified Cuboidal - sweat glands,
salivary glands, and mammary glands; Cytokinesis – division of cytoplasm
for protection Mitosis produce 2 diploid daughter cells
 Stratified columnar – for secretion and
protection; male urethra and the ducts
of some glands.
MEIOSIS 1
CELL CYCLE 1. Prophase 1
 Genome – can consist of single or a number of  Synapsis – pairing of homologous
DNA molecules chromosomes
 Chromosome – where DNA are packaged  Crossing over – exchange of genes/DNA
 Chromatin – complex of DNA and protein that in the chiasma
condenses during cell division 2. Metaphase 1
 Somatic – body cells 3. Anaphase 1
 Gametes – sex cells  Homologous chromosomes separate
 Chromatid – condensed form of chromatin 4. Telophase
 Centromere – narrow waist of chromosome,
where the sister chromatids are most closely Product: 2 diploid daughter cells
attached MEIOSIS 2 – just like mitosis; no crossing over and
 Aster – radial array of short microtubules synapsis occur
 Kinetochore – protein complex in centromere
 Karyotype – ordered display of pairs of Product: 4 haploid daughter cells
chromosome in a cell

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

Interphase – preparation of cell for division; 90% of cell 1. Passive Transport – does not use the cell’s
cycle energy in bringing materials in & out of cell
 GAP 1 – increase in size, duplication of 2. Active Transport – use cell’s ATP in bringing
organelles; 4-6 hours materials in & out of cell
 3. Bulk Transport – involves membrane-bound
vesicles in bringing materials in & out of cell

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

1. Diffusion - the random movement of particles of

a solute from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration. It stops at
equilibrium (when the concentrations across a
membrane are equal)

Rate of diffusion depends on

 if the material is solid, liquid or gas.
 the size of the molecules.
 Temperature
2. Osmosis - the diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane. Water will
move to where there is a greater amount of
solute.
 Hypertonic - the concentration of solute
is higher outside the cell than inside the
cell, making it shrink.
 Hypotonic - the concentration of solute
is lower outside the cell than inside the
cell, making the cell swell.
 Isotonic - the concentration of solute
inside and outside of the cell is the
same (achieved homeostasis)
3. Facilitated Diffusion – involves large or charged
molecules that need a protein helper to get in &
out of the cell.
 Glucose is able to enter our cells from
the blood stream by facilitated
diffusion.
 Ion channels & aquaporins

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Sodium – Potassium Pump

 Sodium and potassium atoms are pumped
against the gradient using ATP. By pumping
against the gradient, the cell builds an even
bigger gradient (difference between
concentrations across the membrane) that
helps nerve impulses.

BULK TRANSPORT

1. Exocytosis - moving materials OUT of the cell.

2. Endocytosis - moving materials INTO the cell.
 Pinocytosis: bringing small molecules or
liquids into the cell
 Phagocytosis: bringing large molecules into
the cell