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Workplace Culture – Impact on Happiness & Success

Workplace Culture – Impact on Happiness & Success

July 26, 2019 • 19 Likes • 2 Comments

Mridul Srivastava

Mridul Srivastava

HR Leader & Business Advisor, Cultural Evangelist, Thought Leader, Value Creator through People, HR
Innovations |

An organisation discriminates certain groups over the others, evidenced in promotions and
terminations. Employees walk on eggshells to avoid being targeted by managers, who are never
addressed. Flexibility is non-existent; work hours, setting, and processes are already established, and
employees must conform. When push comes to shove, the organization won’t support its employees
when a customer complains. The organization has failed to move forward over time or isn’t open to
innovative ideas and change. The CEO demands to be included in the selection process for a receptionist
six levels below her in the org chart. Employees are often reprimanded (or even fired) for the first
transgression rather than corrected and guided. Organization allows bad apples to stay because of
friendships or relationships. Managers and other employees are largely aloof or indifferent and invest
little of themselves to their work and to each other besides the bare minimum. Managers and other
employees are largely aloof or indifferent and invest little of themselves to their work and to each other
besides the bare minimum. Organization has high demands and high achievers but doesn’t nothing to
recognize them. Employees aren’t given enough work or work isn’t challenging for them. Employees are
doing work they don’t feel good about or are aware of unsavory company practices. Employees don’t
understand their role in the large of the organization or their impact on the result……………….

Though slightly long list but does some of them sound familiar to you………………….. Yes you got it right,
these are the symptom of Regressive Organisation

Every organization is dependent on its top performers for a year-on-year growth. A simple 80:20 rule
where in your 20 % of the employees contribute to 80% of the organisational growth. But what happens
when the brightest stars of your organization leave? Many times, the reasons to change are the
monetary benefits, the perks and business exposure. One can handle those situations, at-least
temporarily. But what if the reason to change is the organization’s culture?
 Culture has always been important, but today, it's becoming more than just a buzzword. Culture is just
not an important differentiation to set your company apart from the competition but also gives
conviction internally to face the odd of the market. Needless to mention that this also attracts the right
talent and brings in the right customers too. In changing workforce dynamics by addition of more &
more Millennials, culture is more important than ever. The free economy & market has given a choice to
Millennials to work for companies that share their same values. They want to feel like their work has a
purpose and makes a difference. In short, they want a good culture fit.

There are businesses that realize its significance and put effort proportionately to either improve or
sustain a positive culture while there are others who have ignored it all together. Nowadays with so
many employee engagement surveys statistically there has been some co-relation found to show the
impact of an organization culture, it is believed that employees from corporations with a strong
organization culture experience a sense of belonging, engagement and commitment towards their
organization which is indeed critical for success.

Employers can use the following tips to help build a positive corporate culture at their workplace:

Emphasis on employee wellness : No organization can expect to foster a positive culture without healthy
employees. Employees need to feel their best – physically, mentally and emotionally – in order to
contribute to a positive culture. In many ways, employee wellness is a foundation for a positive
corporate culture. Leaders should ensure that employees have the resources, tools and on-site
healthcare opportunities they need to live their healthiest life – inside and outside of the office.

Grow off your current culture : Building a positive corporate culture doesn’t mean employers should
completely scrap everything their company currently stands for. Rather than expecting employees to do
a complete 180, employers should work on enhancing the current culture they have. Ask employees
what they do and don’t like about their current culture and work environment. Leaders should use these
suggestions to help create a positive corporate culture that’s appropriate for their workforce.

Provide meaning : Meaning and purpose are more important in the workplace now than ever. A majority
of employees crave meaning and purpose in their work. Without it, job satisfaction takes a major hit.
And a company certainly can’t build a culture without any meaning behind its work. Create a mission
statement and core values and communicate these to employees. Give employees specific examples of
how their roles positively impact the company and its clients.

Create goals : No organization can have corporate culture without clear goals in place. Employers should
gather with their team to create goals and objectives that everyone can work towards. Creating a
company goal brings employees together and gives everyone something specific to work towards –
other than a paycheck. Infact Incentives/Variable pay etc should be loosely coupled with the goals so
that employees can take over stretch targets.

Encourage positivity: In order to build a positive culture, employers need to start by encouraging
positivity in the workplace. It’s essential to promote positivity on a daily basis. Employers should lead by
example by expressing gratitude, smiling often and remaining optimistic during difficult situations.
Employees are much more likely to engage in positive behavior when they see their employers doing so.

Foster social connections : Workplace relationships are an essential element to a positive company
culture. When employees barely know their colleagues and rarely interact, there’s no possible way for a
strong culture to grow. Leaders need to provide employees with opportunities for social interactions in
the workplace. Consider weekly team meals, happy hour excursions or even a book club to get things
started.

Listen : Being a good listener is one of the easiest ways employers can start to build a positive culture.
According to research, 86% of employees at companies with strong cultures feel their senior leadership
listens to employees, as compared to 70% of employees at companies without strong culture. Listen to
employees, and make sure they feel their voices are heard and valued.

Empower “culture champions.” Similar to “wellness champions,” culture champions are employees who
embody the values and missions of a company. They are excited to promote a company’s aspirations
and encourage others to do the same. Identify these employees and encourage them to keep spreading
the cheer.

Published By

Mridul Srivastava

Mridul Srivastava

HR Leader & Business Advisor, Cultural Evangelist, Thought Leader, Value Creator through People, HR
Innovations |

#Companies #Culture Workplace Culture - Overly talked but under emphasized

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The ever evolving role of Human Resource Function

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May 20, 2020

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History

Current Students

Modules

The European World, 1500-1750 (HI203)

Glossary

Glossary of Religious Terms

Anglicanism

The version of Christianity espoused by the Church of England, often understood to comprise a blend of
Catholic and Protestant elements. NB – this concept, and the word itself, is anachronistic before about
the middle of the seventeenth century. Before then (and for long after) the great majority of the
members of the Church of England thought of themselves as Protestants.

Antichrist
The leading enemy of Christ and his teaching, referred to in various biblical passages, and widely
expected to appear on earth before the end of the world. Luther, and many subsequent Protestants,
identified the papacy (rather than an individual pope) as the antichrist.

Arminianism

Beliefs associated with the Dutch theologian, Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609), who came to deny
predestination – a kind of Calvinist ‘heresy’. Arminian clergy were much promoted by Charles I of
England. (NB Arminians, not Armenians, a people from the Caucasus!)

Augustinian

Connected with the teaching of St Augustine (354-430), probably the most important theological
authority for both Catholics and Protestants in this period. Often associated with a ‘hard’ line over grace
[qv], stressing that people can do little by their own efforts, and everything comes from God.

Baptism

Sacrament [qv] by which persons are admitted to membership of the visible church on earth, involving
water and a formula invoking the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics, and most Protestants
insisted on baptism of infants, and condemned Anabaptists who held there was no authority for this in
scripture and practised adult baptism.

Catechism

A form of religious instruction set out in a simple question-and answer format.

Catholics/Catholicism

Most commonly used to signify Christians recognising spiritual authority of the pope. ‘Roman Catholic’
can be used after about 1560. Technically, ‘Catholic’ means universal, and the creed recited by most
Christians in this period affirms belief in ‘the holy catholic church’. Thus, in theological terms, Protestant
thinkers would deny that the Roman Church was the same as the Catholic Church, and would
themselves claim to be Catholics! (Hence, the popularity of derogatory terms such as ‘papist’).

Elevation

The lifting up of the consecrated host [qv] and chalice during the mass, regarded by many Protestants as
idolatrous.
Eucharist

The sacrament [qv] in which bread and wine is blessed or consecrated and then consumed (the
communion).

Grace

The supernatural assistance of God to make Christians more holy (sanctified). Much theological debate
has focused on whether the free gift of God’s grace is a necessary precondition for all good works, and
the role that human freewill plays in co-operating with grace.

Host

The flat wheaten disc used for celebration of the eucharist. Many Protestants preferred to use ordinary
bread.

Heresy

Obstinate persistence in false belief. Both the Catholic and Protestant churches recognised the concept,
though the Catholics had more developed mechanisms (Inquisition, Index of forbidden books) for
punishing it.

Iconography

The systematic description of the visual components of an image; the pattern of images making up the
theme in a depiction. (adj. iconographical).

Iconoclasm

The breaking of religious imagery (statues, stained glass, crosses etc) in belief that they represent
idolatry [qv].

Idolatry

The worship of false idols, condemned in the bible, especially the Ten Commandments. Protestants had
a much wider concept than Catholics of what constituted idolatry.

Justification
The process by which people are restored to God’s favour, having lost it through sin. Luther taught the
doctrine of ‘justification by faith alone’ – ie good works had no role in making Christians pleasing to God.
He also held that justification did not make people good or righteous, but because of the sacrifice of
Christ on the cross God accepted them as if they were.

Laity/laypeople

Members of the Church who do not belong to the clergy.

Liturgy

The various texts of church services (adj. liturgical).

Lord’s Supper

Term sometimes used by Protestants for the eucharist.

Mass, the

Catholic church service in which the eucharist [qv] is celebrated.

Mendicants

Another name for friars.

Millenarianism

The belief that the end of the world is imminent, and will be preceded by the rule of the ‘saints’ upon
earth. Also called chiliasm.

Penance

The sacrament by which Christians express sorrow for sin, and receive God’s forgiveness. In Catholic
practice done through confession to a priest (auricular confession) who confers absolution. Penance is
also used to mean the action required to demonstrate true repentance: ‘doing penance’ by saying
prayers, fasting etc.

Predestination
Belief that from the beginning of time, God has chosen some for eternal life in heaven, others for
eternal damnation in hell. Virtually all Christian theologians accepted predestination in some form or
other, but the doctrine is particularly associated with Calvin and his followers, who believed that men
and women played no co-operating role in their salvation – ie heaven could not be ‘won’ or ‘lost’ by any
actions in this life.

Protestantism

Generic term for the churches (excluding the eastern orthodox) who rejected the authority of the
papacy.

Purgatory

A place or state of being after this life, where souls destined for heaven would have their sins purged
away – in Catholic popular teaching images of fire and torment predominated. Protestants rejected
purgatory as unscriptural.

real presence

the belief that Christ is present in the bread and wine of the eucharist in more than a merely figurative
or symbolic way. (Lutherans and Zwinglians disagreed over this).

Reformed, the

Protestant churches of Switzerland and southern Germany who drew their inspiration from the Swiss
reformers rather than from Luther.

regular clergy

priests living under a rule (lat. regula) and in a community: monks and friars. (NB monks were supposed
to live a contemplative life, withdrawn from the world, while friars took a more active role in preaching
and hearing confessions and were supposed to live by begging. The distinction was sometimes blurred in
practice.)

religious, the

often used to mean members of religious orders (ie not just modern sense of 'pious')

sacrament
a visible ritual action designed to convey an invisible spiritual grace, usually performed by a priest. The
Catholic Church recognised seven sacraments: baptism [v], confirmation, eucharist [qv], penance [qv],
holy orders, marriage, anointing of the sick (extreme unction); Protestantism usually only two: baptism
and the eucharist (though sometimes penance as well).

schism

split within the church, which may or may not lead to heresy [qv]. (Catholics regarded the eastern
orthodox as schismatics, but not usually as heretics, even though they rejected the authority of the
pope).

scripture

the bible. Believed by both Catholics and Protestants to be the ultimate source of religious truth.
Protestantism regarded it as the only source of authority (sola scriptura), and believed God would
enable right-minded readers to interpret it the right way. Catholicism taught that scripture was
supplemented by the tradition of the Church, and that the Church was the authoritative interpreter of
scripture. (NB Protestants and Catholics recognised slightly different texts: Catholicism accepted as
authentic books in the Greek version of the Old Testament not included in the Hebrew bible - the
Apocrypha).

Thomist

refers to the teaching of the thirteenth-century systematic theologian Thomas Aquinas, favoured by
Catholics, but not Protestants.

transubstantiation

The Catholic belief that in the eucharist the bread and wine is completely replaced by the real body and
blood of Christ. This depends on a philosophical distinction between the accidents and substance of an
object. While the accidents (shape, colour, taste etc) remain, the substance is transformed. All
Protestants rejected transubstantiation, even those retaining a belief in the real presence.

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For all other queries: WarwickHistory@warwick.ac.uk

Department of History, University of Warwick,

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All Systems Operational

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

12-2008

Managing cultural diversity in hospitality industry

Yi Gong

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations Part of the

Hospitality Administration and Management Commons

Repository Citation

Gong, Yi, "Managing cultural diversity in hospitality industry" (2008). UNLV Theses, Dissertations,
Professional Papers, and Capstones. 480. http://dx.doi.org/10.34917/1688179

This Professional Paper is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by
Digital Scholarship@UNLV with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this
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This Professional Paper has been accepted for inclusion in UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional
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information, please contact digitalscholarship@unlv.edu.
MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

by

Yi Gong

Bachelor of Science

China Chongqing University

1998

A professional paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Master of Science in Hotel Administration

William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration

Graduate College

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

December 2008

ABSTRACT

Managing Cultural Diversity in Hospitality Industry By

Yi Gong

Gail Sammons, Committee Chair Professor of Hotel Management

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Cultural diversity has become a major issue in the hospitality industry of the United States. This paper
focuses on analyzing the change faces and current status of the cultural diversity in the hospitality
workplaces, discussing the opportunities, benefits and challenges from the culturally diverse workforce,
and providing practical recommendations that might help human resource managers to successfully
dear with cultural diversity issues. Based on the analysis of cultural diversity, this paper creates a
cultural diversity training module for a graduate human resource course or a hospitality company
training program that aims at facilitating trainees to increase cultural diversity awareness and sensitivity,
learn knowledge of cultural differences, and develop skills of managing cultural diversity issues.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ 3

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 5

Purpose ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Justification ............................................................................................................................... 5

Constraints ................................................................................................................................ 6

Glossary .................................................................................................................................... 7

PART TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 7

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 7

Current Status of the Cultural Diversity in the Workplace in Hospitality Industry.................. 9

Opportunities and Benefits of Cultural Diversity ................................................................... 12

Valuable Innovation .......................................................................................................... 13

Effective Knowledge Transfer .......................................................................................... 13

Increasing Competitiveness .............................................................................................. 14

Building Images ................................................................................................................ 16

Challenges of Cultural Diversity ............................................................................................ 16

Communication Challenges .............................................................................................. 16

Discrimination Issues ........................................................................................................ 18

Training Challenges .......................................................................................................... 19

Practical Recommendations of Managing Cultural Diversity ................................................ 20

Adopt an Employee Relationship Management System ................................................... 20

Initiate a Diversity Management Training Program ......................................................... 22

Overcome the Stereotypes and Increase Fairness ............................................................. 23

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 25

PART THREE: CULTURAL DIVERSITY TRAINING MODULE .......................................... 26

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 26

Cultural Diversity Training Program ...................................................................................... 27 Needs of

Initiating a Cultural Diversity Training Program .............................................. 27
Goals of Cultural Diversity Training ................................................................................ 28 Target
Trainees ................................................................................................................. 29

Requirements for Training Success .................................................................................. 30

Competent trainer........................................................................................................ 30

Overcome stereotypes ................................................................................................. 30

High-level management involvement ......................................................................... 30

Monitoring and evaluation .......................................................................................... 30

Training Session Module ........................................................................................................ 31

Section One: Diverse Workforce in the Hospitality Industry ........................................... 31

Training topic .............................................................................................................. 31

Training objective ....................................................................................................... 31

Training process .......................................................................................................... 31

Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 31

Reading materials...................................................................................................... 32

Assignments .............................................................................................................. 32

Section Two: Growing Cultural Diversity ........................................................................ 33

Training topic ............................................................................................................ 33

Training objective ..................................................................................................... 33

Training process ........................................................................................................ 33

Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 33

Reading materials...................................................................................................... 33

Assignments .............................................................................................................. 34

Section Three: Managing Cultural Diversity .................................................................... 34

Training topic ............................................................................................................ 34

Training objective ..................................................................................................... 34

Training process ........................................................................................................ 34

Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 34

Reading materials...................................................................................................... 35

Assignments .............................................................................................................. 35
Section Four: Expatriates - Bering prepared ..................................................................... 35

Training topic ............................................................................................................ 35

Training objective ..................................................................................................... 35

Training process ........................................................................................................ 36

Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 36

Reading materials...................................................................................................... 36

Assignments .............................................................................................................. 36

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 36

APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................... 38

Sample Lecture of Section One: Diverse Workforce in the Hospitality Industry .................. 38

APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................... 43

Sample Lecture of Section Two: Growing Cultural Diversity ............................................... 43

APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................... 46

Sample Lecture of Section Three: Managing Cultural Diversity ........................................... 46

APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................... 50

Sample Lecture of Section Four: Expatriates: Being Prepared .............................................. 50

REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................ 54

Managing Cultural Diversity in Hospitality Industry

Part One: Introduction

People always talk about workforce diversity, such as age, religion, gender, etc. However, inadequate
attention has been paid to the cultural diversity issues, especially those that come from labor migration
(Baum, Devine & Hearns, 2007). As more and more minority groups enter the hospitality industry of the
United States, managing cultural diversity is becoming a challenging issue in this industry, especially to
HR managers (Holaday, 2007).

Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to create a cultural-diversity training module for a graduate college human
resource course or a hospitality company training program that will investigate the history and current
status of the cultural diversity, analyze the opportunities and problems, and explore solutions feasible in
managing cultural-diversity issues.

Justification

Workforce diversity has long been an important issue to which the hospitality industry has paid much
attention. A lot of research has been conducted to help employers to manage diversity issues in areas
such as age, religion, gender, etc. However, limited attention has been paid to the cultural diversity
issues, especially those that come from labor migration (Baum et al, 2007). In fact, a cultural diversity
workforce has long been an important reliance for hospitality industry (Christensen-Hughes, 1992). As
more and more minority groups enter the hospitality industry of the United States, such as the group
generations of African American, Hispanic Origin, and Asian, managing cultural diversity is becoming a
challenging issue in this industry, especially to HR managers (Holaday, 2007). It is important to carry out
research in this area to help managers to realize the current problems and stereotype in managing
cultural diversity and to explore solutions feasible in dealing with these problems. Meanwhile, related
study needs to be conducted to facilitate the industry to understand the opportunities and advantages
of successfully managing cultural diversity. It is also anticipated that the study can inspire more indepth
research and analysis in this field.

This paper will first begin with a literature review about the cultural diversity issues. In the literature
review the paper will analyze the current status of the cultural diversity in the workplace in hospitality
industry, discuss the opportunities, benefits and challenges coming from cultural diversity, and provide
practical recommendations to help HR managers to successfully deal with cultural diversity issues. Then
this paper will provide a cultural-diversity training module, which is designed for a human resource
course to help prospective HR managers to understand the history and current status of cultural
diversity, analyze the opportunities and problems, and explore solutions feasible in managing cultural
diversity issues. Related reading materials or podcasts will be introduced in this part.

Constraints

In this paper, the articles for the literature review are based on previous or current existing study and
research in the area of managing cultural diversity. Many data cited in this paper is of all the workforce
of the U.S, which results in a lack of statistic data specifically related to the hospitality industry. Besides,
since the training module is created by the author and has not received any testing in the real world,
there might be biases and bugs in the designing. These limitations can be gradually reduced by regular
reevaluation and revision. In addition, recommended reading materials and videos may be dated over
time and therefore needs to be replaced when trainers apply the module for real training program.
Another constraint of the paper is that the copyright issue limits adequate access to more professional
training visual materials such as videos or podcasts that can be applied to improve the training module.

Glossary

Cultural diversity: The term cultural diversity generally refers to the cultural differences between people.
The existing differences include language, dress, traditions, morality and religion, societies organization,
and the way they interact with the environment (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation, 2001).

Multicultural: Be of, relating to, reflecting, or adapted to diverse cultures that encompass racial, cultural
and ethnic diversity within the demographics of a specified place such as a school, business,
neighborhood, city or nation (Wikipedia, 2008).

Cross-cultural adjustment: The period of adapting to changes when expatriates on placement abroad
change their home base form one cultural to another (Branston, Ineson & Lyons, 2006).

Cultural shock: An unanticipated, negative response to a new experience with different culture
(Branston et al, 2006).

Part Two: Literature Review

Introduction

Diversity is defined as the differences among people. The primary dimensions of diversity include issues
such as gender, race, and age (Lim & Noriega, 2007). The workforce diversity that people always talk
about is mainly related to these core issues. However, inadequate attention has been paid to the
secondary dimensions of diversity, which include issues such as communication style, religious beliefs,
ethnic customs, relationship status, and general appearance. These differences can generally be
described as cultural diversity (Reece & Brandt, 1996).

A cultural diverse workforce has long been an important reliance for hospitality industry (Christensen-
Hughes, 1992). As globalization has become a driving force behind corporate strategic planning of most
international hospitality companies (Hudson, 2008), and as more and more migrant labors and minority
employees enter the hospitality industry of the United States, today’s hospitality industry is facing a
multicultural challenge. Both management and employees have various national and cultural
backgrounds. With this situation, companies have encountered some serious questions. 1. How to
increase fairness for all employees regardless of their different cultural backgrounds? 2. How to
maximize the contribution of every member in a diverse team?

3. How to make the diverse workforce to harmoniously work together to achieve common goals?

To answer these problems, companies must make efficient efforts to address the diversity issue no
matter whether the multicultural character comes up from the mobile workforce in the international
locations in various countries or from the mixed backgrounds of a workforce in a single location in the
United States (Day, 2007). Therefore, successfully managing cultural diversity is becoming a challenging
issue in the hospitality industry (Holaday, 2007). Line managers who supervise multicultural background
workers directly face this challenge. Expatriate managers also need to deal with cross-cultural
adjustment problems. Moreover, HR professionals who manage the whole workforce must realize the
importance of managing cultural diversity and design effective programs to help the company to rise to
the challenge.

The following literature review focuses on analyzing the current status of the cultural diversity in the
workplace in hospitality industry; exploring the opportunities and benefits of cultural diversity such as
knowledge transfer, innovation and competitiveness; discussing the challenges from cultural diversity
like communication problems and training difficulties; and providing practical recommendations that
might help managers to successfully deal with cultural diversity issues in both global and domestic
markets.

Current Status of the Cultural Diversity in the Workplace in Hospitality Industry

With the growth of globalization, more and more corporations have realized that they are not merely
competing for domestic market but also for the global market. Today, more than half of the world’s
assets are controlled by multinational corporations (Lim & Noriega, 2007). Globalization is as well a
trend in the hospitality industry. The expansion of international hospitality companies has never been
stopped (Lim & Noriega, 2007). For instance, with the rapid economic development, the Asia-pacific
area has become one of the dynamic markets for hospitality and tourism industry. Macao, Hong Kong,
Mainland China, etc. have turned out to be ideal places to open new properties for brand international
companies like Hilton and Marriott. It is reported that in order to chase Marriott and cash in on the
boom in business and leisure travel in India and China, Hilton Hotels Corp. has decided to add 300 hotels
to the 47 it already operates in Asia over the next decade (Stanley, 2008). Due to the coming 2008
Beijing Olympic Games, almost every brand international hotel company has opened new property in
Mainland China. In addition, many brand casinos famous in Las Vegas have rushed into Macao to open
properties to compete rivals and increase their market share in the gaming market there. What these
companies have to compete for now are the best talents in the hospitality market, especially those
competent and eligible global managers who can successfully cooperate with people from different
cultures (Doherty, Klenert & Manfredi, 2007). Thus, it is important and necessary for the international
hospitality companies to efficiently manage multiculturalism and help expatriates to overcome cultural
barriers.

Along with the continued globalization of hospitality industry, in the domestic market of the United
States, more immigrant labors and minority employees get into the workforce. The percentage of
minorities in the U.S. labor force is expected to increase to 29% in the first decade of the new
millennium (Elmuti, 2001). According to the Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics, Asian and
other labor force increase most rapidly, and the Hispanic labor force is projected to be larger than the
black labor force by 2010. In race and ethnic groups, the number of Asian and other employees (Pacific
Islanders, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives are included) will increase 44.1% by 2010 in the U.S.
workforce, while Hispanic employees will increase 36.3% and African American 20.7%. By 2010, women
will make up 48% of the workforce and the growth rate of women in the labor force will still increase at
a faster rate than that of men. (Fullerton & Toossi, 2001). In addition, minority groups are projected to
comprise almost half of the nation’s population by 2050 (Frabotta, 2001). Currently, the structure of
four group generations in labor’s ranks is as: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic Origin, and Asian and
Pacific Islanders (Frabotta, 2001). The U.S. Census Bureau has estimated that Hispanics will soon expand
over African Americans as the nation’s largest minority group, with a percentage increase of Hispanic
origin in the workforce from 10.9% in 2000 to 13.3% by 2010 and a percentage decrease of African
America from 11.8% to 12.7% (Fullerton & Toossi, 2001). With the percentage increase of minority
employees and the structure change of labor’s ranks, the work environment becomes full of cultural and
social challenges (Frabotta, 2001). In order to meet the needs of growing minority, ethnic and other
segments of society, important shifts in marketing and product development activities in the U.S.
industry will also be expected (Elmuti,
2001).

Due to the rapid growth rate of globalization and the labor structure change in the workforce of
domestic organizations, it is obvious that managing cultural diversity is becoming a big issue to most of
the twenty-first century employers of the United States. Undoubtedly, the hospitality industry must take
actions to follow the trends and cope with the challenge. As a result of multicultural workforces,
companies will have to become more sophisticated in managing cultural differences, such as providing
language training to overcome communication barriers (Elmuti, 2001). Many companies in the
hospitality industry have applied specific strategies to adapt to the trend of workforce diversity. For
instance, since MGM Mirage adopted a corporate diversity program in 2001, it has increased its
percentage of minority employees from 50.48% in 2001 to 54.38% in 2005, with a 4% increase in
minority vendors and contractor pool (Holtmann, 2005). Hilton launched a recruiting and training
program named as Elevator General Manager Program in 1998 to develop a group of talented,
internationally mobile people to General Management positions in its international market. Candidates
must be bilingual, and better have various cultural backgrounds. And this program is continued and
improved now (Hilton Elevator, 2008).

However, many companies in the hospitality industry still encounter difficulties of effectively managing
cultural differences. Discrimination and stereotypes coming from insufficient assumption of other
culture still exist in the workplace, even among some management level mangers. For example,
regardless of the increased portion of minority employment, most of the minority employees are still at
the entry or low-skilled level of the workforce. It is reported that in the restaurant industry, “minorities
account for 30 percent to almost half of all foodservice employees at the hourly level, but minorities’
percentages decline at the management level (Berta, 2006, pg. 49)”. Many employers in this industry
continue thinking that the minority workers were low skilled and tend to offer positions mainly in
backof-house in departments such as the kitchen and housekeeping. Many migrant workers may
therefore be under-used in the labor market (Baum et al, 2007). In addition, merely providing language
training can no longer meet the requirements of dealing with diverse workforce, especially for
international companies in the global market. The majority of all expatriate failures happen only
because of cultural difference problems (Caudron, 1991). Evidently, in order to increase employees’
awareness and sensitivities of cultural differences and effectively manage cultural diversity to maximize
corporation productivity, specific cultural diversity management training needs to be carefully designed
and seriously conducted in the hospitality companies.

Opportunities and Benefits of Cultural Diversity

Cultural differences can have both positive and negative impacts on organizations. However,
undoubtedly, these differences would not be considered as hazards but rather opportunities and
benefits if they can be managed well (Day, 2007). The opportunities and benefits include, but not only
include, innovation, competitiveness and knowledge transfer; increased attraction to minority
customers (Baum et al, 2007); better talent recruitment and retention; and labor cost reduction.
Successfully managing cultural diversity can also help companies to diversify supply base by developing
business partnership with minority-owned vendors to drive quality up and cut cost down (Ruggless,
2003), and help companies to enhance corporate images in neighbor communities as well (Fernandez,
2006). Take the Hispanics for instance. Since it is estimated that Hispanics will soon exceed African
American as the nation’s major minority group (Fullerton & Toossi, 2001), managers should concentrate
on hiring and educating Hispanics to use their input and ideas, which will help the companies to develop
marketing and product strategies to target this increasing demographic in the United States. The
benefits of targeting this growing Hispanic culture within the U.S. can aid the companies to increase
market share and profitability (Elmuti, 2001).

Generally, among the benefits of cultural diversity, four are frequently mentioned in the literatures as
the main reasons why companies in the hospitality industry endeavor to be diverse. The benefits include
valuable innovation, effective knowledge transfer, increasing competitiveness and building image.

Valuable Innovation

First of all, diversity often stimulates new business innovations (Johansson, 2007). Employees with
multicultural backgrounds and experience can bring in the industry more improved innovation by
providing new ideas from their different viewpoints. If employers can understand and appreciate their
different kinds of values and different ways of viewing the world, the companies can greatly take
advantage of the benefits that differences bring in. Many surveys reveal that if a team or a general
workforce includes individuals with different cultures backgrounds, more effective resolutions can be
presented for the business problems. When compared to homogeneous employee groups, diversified
employee groups show outstanding performance in the long run and efficiently take responsibility to
their duties. This difference is partially caused by the increased creativity and novelty in multicultural
teams that come from the diverse perspectives, views and experiences of their team members (Seymen,
2006).

Effective Knowledge Transfer

Cultural diversity can be helpful in knowledge transfer. Although human beings come in different colors,
shapes and forms, they do not seek to be different from others. Rather, people prefer to be with their
own kind (Denton, 1997). Most people agree with that when two strangers come together, it is much
easier for them to break ice if the two have some common backgrounds or experience. In the
workplaces, obviously, it is much easier to communicate and transfer information and knowledge if
some of the employees speak the same language, have the same cultural background, and think or
behave in similar ways. Efficiency increases simply because that misunderstanding can be greatly
reduced by eliminating communication barriers from cultural differences. For example, it would be more
efficient for a training manager with Hispanic cultural background to give training courses to employees
with Hispanic origin. This easier knowledge transfer greatly enhances the working efficiency and
productivity.

Increasing Competitiveness

Effectively managing cultural diversity increases companies’ competitiveness. The hospitality industry is
an extremely competitive one. To survive in the competition, companies in this industry will have to
control labor costs and increase customer count. In order to achieve these goals, companies must learn
how to motivate employees, decrease turnover, and attract more customers. Successful diversity
management will definitely do help (Belfry & Schmidt, 1989).

In today’s dynamic markets, companies have to serve various customer groups with different
characteristics. Hence, cultural diversity in the workforce can help companies to develop their capability
of understanding customers’ needs and keeping long-term business relations with them. Take
Maybelline as an example. By employing African American, Spanish and Asian workers, Maybelline has
improved strategies for products and marketing towards a new line of ethnic cosmetic market. This
change brings Maybelline 41% market share of the ethnic cosmetic market (Seymen, 2006). Clearly,
diversity creates net-added value to organization process (Cox and Blake, 1991). As some catering
providers in the service industry whose success highly depends on customers’ satisfaction, companies of
hospitality industry can greatly benefit from managing cultural diversity to increase customer service
quality and therefore attract more customers. Related research shows that a cultural diversified
environment with reasonable portion of minority employees can attract more minority customers
(Baum et al, 2007), especially for companies in the foodservices industry (Berta, 2006), which therefore
helps the companies to increase the market share and customer loyalty.

Meanwhile, companies with fair standards in hiring can gain an advantage over their competitors with
better talent recruitment and retention, given the gradually tightening labor pool (Berta, 2006).
Moreover, companies in hospitality industry can even enhance competitiveness by diversifying supply
base, for example, by developing business partnership with minority-owned vendors to drive quality up
and cut cost down (Ruggless, 2003).

In global businesses, the most important reasons why managers need to increase awareness of cultural
diversity and to manage it effectively can be reflected in the following statement by O. A. Symen (2006):

Providing for richness, perspective and a spectrum of alternative ways of thinking, creativity and
innovation; settling organizational flexibility; enriching the potential of human resource; recognizing the
needs of different markets better; stimulating job satisfaction; stimulating learning through doing;
providing the basis for specialization which is imperative in today’s complex business scenarios and
diminishing costs by reducing workforce turnover rate (p. 302).

Undoubtedly, just as stated by Belfry and Schmidt, having a company environment that is sensitive to
individual differences and their diverse cultural backgrounds can provide the company competitive
advantage (1989).

Building Images

Cultural diversity can help to enhance corporation images. The hospitality industry has been somewhat
passive about building a positive industry image for the public (Fernandez, 2006). It should take some
actions to build an image that this industry is willing to recruit more valuable minority employees from
diverse cultures. This kind of message can attract more young people to take hospitality as a possible
career option. In addition, diverse cultural workforce can make a company look and feel more like the
neighbor communities that it serves. This kind of images can help the companies in the hospitality
industry to be better recognized and accepted by diverse communities.

Challenges of Cultural Diversity

Aside from the benefits, hospitality industry still faces challenges of cultural diversity

(Baum el al, 2007).

Communication Challenges
Different languages and various cultural backgrounds increase the difficulty of communication between
employees in the workplaces. Language is always viewed as a crucial one among all the cultural features
that make up cultural identity (Ganen, 1999). As Geert Hofstede, the famous writer of Culture’s
Consequence, an influential book published since 1980, said in an interview, “I would say that
understanding of other languages is almost a necessary, albeit insufficient, condition for the
understanding of the phenomenon of culture (Powell, 2006,

p.13)”. Language differences often result in miscommunication.

The second factor that causes communication gap is the cultural background differences. Rather than
coming naturally, communication competence is a learned process like some other skills, which
therefore increases the difficulty employees with different backgrounds to understand each other
quickly and correctly. In addition, an intercultural communication may encounter more specific
problems than a communication with one culture does. With different knowledge or experience, people
in an intercultural communication have more difficulty to interpret others’ behavior, which increases
their uncertainty of how other persons will respond to the communication (Baum et al, 2007).
Employees of a company with diversity environment are therefore often poorly prepared to manage the
high uncertainty experienced in intercultural communication. For example, an immigrant worker from
Asia might be lack of knowledge or experience in dealing with a local American employee who was born
and brought up in the United States. Different cultural backgrounds often engender misunderstanding
when communication becomes unsuccessful or inefficient (Baum el al, 2007). Not only the workers, to
effectively manage team members with diverse cultural backgrounds, line managers also need to be
sensitive to the cultural differences that may affect the working relationship of employees. The ability to
work effectively with people who have diverse backgrounds is one of the essential skills that hospitality
managers require but may often lack (Baum, et al), which increases the possibility of miscommunication
in the workplaces.

Particularly, when individuals fail to conduct an effective cultural communication, they may feel
themselves excluded. At the same time, some feelings may be provoked such as suspicion, lack of
confidence, and even hostility. In many oversea properties of the international hospitality companies,
problems causes by communication difficulty seem more prominent. Take the expatriate mangers for
instance, communication difficulties can negatively influent their everyday life, which makes them
unhappy with their current situation and prevents them from successfully adjusting to the host country
and its culture. Obviously, proper cross-cultural training can help employees to cope with intercultural
communication obstacle. For expartiate managers, effective communication helps them to become
more efficient in the workplace, reduce their emotional stress, and ultimately aid them to complete the
cultural adjustment successfully (Seymen, 2006).

Discrimination Issues

As a visually oriented species, people tend to notice differences and seek to be with their own kind. In
the history of human beings, most of the bloody battles have been between social or cultural groups. It
seems that people are inclined to choose enemies based on cultural differences. One of the reasons is
that culture, once developed, refuses changes. It helps people to identify and strengthen their sense of
community. China, with its culture, may be the best historical example. As a cultural identity, China has
existed for over 2,500 years. But the Chinese cultural identity was almost intact after such a long time no
matter the countless invasions and changes in different ages. Just because people with different cultural
backgrounds always tend to protect their own culture, sometime conflicts easily occurs in multicultural
workplaces (Denton, 1997). Today, it cannot be ignored that cultural differences increase the possibility
of discrimination issues among workers. Direct and indirect discrimination among workers have
continually reported in companies with cultural diversity workforce (Baum et al, 2007). In fact,
discrimination does not only happen among employees. Sometime employers can also easily involve in
discrimination issue. For example, there are indications that some employers only focus on recruiting
minority but do not provide career progression for them (Baum el al, 2007). Due to some stereotypes,
minority employees get jobs in lower-skill level and might encounter difficulty to be promoted to
management level. Cultural differences cause communication difficulties, and communication difficulties
continually cause misunderstanding, which stimulates more cases of discrimination. Discrimination
issues result in the increase of lawsuit and claims, and these discrimination-related lawsuits and claims
would directly increase the company’s costs and lower the retention rate as well. Working productivity
may also be influenced negatively. One of the new human resource tasks is that managers must realize
the changing faces in the workforce of the hospitality industry and recognize it as a newly multicultural
one. Most importantly, companies will not benefit from diversity if they do not have related policy with
respect to equal opportunities and devoted to diminish discrimination. Programs of action to increase
general awareness of cultural diversity should be created to support the company policy (Baum et al,
2007).

Training Challenges

Diversity training aims at building up respect and increasing sensitivity for all of the differences among
employees and customers. In order to develop a diverse workforce, it is essential to reduce cultural
ethnocentrism and shortsightedness in employees (Lim & Noriega, 2007). Multicultural training will play
a key role to increase the awareness of cultural diversity in employees and build up a culturally enriched
environment in a company (Baum et al, 2007).

Training needs to be conducted to employees to help them to understand the requirements and
benefits of the cultural diversity. They should also be given training to increase their knowledge and
skills of dealing with people having different cultural backgrounds (Baum el al, 2007). Language training
and cross-culture-gap training are necessary and helpful to minority employees, especially to immigrant
employees and expatriate managers. However, no single course can sufficiently prepare trainees for
interaction with every culture in the world. Besides, how to conduct the training and meantime control
the training costs are also challenges to the current hospitality companies who devote to develop
cultural diversity.

Moreover, survey shows that although some companies do have diversity-training programs in place,
most of these programs simply have a goal to increase employees’ awareness of diversity and no high-
level managers in charge of diversity efforts. The only way that diversity-training programs will be able
to be successful in the hospitality industry is with the support of upper-level management (Lim &
Noriega, 2007).

Practical Recommendations of Managing Cultural Diversity

Although challenges exist, some approaches can effectively help contemporary hospitality companies to
manage cultural diversity.
Adopt an Employee Relationship Management System

In the 21st century, leadership styles may differ from those in the past (Clarke, 2007). It is vital for
managers to be sensitive to cultural differences so they can review their own perceptions and behaviors
and manage the diverse employees more accurately, otherwise these cultural barriers may cause
discomfort and stress for the judged individual (Baum et al, 2007). Although it is well known that
multicultural workforce in a companies is very helpful to performance and profitability, the culturally
diversified workforce can be difficult to effectively manage. To successfully manage the multicultural
workforce, managers should first realize that majority and minority cultures do not always share
experiences. The following strategies can also help managers to break cultural barriers and reap
advantages from cultural diversity. The strategies includes such as creating programs that increase
awareness of cultural diversity, improving positive attitudes toward differences among diverse groups,
realizing the same view points and relations among different ethnic groups, being flexible in
communication, and expressing personal concerns and confusions when facing cultural obstacles
(Elmuti, 2001).

In addition to these strategies, another important and effective approach to mange cultural diversity in
the workforce is to adopt an employee relationship management system. To integrate minority workers
into the workplaces, managers should accept the cultural differences by all the employees and create
good relationship with them. Some programs can help to build up the relationship, which include:
teaching other language to local employees, celebrating different religious or traditional holidays of
minority employees in the workplace, involving minority employees’ families into some company
activities, and emphasizing the importance of minority workers to the companies (Baum et al, 2007). It
has been proved that creating such a family atmosphere can successfully help keeping retention
(Frabotta, 2001). Unfortunately, many managers tried to create such an atmosphere through some
programs but finally failed. It is mostly because that they had not tried to know the personalities and
backgrounds of their people.

Managers should make an effort to build one-on-one relationship with employees, understanding where
they came from by having conversations with them during the down time or some social events. Most of
minority employees of the hospitality industry are young and independent. They prefer being listened to
and respected. And many of them traversed oceans to the United States without any support network.
Therefore, increasing communication with those minority employees and providing environment of
understanding and appreciating these employees can effectively obtain their trust and loyalty. Once
they become self-motivated, their productivity would also be enhanced accordingly (Frabotta, 2001).

Initiate a Diversity Management Training Program

Another factor ensuring effective management of cultural diversity is training program. To meet the
cultural diversity challenges, companies in the hospitality industry must have sensitivity to differences
(Clarke, 2007). Diversity training and education are necessary and essential to help companies in the
industry to become competitive and successful (Christensen, 1993). The increased globalization of
hospitality industry has made it necessary for international companies in the industry to work effectively
in foreign environments. Diversity management training program such as cross-cultural training can help
oversea mangers to learn knowledge about different cultures and help them to develop skills of
managing cultural diversity issues, which can therefore significantly reduce the potential costly failure
caused by cultural difference problems (Caudron, 1991). For international hospitality companies,
preparing current managers and future expatriate mangers with cross-cultural sensibilities is important.
To diminish cultural barriers that managers of international hospitality companies may encounter in
foreign countries, they will have to aware their own ethnocentric viewpoints and have the willingness to
go beyond them and learn about a different cultural environment (Canen, 1999). The cross-cultural
training section should be added into the training program to direct and help the trainees to understand
the cultural expectations and their additional nonverbal behavioral manifestations.

Diversity management training and multicultural education teach employees about various cultures.
These training programs help to diminish stereotypes and allow trainees to see the cultural differences
and the truth about other cultures. By the training, employees will show more respect to other people
with different cultural backgrounds, and achieve more understanding of others’ beliefs and their
traditions (Fernandez, Kleiner & Sturz, 2005). Many companies in the lodging industry have initiated
diversity management training program (DMTIs). Study of those lodging companies who initiated the
DMTIs as practices shows that employees’ perception of the importance of the training program
increases once they become involved in. The training program emphasizes communication and
educational training, which has positive impact to both minority and non-minority employees (Weaver &
Wilborn, 2002).

Since multicultural workforce includes every job position from the top management down to low-level
employees (Elmuti, 2001), diversity management training should be conducted in all levels in the
hospitality industry but not only in the entry-level or low-skilled level (Weaver & Wilborn, 2002). Say,
specific training programs aiming at managing cultural diversity should be carefully designed, continually
enforced, and gradually improved. Moreover, it cannot be ignored that for any training program that
has the chance of long-term success, upper level management must be involved to ensure the
implementation of diversity practices (Ahmed,

2006).

Overcome the Stereotypes and Increase Fairness

How much culture of others should be allowed to express has been the topic of many heated debates in
political fields. The Civil Rights movement has answered this kind of questions. Now culture becomes
hot in industry and business too. But as people agree with that it is all behind them, cases of
ethnocentrism, discrimination and cultural stereotyping can still be seen nowadays. This kind of issues
even happen on persons who have been acculturated into the American culture. “Stereotypes are
defined as a conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image (Fernandez, et
al., 2005, p. 58)”. For example, Asian employees may be thought as good learners with academic gifts,
while many Middle Eastern employees might be labeled as terrorists because of stereotypes of their
culture. Stereotypes can easily result in discrimination to minority employees with cultural differences.
And the discrimination may cause minority employees to feel ashamed of their culture and therefore
lack the willingness to cooperate with others (Fernandez, et al., 2005). Ethnocentrism is the belief that
one’s culture is superior over others’. Stereotype, ethnocentrism or discrimination can take place in
parts of the employees, or even among some managers. This negatively affects the whole company,
which might result in further isolation of minorities (Fernandez, et al., 2005). Companies devote to
diversity must first be aware of the stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and prejudice, and then create and
adopt effective strategies to overcome biases.

In the hospitality industry, improving fairness and equal employment opportunities are also very
important. “In today’s labor market, managers might need to be more of a talent scout than a resume
screener (Frabotta, 2001, pg. 46)”. Employers should recognize the talents of minority workers,
developing management opportunities to those qualified minority candidates (Ruggless, 2003). They
should first overcome negative stereotypes such as the assumption that minority workers only tend to
be capable of foodservice work like washing dishes. It is necessary to use some success stories to attract
more minority talents into this industry, which could help more minority talent workers to view the
hospitality industry as a viable career option

(Fernandez, 2006). In addition, hospitality industry needs to improve fairness in pre-employment hiring
screening. Job descriptions need to be more rational. New standards like structured interviews or
culturally sensitive tests should be added into the screening system (Berta, 2006). HR departments must
regularly review and reevaluate their current measures and mechanism for hiring and evaluation to
ensure that these systems are fair to applicants or employees with different cultural backgrounds. Make
sure that the screening tools are culturally sensitive and the testing is cultural unbiased (Berta, 2006).

Fair treatment is completely essential, but for a company who wants to meet the multicultural challenge
it is not enough. Completely evaluating diversity means treating people as individuals. Do not see other
people as cultures or as “pieces in some kind of multi-racial mosaic (Day, 2007, p. 216)”. In an efficient
diversity management system, companies should pay attention to the contributions that the diverse
workforce and unique individuals can make to the companies. When dealing with cultural differences, a
developmental method will help to increase fairness, diminish stereotypes, and make the diversity a
reality (Day, 2007).

Conclusion

The increasingly competitive world economy, gradual globalization of international companies, and
rapid changes in demographic trends and labor structure are posing great challenges to management in
the hospitality industry. Understanding and managing diversity has thus become important to the
contemporary hospitality industry.

Cultural diversity brings great opportunities and benefits to the companies in the hospitality industry.
But at the same time, these companies are still facing a big challenge as how to effectively managing the
multicultural workplaces. Many cultural barriers such as communication obstacle, discrimination and
stereotypes still need to be overcome. To increase the awareness and sensitivities of cultural diversity
management, related training program should be designed and conducted in the industry.

Although the hospitality industry’s interest in the outcome of cultural diversity is increasing, it seems
that in the academic field few educators have been concerned with the implications of adding cultural
diversity management into hospitality curriculum. Much of the burden of multicultural education as a
result has been on industry training (Lim & Noriega,

2007). As the future managers who will enter the workplace and deal with the cultural diversity issues
directly, hospitality graduate students need to be educated with multicultural management knowledge
and skills. There is necessity that cultural diversity management training is incorporated into college
curriculums, such as in a human resource course. Companies of the hospitality industry, especially the
HR departments of these companies, should also create and conduct effective training programs for
employees, providing diversity management training to employees to increase their awareness and
sensitivities to cultural diversity. Current managers and future mangers should be given additional
multicultural management training to polish their management skills in dealing with cultural diversity
issues. Cross-cultural training should be given to those individuals that will be entering the global
marketplace of hospitality management field (Lim & Noriega, 2007). Hence, designing some training
programs is necessary for the hospitality industry. In the following fart of this paper, a cultural diversity
management training module will be presented as a practical example for the hospitality industry.

Part Three: Cultural Diversity Training Module

Introduction

The literature review in part two of this paper implies that diversity training, especially cultural diversity
training, should be incorporated into graduate curriculum to educate hospitality students that will enter
the marketplace of hospitality management; and should be implemented in hospitality companies to
help employees to increase awareness and sensitivities of different kind of diversities, which ensures the
companies to be competitive and successful in the industry.

Hence, it is necessary and essential to create an effective module to guide this kind of training. As the
last part of the paper, the training module first defines the needs, goals and requirements of the cultural
diversity training program; and then creates some practical training sessions as a model that can be
applied in the graduate human resource course or used by HR managers of the hospitality industry. In
each training session, a formal training project is designed that includes the contents of training topic,
training objective, and training process. PowerPoint document for each session is created and shown as
appendix. Related reading materials and videos are introduced for each section as well. Future research
can focus on the assessment of the effectiveness of cultural diversity training or exploring the challenges
that trainers may face in implementing the cultural diversity training.

Cultural Diversity Training Program

Needs of Initiating a Cultural Diversity Training Program

Along with the continued internationalization and the increasing diversity of the workforce, a lack of
skills of managing diversity has been viewed as a main contributor to high turnover and lower
productivity in hospitality industry. As the workplace is full of people with different cultural
backgrounds, the standards of good leadership have accordingly changed over time. Having multilingual
employees is no longer enough to handle increasing diversity issues for hospitality companies. To
remain competitive in the marketplace, managers in these companies must have greater awareness and
sensitivity of cultural differences in their employees, stakeholders, and customers.

Since these leadership skills do not come naturally, to meet the needs of the industry, cultural diversity
training program should be designed in hospitality companies to educate individuals who are managing
and supervising, or will manage or supervise, a diverse workforce within the global market (Lim and
Noriega, 2007). Educational institutions also need to incorporate the training program into curriculum to
educate graduate students who prepare themselves for upper management or senior administrative
positions.

Diversity training is defined as “a means of establishing respect and developing a sensitivity for all of the
differences among employees and customers (Lim and Noriega, 2007,

p.67)”. Cultural diversity training can provide trainees a forum for discussion. A greater willingness to
talk directly about differences helps employees to build trust, make effective decision and even open a
door of compromise. This kind of training has seemed more necessary when skills of dealing with
difficult situations and communicating effectively in multicultural workplace are required (Day, 2007).

Goals of Cultural Diversity Training

Generally, there are three goals of implementing cultural diversity training. The first training goal is to
help trainees who learn to handle cultural differences to increase awareness of cultural diversity. People
learn from each other. By learning in a multicultural workshop, trainees can build an awareness of how
people are culturally different and how others view them from the point of view of impressions,
perceptions, and stereotypes. It is the starting point for proper cross-cultural sensitivity (Day, 2007).

Besides of increasing trainees’ awareness of diversity, the cultural diversity training program has a goal
to help trainees to obtain knowledge of possible differences between cultures. By participating the
training, trainees get to know where these differences come from and what forms they might take. For
example, how relationships are established in other cultures, what expectations an employee with
different cultural background might have; or how the communication styles are different in various
cultures. Recognizing and understanding these differences can help people build trust, communicate
more efficiently, avoid misunderstanding, and enhance harmony in the workplace.

The training program of handling cultural differences includes a third goal: to develop skills of managing
cultural diversity. With the increased awareness and knowledge of cultural differences, trainees need to
develop more skills to manage, communicate, or negotiate in a cultural diverse environment (Day,
2007). The diversity training program can prepare trainees these know-how skills.

In a sentence, the goal of the cultural diversity training can be simply described as to prepare individuals
to become competent intercultural communicators with cultural awareness and sensitivity (Baum et al.,
2007).

Target Trainees

Cultural diversity can create barriers in the hospitality industry. Employees must be prepared to deal
with business in the increasingly diverse marketplace, or prepared for wider international
responsibilities. Eligible trainees of the training grogram normally have three characters such as (1)
being willing to recognize that cultural differences do exist across cultures, (2) trying to understand such
differences, and (3) desiring to value the differences of others (Tung, 1993). In hospitality companies,
the training mainly target at team leaders, supervisors and mangers, especially expatriate managers. The
diversity training session that aims at increasing awareness should be given to all employees to help
them to interact with customers and each other more successfully. In academic area, cultural diversity
training can be given to graduate students in human resource courses. As future managers of the
industy, hospitality graduate students should have sensitivities about cultural diversity. They need
guidance to develop skills of dealing with cultural diverse situations, improve intercultural
communication skills, and overcome discrimination and stereotyping.

Requirements for Training Success

Competent trainer. Trainers who prepare students or trainees for management positions must foresee
the future needs of the industry. Before giving training, trainers themselves must receive educational
training in cultural diversity management. They need to identify what activities of diversity are presently
the most important, and therefore incorporate the important diversities into the training. Trainers
should better have cultural diversity backgrounds or experience, and should be given access to required
resources to develop research and deliver such training (Baum et al, 2007).

Overcome stereotypes. For the training program to be successful, stereotyping and other biases that
trainees bring to the classroom or workshop must be discussed. The training sessions must be designed
to first increase trainees’ awareness of differences. Trainees have to understand that there are
differences across cultures and it is necessary to develop skills through training to manage these
differences. Trainees must be educated that with the influence of cultural diversity certain behaviors
may not work in all situations (Lim & Noriega, 2007).

High-level management involvement. Without the support of upper management, the diversity training
program may face great difficulty to be successful in the hospitality industry. Top management must be
involved to ensure the training to have chance of achieving long-term success (Ahmed, 2006). High-level
management involvement is helpful in creating a corporation environment that appreciates innovation,
creativity, different opinions and diverse talents. Without such an environment, cultural diversity
training may not be conducted continuously or not have any developing future in that company (Lim &
Noriega, 2007).

Monitoring and evaluation.Like any other training program, the cultural diversity training should be
continuously monitored and evaluated. It has to be reinforced to guarantee that there is a positive
attitude toward the program. Feedbacks of the program need to be evaluated for future improvement
(Lim and Noriega, 2007).

Training Session Module

The following training session module is designed as a model sample that colleges and hospitality
companies can apply in their cultural diversity training program. Each section is designed as a one-hour
session. And the number of trainees is assumed to be around twenty.

Section One: Diverse Workforce in the Hospitality Industry

Training topic. The first section of the training module is about the diverse workforce in the hospitality
industry. In this section, trainers can start the training by introducing the definition of diversity and the
current status of diverse workforce. Two categories of dimensions of diversity will be explained. The
primary dimensions include the core issues such as race and gender, and the secondary dimensions can
also been seen as cultural differences. As the core issues of the primary dimensions, race, gender, age
and disabilities will be discussed in details respectively, each about ten minutes in the training section.
Training objective. This training session aims at giving trainees a background introduction of the diversity
in the hospitality industry. By introducing the basic information, the training session tries to increase
trainees’ awareness and sensitivities of diversity in the industry, and help them to overcome
discrimination and stereotyping.

Training process. A practicable training process sample is designed for reference. See

Appendix A: Sample Lecture of Section One.

Conclusion. After taking this training session, trainees should realize that (1) there are differences
between people; (2) diverse workforce benefits the companies; and (3) they need to respect others’
differences. At the end of the training session, trainers need to emphasize these expectations to
trainees.

Reading materials. Some reading articles are suggested in this section to help trainees to get more
information about the diversity in the hospitality industry. Reading article 1: Just do it: The time to
improve gender, race diversity is now. This article is about the topic of the lack of black women holding
executive positions in the U.S. foodservice industry, which is discussed at the 2007 Women’s
Foodservice Forum in Orlando, Florida (Kizart-Hampton, 2007). It is an article that helps trainees to
insight into the diversity issues about both race and gender. Reading article 2: Don’t waste this pool of
experience. This article is about the issue of age, claiming that older employees with experience are
important to the hospitality industry (Coburn, 2007). Reading article 3: Parkert: People with disabilities
an overlooked resource. This is an interview with Joanne Packert, in which the supported employment
manager at Chesapeake Service Systems presented her thoughts that operators should consider hiring
people with disabilities to affect their bottom line (Berta, 2007)

Assignments. Some assignments are designed to help trainees to digest what they have learned in this
training section and ensure that trainees are prepared for the next training session. Assignment 1: Read
the assigned reading materials to get an in-depth understanding of the diversity workforce in the
hospitality industry. Assignment 2: To prepare for the discussion in training section two, trainers are
required to prepare a one or two minutes example or story that they experienced in person or they have
thought as cultural differences. Trainees are encouraged to use the Internet to find more interesting
information about cultural diversity.

Section Two: Growing Cultural Diversity

Training topic. After introducing the big picture of the diversity in the workforce, the training can be
narrowed down to the secondary dimensions of diversity, say, the cultural diversity. The training session
can cover the contents such as the definitions of cultural and cultural diversity, the theory behind the
cultural diversity, the current status, and the benefits and challenges of cultural diversity.

Training objective. This training session is designed to orient and familiarize students and trainees with
the status quo of growing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry. It tries to increase trainees’
consciousness and awareness of differences in values, attitudes, patterns of behavior and
communication styles that may exist across cultures (Baum et al, 2007)
Training process. A practicable training process sample is designed for reference. See

Appendix B: Sample Lecture of Section Two.

Conclusion. After the training, trainees should have the awareness of understanding and respecting
others’ cultural differences, recognize the benefits from cultural diversity and learn to deal with cultural
differences in some situations. With this training, the trainees, most of whom might be current or future
managers, should realize the fact that people with different cultural backgrounds, because of their
upbringing, may support different values or assumptions that can influent the way they collaborate,
communicate, compete, organize and make decision (Baum et al, 2007).

Reading materials. Reading article: Operators outline programs, initiatives to guarantee diversity among
workforce. This article highlights the meeting of the Multicultural Foodservice and Hospitality Alliance's
conference in Dallas, Texas. Many cultural diversity topics discussed at the meeting are reported in this
article (Ruggless, 2003).

Assignments. Assignment 1: Trainees are required to read the assigned article to get indepth
understanding of the growing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry. Assignments 2: Trainees are
required to prepare a scenario for discussion in next training session based on their previous experience
that how a manger failed to manage cultural diversity, why they think so, and if there are any alternative
solutions. Students in college can be required to complete this as a writing paper.

Section Three: Managing Cultural Diversity

Training topic. This training session will lead trainees to discuss the topic of stereotyping and
discrimination to cultural differences in hospitality industry, and encourage trainees to explore efficient
solutions of managing cultural diversity. This training session is more like a workshop that trainers and
trainees participate together.

Training objective. The objective of this training session is to help students or trainees to overcome their
stereotyping and discrimination to cultural differences, and to facilitate them to develop leadership and
efficient cultural diversity management skills in the multicultural workplace.

Training process. A practicable training process sample is designed for reference. See

Appendix C: Sample Lecture of Section Three.

Conclusion. After the training, students or trainees should have managed the skills of how to
successfully create an efficient and friendly manager-employee relationship in the multicultural
workplace. Management skills do not come naturally. People learn from each other. A dynamic
workshop can encourage trainees to participate the discussion. And it is well known that for adult
learner, more participation can increase the efficiency and success of the training.

Reading materials. Reading article: Cultural diversity: Making staff differences work. This article
discusses the advantages of cultural diversity program to businesses, which can help trainees to
understand the reason why managing cultural diversity is important in running a business (Leitner,
2008).

Assignments. Assignment 1: Trainees are required to read the assigned article to get indepth
understanding of different approaches of managing cultural diversity and relate them to the hospitality
industry. Assignment 2: To prepare for the class discussion in section IV, every trainee is required to
choose a foreign country as an assumed expatriate location. The trainee needs to find out at least three
cultural differences that they might encounter if they would go to that country as an expatriate.

Section Four: Expatriates - Bering prepared

Training topic. This training session is specifically designed to target the expatriate issue. To follow the
internationalization trend in the hospitality industry, more cross-cultural training should be designed
and implemented to prepare expatriates before they enter foreign workplaces. This training session will
teach trainees knowledge about how various cultures differ from others and how expatriates can
successfully complete cross-cultural adjustment.

Training objective. Lack of preparation can hinder expatriates to complete cross-cultural adjustment
successfully (Branston et al, 2006). Managers working with international workers should be specially
educated and prepared for the difficulties of building cultural working relationships. This section is
designed to help current managers in oversea properties or future expatriate managers who are going
to enter international workplaces to gain knowledge and skills of breaking cultural barriers.

Training process. A practicable training process sample is designed for reference. See

Appendix D: Sample Lecture of Section Four.

Conclusion. After this training session, trainees should have built up confidents to develop new skills and
competencies in managing cross-culture difficulties in foreign workplaces. These skills may include
communication competency, proficiency in other languages and negotiation skills (Baum et al, 2007). By
taking the training, students or trainees should become aware of opportunities for additional and more
precise information about specific cultures (Lim & Noriega, 2007).

Reading materials. Reading article: Cross-cultural impact and learning needs for expatriate hotel
employees in Taiwan lodging industry. This article provides information of why and how important that
expatriates in hospitality industry need cross-cultural training to help them complete the adjustment. It
also provides some examples of the cultural differences between Asian and Western countries, which
helps the trainees to insight into the multicultural management field (Hu, Lynda & Yeh, 2002).

Assignments. Assignment 1: Trainees are required to read the assigned article to recognize the cultural
challenges they might encounter in international workplaces. Assignment 2: Every trainee is required to
complete a five-to-eight-page individual paper. In this paper, trainees are required to write about what
they have learned from the training sessions and what they want to learn if they will have chance to
participate similar training in the future. This assignment can help trainers to evaluate and reinforce the
cultural diversity training program.

Conclusion

Cultural diversity training is an approach that helps trainees to understand cultures and provides them
an overall perspective in cultural diversity. However, no one course can cover all the cultural differences.
An individual can still experience great difficulty when he or she applies the skills and knowledge learned
from the training in real situations (Baum et al, 2007). Training for competencies towards managing
diversity is by no means the most efficient method to help the industry to manage cultural diversity.
Creating an intercultural working environment is more important (Baum et al, 2007).
Since the training module is created by the author and has not received any testing in the real world,
there might be biases and bugs in the designing. These limitations can be gradually reduced by regular
reevaluation and revision. Recommended reading materials and videos might be dated over time, which
needs to be replaced when trainers apply the module for real training program. Another constraint of
the paper is that the copyright issue limits adequate access to more professional training visual
materials such as videos or podcasts that can be applied to improve the training module.

Future research can focus on the assessment system of the evaluating the effectiveness of the cultural
diversity training or exploring the challenges that trainers may face in implementing the cultural
diversity training to prepare graduate students or hospitality mangers for a multicultural workforce.

Appendix A

Sample Lecture of Section One: Diverse Workforce in the Hospitality Industry

Trainer: Good morning everyone. My name is Li Wang. I came from China and received my
undergraduate degree of Education there. I got my master’s degree and PhD. in UNLV, major in human
resource management. This training session is about cultural diversity management. With my
international backgrounds and experience, I believe I can give you some help to insight into the field of
cultural diversity. Before we start our training, I would like everyone to do a simple personal
introduction. Tell us your name, where did you came from, and if you have any international experience.

Students/Trainees: (Giving personal introductions)

Trainer: Good. We see many of you have international backgrounds or experience. You must have some
thoughts of cultural diversity. Before we get into the topic of culture differences, let’s first look at the
diversity itself. What do you think about diversity? Can you give me any

HR example of diversity?

Students/Trainees: (Giving example about diversity)

Trainer: Great. As you said, diversity is defined as the differences between people, such as gender, race,
appearance, etc. In fact, there are two categories of the dimensions of diversity, the primary dimensions
and the secondary dimensions. (Show the PowerPoint slide to students/ trainees). We can find out that
the core issues such as gender, race, and age you mentioned before are the primary dimensions of
diversity, and the secondary dimensions include issues such as education, communication style, religious
beliefs, ethnic customs and so on. The secondary dimensions can also be viewed as cultural differences
that mostly do not come naturally but are formed due to individuals’ various backgrounds or
experience. Both the primary and secondary dimensions of diversity make people uniquely different
(Lim and Noriega, 2007).

Trainer: The workforce is becoming more diverse in the U.S. Let’s see how it changes.

(Show the PowerPoint slide to students/ trainees) According to the Department of Labor’s Bureau of
Labor Statistics, Asian and other labor force increase most rapidly, and the Hispanic labor force is
projected to be larger than the black labor force by 2010. In race and ethnic groups, the number of Asian
and other employees (Pacific Islanders, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives are included) will
increase 44.1% by 2010 in the U.S. workforce, while Hispanic employees will increase 36.3% and African
American 20.7%. By 2010, women will make up 48% of the workforce and the growth rate of women in
the labor force will still increase at a faster rate than that of men. The number of workers 55 or older will
increase 50% by 2012 (Fullerton & Toossi, 2001). Employees with disabilities and immigrants from
developing countries are also continuing entering the workforce.

Trainer: As we mentioned before, race, gender, age and physical/mental abilities are some of the core
issues of the primary dimensions of diversity. Now let’s look at these issues one by one. Let us first
watch a video about gender diversity in the workforce. (Open the hyperlink of video in the PowerPoint
slides)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: What do you think of the gender diversity in today’s workforce after you watched the video?
(Encourage students/trainees to participate the discussion)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion)

Trainer: We must agree with that men and women are different. This is a report about gender research
(Show the table in the PowerPoint slides). Men and women show different characters in business. In
spite of these differences, employers should value and take advantage of the differences by enhancing
business performance with gender diversity. At the same time, employers must ensure equal work with
equal pay no matter whether the worker is male or female. However, although women’s share in the
labor force is increasing, there is still an 18% pay gap between male and female. Women continue to be
kept from getting upper level positions. There is still gender bias such as female managers do not or
cannot measure up to male (Wheelwright, 2006). If the stereotypes continue to exist, the goal of gender
diversity cannot be achieved.

Trainer: Let’s watch the next video about race. (Open the hyperlink of video in the

PowerPoint slides)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: What do you think of the race diversity in today’s workforce after you watched the video?
(Encourage students/trainees to participate the discussion)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion)

Trainer: The study of race in the U.S. has mostly been limited to the examination of African-American
and their relations with whites (Segura, 2006). Generally, the percentage of black and minority ethnic
workers in the hospitality industry is high, but still much lower in senior level. Most of them work with
low-level jobs such as housekeeping and kitchen work.

Discriminations still happen. So, again, overcoming stereotyping is necessary.

Trainer: The next video is about age. In China, there is an adage “An old person is a fortune to a family.”
Are old persons also fortune to corporations? Let’s watch the video. (Open the hyperlink of video in the
PowerPoint slides)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: What do you think of the issue of employing old persons after you watched the video?
(Encourage students/trainees to participate the discussion)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion)

Trainer: Obviously, older employees are fortune to our business. Employers can apply these experienced
employees into training positions to make use of their years of experience

(“Equality and diversity in the hospitality workplace”, 2008).

Trainer: The last video is about employees with disabilities. (Open the hyperlink of video in the
PowerPoint slides)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: Any one wants to share his or her opinion with this issue? (Encourage students/trainees to
participate the discussion)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion)

Trainer: Today, there are more than 56 million people with disabilities in the U.S., almost one out of
every five. In this pool, there must be talents with some disabilities want to and could work in some
areas (“Equality and diversity in the hospitality workplace”, 2008). Employers should give equal
opportunities to these people to crease a diverse and valuable environment.
Trainer: As a conclusion, we should realize that (1) there are differences between people; (2) diverse
workforce benefits the companies; and (3) we must overcome stereotyping and respect others’
differences.

Trainer: Two assignments to you after today’s training. First, please, read the assigned reading materials
to get in-depth understanding of the diversity workforce in the hospitality industry. Second, our next
training session is about the growing cultural diversity in the workplace. We will have some discussions
about this topic. Please prepare a one or two minutes example or story that you experienced in person
or you have thought as cultural differences. You can use the Internet to find more interesting
information about this topic and bring it to the next training class. Thanks everyone, and see you next
class.

Appendix B

Sample Lecture of Section Two: Growing Cultural Diversity

Trainer: Before we begin our class, let us watch a video first. (Open the hyperlink of video in the
PowerPoint slides named as cultural diversity.)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: We know today’s training topic is about cultural diversity. Then, what is culture? What is
cultural diversity? Do you have any thoughts after you watched the video? At the end of last training
session, I asked everyone to prepare a small example or story that you experienced in person or you
have thought as cultural differences. Anyone want to share that with us?

(Encourage students to join in the discussion.) Students/Trainees: (Join in the discussion)

Trainer: Thanks for everyone’s participation. You did very well. What’s the definition of culture?
According to the Webster, culture has the main meanings as (1): the integrated pattern of human
knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for learning and transmitting
knowledge to succeeding generations (2) “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a
racial, religious, or social group; and also the characteristic features of everyday existence (as diversions
or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time; (3) the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and
practices that characterizes an institution or organization (4) the set of values, conventions, or social
practices associated with a particular field, activity, or societal characteristic (Merriam-Webster, 2008).
(Show the PowerPoint slides)

Trainer: Every cultural identity has its own characters, which can be seen as cultural differences. Fro
example, Uganda has legislation against mini-skirts and Iranian revolutionaries have women back in the
veils (Denton, 1997). Asian people keep closer relationship to big family while western people are more
independent. These differences make cultures extremely diverse. According to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, the term cultural-diversity generally refers to the
cultural differences between people. The existing differences include language, dress, traditions,
morality and religion, societies organization, and the way they interact with the environment (UNESCO,
2001). (Show the PowerPoint slides)

Trainer: Once culture developed, it resists change. It is difficult for people to easily accept cultural
differences of others’. Why this happens? The theory behinds the phenomenon is that we are visually
oriented species and tend to notice differences. We seek to be with our own kind (Denton, 1997). (Show
the PowerPoint slides) Then, how can we deal with the cultural diversity, especially in the workplaces?
Let’s watch a video first. (Open the hyperlink of video in the PowerPoint slides named as cultural
diversity in the work place.)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video)

Trainer: What do you think of the advantages of cultural diversity in the workplace?

(Encourage the students/trainees to participate the discussion.)

Students/Trainees: (Join in the discussion)

Trainer: Very good. Just as you said, cultural diversity really benefits the corporations. The advantages
include such as innovation, competitiveness and knowledge transfer; increased attraction to minority
customers (Baum et al, 2007); better talent recruitment and retention; cutting labor cost; diversifying
supply base by developing business partnership with minorityowned vendors to drive quality up and cut
cost down (Ruggless, 2003); and enhancing corporate images in neighbor communities as well. (Show
the PowerPoint slides)

Trainer: How about the challenges of cultural diversity? (Encourage the students/trainees to participate
the discussion.)

Students/Trainees: (Join in the discussion)

Trainer: Yes, there are still challenges of cultural diversity that the hospitality industry needs to cope
with, for example the language barriers, communication difficulties, stereotyping and discriminations,
training difficulties, and cultural barriers for expatriates.

Trainer: Is these challenges manageable? Yes. We can manage the cultural diversity if we know more
about the differences. In the following training secessions, we will discuss how to manage these
challenges. To prepare for the next training session, I would like everyone to prepare a scenario for
discussion in next class. The scenario should be based on your previous experience about how a manger
failed to manage cultural diversity. It should be a true story.

Please don’t create one. If you don’t have such kind of experience, you can go online to find one. Then
turn it as a two or three page paper. Also include why you think it is bad management. Are there any
alternative solutions? What would you do if you were that manager?

Trainer: In addition, please also read the article assigned to this training session. It will help you to
insight into the cultural diversity in the hospitality industry. Thanks everyone and see you next class.

Appendix C

Sample Lecture of Section Three: Managing Cultural Diversity

Trainer: Good morning everyone. In the last class, we talked about cultural diversity. We know the
diversity in growing in the workplace of the hospitality industry. And we also know there are benefits
and challenges for a cultural diverse workforce. The most important point we have get is although there
are challenges, they are manageable. So today, we will talk about how to manage cultural diversity.
Trainer: Last class, I asked everyone to prepare a scenario based on your own experience about how a
manger failed to manage cultural diversity. Now, can someone share his or her story with us? When
someone talks about his or her story, I’d like others to think about the following questions for that case.
Is it bad management? Why do you think it is bad? How can the manager improve the management?
(Show the PowerPoint slides and encourage students/trainees to participate the discussion.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion.)

Trainer: Thanks for everyone’s participation. That is good discussion. Now we can see, there are no exact
rules or model for managing cultural diversity. But have you noticed that? One of the most often
mentioned word in our discussion is “communication”. If you don’t understand others’ cultures or if you
have different opinions with others, go to ask and talk with them. Communication, communication and
communication, this is the most important point in dealing with cultural diversity issues. There are some
practical recommendations for managing cultural diversity. (Show the PowerPoint slides)

Trainer: The first is adopting an employee relationship management system, which means that
managers accept the cultural differences of all the employees and create good relationship with them.
Some programs can help to build up the relationship, such as teaching other languages to local
employees, celebrating different religious or traditional holidays of minority employees in the
workplace, or involving minority employees’ families into some company activities (Baum et al, 2007). It
has been proved that creating such a family atmosphere can successfully help keeping retention
(Frabotta, 2001). Sometime, very simple action can make things different. Fro example, Holiday Inn
Express has lot of Latinos working for housekeeping job who do not have enough English to effectively
respond to requests. The company developed a flyer with English/Spanish translation for the basics, like
towel, sheet, etc., along with a phonetic explanation about how they sound. And they found that their
staff did a better job (Gleason, 2004). So, make an effort to build one-on-one relationship with
employees, understanding where they came from and what they need. Once the employees become
selfmotivated, their productivity would also be enhanced accordingly (Frabotta, 2001).

Trainer: The second is to overcome stereotyping and discrimination. Please do not always relate Middle
Eastern employees to terrorists. Learn to respect the differences of others. It is also necessary to
improve fairness and equal employment opportunities to employees with different cultural
backgrounds. Performance evaluation or appraisal can be helpful to manage this kind of issues.

Trainer: The last one is training. That is what we are doing now. Use training to increase employees’
awareness and sensitivities of the cultural diversity. But the main goal of the training is to build an
environment in the companies that accepts and appreciates those differences.

Trainer: Next, we will create a workshop. Let first watch a video. It is about race, but please pay
attention to the cultural hints. (Open the hyperlink of video in the PowerPoint slides named as Diversity
Day in the Office.)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video.)

Trainer: Any comments to this video? Is there stereotyping or questionable communication in the video?
(Encourage students to participate discussion.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion.)

Trainer: Good points. Now we’ll do the same game. But there is a little difference. Take the name card
with you and go communicating with others. You don’t need to guess the culture you are assigned only
if you want to make more fun. Try to collect at least five different comments to your culture. Remember
the five should be different. Also count how many persons give you the same comments. For example,
like the video, probable 8 persons think eating rice is a main culture of Asian countries. Then eating rice
is the first comment on your list. And please also record the number 8. Once you collect the five
different comments, please write them down on the board. (Hand out the name cards to
students/trainees.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the workshop.)

Trainer: (Write down the name of each culture on the boar to let students/trainees list their collections
of comments accordingly.)

Students/Trainees: (List their collections of comments on the board.)

Trainer: Do you like the game? I found some of you really enjoying it. It’s a good practice for you to find
topics for an intercultural communication. Now let’s see what you have got. What does the number
after each comment mean? Could it also mean some kind of stereotyping? (Lead the students to discuss
the information on the board.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion.)

Trainer: Good. After the workshop, I believe that everyone must have had some ideas of how to
effectively manage cultural diversity. Please read the recommended article for this training section after
the class. You can get more insights of this topic.

Trainer: We will talk about how to overcome cultural barriers for expatriates in our next class. Before
that class, I’d like everyone to choose a foreign country as an assumed expatriate location. Please try to
find out at least three cultural differences that you might encounter if you would be assigned to that
country as an expatriate. Thanks everyone and see you next class.
Appendix D

Sample Lecture of Section Four: Expatriates: Being Prepared

Trainer: Welcome to the last training session of the cultural diversity training program. We talked about
the management of cultural diverse workforce in domestic market in previous classes. Today, we will
talk about cross-cultural adjustment for expatriates. Globalization of the hospitality industry has caused
continuously increasing number of expatriates. But many expatriates who did well in the U.S. fail to
complete their missions in other countries. Cultural shock is the main reason. Let’s watch a video first.
(Open the hyperlink of video in the

PowerPoint slides named as Culture Shock.)

Students/Trainees: (Watch the video.)

Trainer: (Give a pause to the video at 5’28’’; just after the section about foreign food is played.)

Trainer: It’s funny, isn’t it? But to experience such cultural shock without any preparation is definitely
not that funny. Cultural shock is defined as “an unanticipated, negative response to a new experience
(Branston et al, 2006, p. 356)” when people change location to a new culture. Different language,
customs, and foods can all cause expatriates to feel uncomfortable. So, being prepared for the cultural
differences becomes important and necessary for expatriates. Let’s finish the video. (Resume the playing
of the video.)

Students/Trainees: (Continue watching the video)

Trainer: Obviously, Pepsi is playing a card named culture. So, again, if you can manage culture, you will
really benefit from it. Let’s come back to our topic. At the beginning of the video, we saw a new visitor
to New York. He was happy, excited, and curious. Everything seemed new and interesting to him. This
kind of feeling is called cultural surprise, which is defined as “a feeling of well-being and comfort
experienced by those who come into contact with new cultures (Branston et al, 2006, p. 358)”. Another
term you need to know is crosscultural adjustment. When expatriates in international locations change
their home base from one culture to another, the adaptation period associated with this changes is
defined as cross-cultural adjustment (Branston et al, 2006). (Show the PowerPoint slides.)

Trainer: Then, how to be a prepared expatriate? To effectively break the cultural barriers and
successfully complete cross-cultural adjustment, expatriates should first understand the cultural
differences. (Show the PowerPoint slides.)
Trainer: The first difference between cultures is how they deal with their relationship with other people.
There are five ways that people relate to each other (Kippenberger, 2000). First, rules versus
relationships. A universalist whose culture is rule-based tends to operate in the abstract. For example,
within the Western world, legal contracts are readily drawn up and focus on rules rather than on
relationship. A Germany will frown at behaviors against rules such as crossing the street when the light
is red. On the contrary, a particulist with relationship-based culture background make judgments on the
relative importance of other people. Asian and South American belong to this culture base.

Trainer: The second is Me versus Us. Individualist societies such as Canada and the U.S.

more believe in individual freedom. While in a communitarian culture such as Mexico, Japan, China or
France, people tend to orientate mainly towards common goals even though that obstructs their
individual freedom and values. The third is the neutral culture versus the affective culture. People within
a neutral culture will keep their feelings under control carefully, such as the Japanese, while people
within an affective culture prefer showing their emotions. For example, people of Latin countries are
within this culture.

Trainer: Anyone has any idea about specific culture and diffuse culture? (Encourage students to
participate discussion.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate the discussion.)

Trainer: In a specific culture, people separate out the work from the play, but in a diffuse society, all
aspects of life and every level of personality overlap with all others (Kippenberger, 2000, p. 30). China is
a good example of a country with diffuse culture. Most of Chinese people like to deal with business
around a dining table. But you do not want to waste your time wining and dining someone who has
specific cultural backgrounds. The last way that different cultures deal with people relationship is the
status being culture versus status doing culture. For a status doing culture, one’s achieved status is
based on his or her achievement. But for a status being culture, one’s status is given by virtue of age,
gender, family, or education. The status being culture countries include such as Arabia, Thailand and
India, while the status doing culture countries include such the U.S., UK, Finland, Denmark and Norway
(Kippenberger, 2000).

Trainer: These are the five ways people within different cultures relate themselves to others. Another
cultural difference is time management. (Show PowerPoint slides.) Different cultures have different
understanding towards part, present and future. For example, the British have strong link with the past;
Belgian view all of the three as equally important; and the American pay more attention to future. In
addition, when managing time, a sequential culture deals with one thing at a time, adhering strictly to
plan or schedule. A synchronic culture will take care of several things at the same time, and pay
attention to relationship rather than schedules.

Trainer: The last big difference is inner-directed culture versus outer-directed culture.

The former tries to impose its will on natural environment. They believe the adage ‘win some, lose
some’. The later believe that man is part of nature and must go along with it. They therefore say ‘win
together, lose apart’. This cultural difference can explain why employees of North
America need to be trained to take care of customers but it comes naturally in Japan and Singapore
(Kippenberger, 2000).

Trainer: Now, let’s do more discussion. In last class, I asked everyone to choose a country as your
destination. Now, I’d like you to discuss your case in groups. Every four or five persons can form a group.
Share your ideas with others and give your suggests to others. (Direct the students/trainees to form
groups.)

Students/Trainees: (Participate group discussion.)

Trainer: Good discussion. I’ve heard many good points when I walk around. Today’s training is almost
done. As a conclusion, expatriates need to understand these differences to prepare themselves to
potential cultural barriers they might encounter in foreign countries. (Show PowerPoint slides) The main
point is to reconcile the differences by increasing awareness and respect to the cultural diversity. Think
about situations in your own life. Put yourself in others’ shoes. This can help you to understand others
(Kippenberger, 2000). In addition, no any training course can cover all the cultural differences.
Expatriates have to learn cultures while experiencing the differences. Put simply, being prepared, then
you can successfully conquer the cultural barriers.

Trainer: After the class, please read the assigned article to recognize the cultural challenges expatriates
might encounter in international workplaces. And please write a five-toeight-page individual paper. In
this paper, please include what your have learned from the cultural diversity training program and what
you want to learn if you will have any chance to participate similar training in the future. The four-
section training is completed. Thank you for your participation.
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Bachelor's thesis

Degree Programme In Hospitality Management

Hospitality Management

2012

Veera Korjala

CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

– How to improve cultural diversity workforce

BACHELOR'S THESIS | ABSTRACT

TURKU UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

Degree Programme In Hospitality Management | Hospitality Management

2012 | 64

Susanna Saari

Veera Korjala

CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

The bachelor´s thesis investigates cultural diversity in the hospitality management. It aims at presenting
effective ways to improve cultural diversity in a workplace. This study was commissioned by JW Marriott
San Antonio Hill Country Resort & Spa in Texas, USA and three hotels in Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA:
Atherton Hotel, Hampton Inn & Suites and Residence Inn.

The bachelor´s thesis incorporates culture theories and their applications to the workplace. Additionally,
it focuses on cultural diversity dimensions in hospitality workplace, such as its benefits and challenges,
its reflection in the work environment which have been related to the organization’s cultural diversity
management. Eventually it provides solutions, such as a corporate strategic plan which focuses on the
improvement of cultural diversity in the workplace by means of cultural diversity training. These best
practices of cultural diversity are discussed in detail both in the literature review and in the study.

The bachelor’s thesis has used two research methods, both qualitative and quantitative research
approach. Qualitative research method was implemented by seven in-depth interviews with a target
group of managers in the JW Marriott resort hotel whereas the quantitative research component
executed captive questionnaire survey and included target group of entire workforce of the three
properties in Stillwater. The aim of the interview was to support the literature review and gather new
ideas and improvement areas for cultural diversity management and culture infusion. The captive
questionnaire survey mainly focused on collecting employees’ attitudes towards their cultural values
and other employees’ cultures.

Cultural diversity can have a significant influence on the hospitality business. The study reveals that
cultural diversity is highly important in hospitality business due to global customer-related industry.
However, this phenomenal benefit has challenges as well, such as communication barriers between
employees. The best practices for enhancing cultural diversity resulted in establishing a cultural diversity
committee, a language bank or a cultural event. Additionally, customs are the most appealing cultural
attribute which the workforce wants to discover from other cultures. Cultural diversity has been
considered in the hospitality business but is not carefully implemented. Therefore, there is a strong
need for more education and training on cultural diversity in the future.

KEYWORDS:

Culture, diversity, cultural diversity, management, cultural diversity training, cultural diversity
management, lodging business, hotels, tourism.

OPINNÄYTETYÖ (AMK) | TIIVISTELMÄ

TURUN AMMATTIKORKEAKOULU

Palvelujen tuottamisen ja johtamisen koulutusohjelma | Restonomi

2012 | 64

Susanna Saari

Veera Korjala

MONIKULTTUURISUUDEN JOHTAMINEN MATKAILUALALLA

Tämä opinnäytetyö käsittelee monikulttuurista työympäristöä matkailualalla. Sen keskeinen tavoite on

selvittää tehokkaita monikulttuurisuuden parantamiskeinoja työympäristössä. Toimeksiantajina ovat
olleet sekä monikansallinen matkailuyritys JW Marriott San Antonio Hill Country Resort & Spa, Texas,
Yhdysvallat että kolme hotellia Stillwaterista, Oklahomasta, Yhdysvalloista: Atherton Hotel, Hampton Inn
& Suites ja Residence Inn.

Opinnäytetyö pohjautuu kulttuuriteorioihin ja kulttuurien monimuotoisuuteen, ja niiden vaikutuksiin

matkailualan työympäristössä, joita johdetaan monikulttuurisesti. Lisäksi työssäni tarkastellaan
monikulttuurisuuden hyötyjä ja haasteita. Näiden lisäksi työ tutustuttaa ratkaisuja näihin haasteisiin;
erityisesti strategisen suunnitelman, joka perehtyy monikulttuurisuuden kehittämiseen yrityksessä
monikulttuurisuuden harjoittelun avulla. Näitä ratkaisuehdotuksia käsitellään sekä teoria- että
tutkimusosiossa.

Tässä opinnäytetyössä on käytetty sekä laadullista että määrällistä tutkimusmenetelmää. Laadullinen

tutkimus toteutettiin haastattelemalla seitsemää resort-hotellin johtajaa JW Marriottissa. Määrällinen
tutkimusosa toteutettiin puolestaan kyselyllä. Kyselyssä kohderyhmänä olivat edellä mainittujen
Stillwaterin hotellien työntekijät. Haastattelujen tavoitteena oli tukea teoriaosiossa käsiteltyjä aiheita
sekä saada uusia ideoita ja kehitysehdotuksia monikulttuurisuuden johtamiseen ja kulttuurien
integrointiin. Kyselyjen tavoitteena oli pääasiassa selvittää, millaisia asenteita työntekijöillä on omiin
kulttuuriarvoja ja muiden työntekijöiden kulttuureita kohtaan.

Monikulttuurisuudella on merkittävä vaikutus matkailualaan, minkä myös työ tuo ilmi. Koska matkailuala
on asiakaspalvelukeskeistä ja kansainvalistä yritystoimintaa, monikulttuurisuuden huomiointi yrityksissä
on elintärkeää. Kuitenkin monikulttuurisuus käsittää myös haasteita, esimerkiksi kommunikaatio-
ongelmia työntekijöiden välillä. Opinnäytetyö tuo esille, että tehokkaimpia monikulttuurisuuden
hyödyntämiskeinoja ovat monikulttuurinen toimikunta, ns. kielipankki tai kulttuuritapahtumat. Lisäksi
eri kulttuurien käyttäytymistavat kiinnostavat vastaajia eniten. Tulokset osoittavat, että
monikulttuurisuus ja sen tärkeys ymmärretään matkailualan yrityksissä, mutta sitä ei ole vielä kunnolla
otettu käytäntöön, siksi monikulttuurisuuden koulutuksella on suuri merkitys myös tulevaisuudessa.

ASIASANAT:

Kulttuuri, monipuolisuus, monikulttuurisuus, johtaminen, monikulttuurisuuden harjoittelu, moni-

kulttuurisuuden johtaminen, majoitusliiketoiminta, hotellit, turismi.

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 6

CULTURE AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES 7

Definition of culture 7

Types of cultures 9

Layers of culture 10

Cultural distance 11

Cultural variability 12

Sources of cultural differences 13

Cultural values and dimensions 14

Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural variability 14

Corporate culture 16
 CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN A WORKPLACE 18

What is cultural diversity? 18

Importance of cultural diversity 20

Benefits of cultural diversity 22

Challenges and problems with cultural diversity 24

Solutions and best practices for cultural diversity 25

Cultural diversity change 26

Corporate strategy for cultural diversity 27

Cultural diversity training 30

The future of cultural diversity 32

STUDY ON CULTURAL DIVERSITY 34

Research methods 34

Results of the manager interviews 36

Background of cultural values 36

Importance of cultural diversity 36

Influences in a workplace 37

Best practices of implementing cultural diversity 40

Management issues 44

Results of the employee questionnaires 45

Potential improvement areas for the future 49

The development of culture’s values and importance 49

The improvement of influences in a work environment 50

The enhancement of best practices of implementing cultural diversity 51

The advancement of management issues 54

Envisions of cultural diversity 55

CONCLUSIONS 57

REFERENCES 59

APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Cultural Diversity Interview 62

Appendix 2. Cultural Diversity Questionnaire 63

FIGURES

Figure 1. Levels of culture (Reisinger 2009, 100). 9

Figure 2. Four layers of diversity (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 37). 18

Figure 3. Adherence of traditional cultural values of managers 36

Figure 4. Beneficial dimensions of cultural dimensions Error! Bookmark not defined.8

NO TABLE OF FIGURES ENTRIES FOUND.

1 INTRODUCTION

Globalization is a current trend and has a great impact on hospitality industry (Reisinger 2009, 8).
Accordingly, people with diverse backgrounds work even more together and there are a great amount of
new perspectives of executing events. In a corporate world this is an advantage in order to differentiate
from other businesses within the industry. However, diverse cultural backgrounds can create a lot of
conflicts. Hospitality industry, particularly, has great dimensions with cultural diversity. Due to its
phenomenal dimensions, managing the diverse workforce in an effective way can be seen as successful
tool to meet the corporate goals.

This study was commissioned by JW Marriott San Antonio Hill Country Resort & Spa, Texas, USA and
three hotels in Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA. The aim of this bachelor’s thesis is to provide valuable facts
about advantages and challenges of cultural diversity, and present effective ways how to improve
cultural diversity in the hospitality business. The research question of this study is: How does culturally
diverse workforce influence the hospitality business and how can it be managed? Additionally, it also
examines how management can practice and infuse all the cultures of the employees.

To start with, this bachelor’s thesis introduces major cultural theories and their applications to the
workplace. Followed by cultural diversity in a workplace, there is a thorough focus on diversity benefits
and challenges. Finally, it presents solutions in order to consistently lead the company regarding
diversity. The best practices of cultural diversity are discussed in detail in both the literature review and
the study. There are managers’ and employees’ viewpoints on cultural diversity.

2 CULTURE AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

2.1 Definition of culture

One component of investigating culture involves processes of globalization and cross-cultural elements
as a global cultural homogenization. This refers to blending different cultural practices into one blended
uniform of cultural practices. Cultural homogenization usually disregards local cultural perspectives.
(Huang & Trauth 2006, 260.) From a cultural point of view, globalization is the process of increasing
homogeneity of individual lifestyles within the organization. It comprises different views and greater
opportunities for the company and the employees (Sonnenschein 1997, 3). Globalization combines
people into a single world society.

In essence, the modern tourism and hospitality environment is experiencing an increasing

internationalization and globalization. The huge development of the hospitality industry over the past
decade has been extensively influenced by advanced technology, communication systems and
transportation. People travel more around the world, and their countries are integrated into global
markets. This leads their exposure to culturally different societies, social interactions, and cultural
exchanges. The fact is that travelling and tourism is growing into a multicultural environment which
obtains both similarities and differences in worker behavior across cultural borders. Tourism and
hospitality organizations will work in a very complex multicultural tourism environment and they must
understand the perception of culture and the role of national culture, and how impact both employee as
well as tourist behavior. (Reisinger 2009, 85.)

According to Tylor (1871, 1) the first person to give the definition of culture said that culture is a
complicated definition due to several different factors, such as knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and all other kinds of skills or routines people may have. Culture is the way people function and
communicate with each other all the time. It literally means that culture plays a crucial role in people’s
attitudes and it defines people’s actions (Tayeb 1996, 36). When humans are considered as an engine to
establish and reform society, culture becomes a basic measure to assess activities as well as
understanding people.

Culture as a word has many different meanings. Initially, culture originates from Latin word cultura,
which means to cultivate. It refers to human activity and symbolic structure designs that emphasize the
importance and value of the actions. (Reisinger, 2009, 86.)

The concept of culture is really complex to describe due to its name referring to extremely broad and
multidimensional phenomenon (Reisinger 2009, 86). It is constantly changing and easily lost because it
only exists in our minds. Culture is not tangible, however, culture can be expressed through tangible
items such as food, architecture, clothing, art or expressed elements such as an organization’s vision,
but there are other unarticulated elements as well. Ultimately, it is the full range of learned human
behavior patterns.

The purpose of culture is to explain how to live, talk, think and do things. It gives guidelines for one’s life
to behave in a socially accepted way and value diverse things. It clarifies what is correct, honest, true
and important. It also sets up rules and regulations to society in order to obtain stability and peace
(Reisinger 2009, 105). Culture is the main force that brings people together, creates uniqueness of the
cultural group as well as communicates with one another. Cultures are perceived to embrace group
work, sharing and teamwork. However, culture and society is not the same thing. People perceive that
their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions and expectations. Culture is
created and submitted to others in a society. (Reisinger 2009, 105.)

In this bachelor’s thesis culture is considered as a behavioral manner of different individuals with
different backgrounds in the work environment and organization. Fundamentally, culture is utilized as a
broad phenomenon which covers diverse beliefs, values, attitudes and behavior of various perspectives
of diverse population within the globalized hospitality corporation. Culture refers to employee’s abilities,
skills, communication, traditions, behavior and attitudes towards themselves, the work environment, co-
workers and their different cultures in this bachelor’s thesis.

2.1.1 Types of cultures

There are different types of cultures within the society. Various culture levels and types are associated
with each other. The most broad culture level is universal culture whereas individual culture represents
the most unique category as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Levels of culture (Reisinger 2009, 100).

Basically, everybody belongs to the universal culture category. All nationalities and humans with their
diverse beliefs, ideas, morals and values are part of the universal culture. For example, all people have
special forms of speech for special occasions (Minkov 2011, 19). Followed by the civilization culture
category, civilization is the broadest level of cultural identity that people obtain. This category involves,
for example, ethnicity and religion. National culture is a more narrow culture. Generally, culture refers
to national culture, which can be called country culture. National culture can be determined by a
country of residence, country of birth, or citizenship. People’s behavior and perceptions are shaped by
several other cultures, such as ethnicity, family, friends, global environment, occupation, race, religion,
and value systems. (Reisinger 2009, 98.)

Finally, minor culture components within the society are industry, organizational and individual culture.
Those three levels are more unique. They have the most diversity and differences due to the stimulus of
other categories. Fundamentally, individual culture is the most shaped by the influence of other levels of
cultures, which impact personal beliefs, thoughts and values. (Reisinger 2009, 99-100.)

2.1.2 Layers of culture

Almost everyone belongs to a number of different categories and groups of people at the same time.
People unavoidably carry layers corresponding to different levels of culture. There are likely three layers
of culture that are associated with learned behavior patterns and perceptions.

Firstly, the most common layer consists of cultural traditions that distinguish a person’s specific society.
Culturally shared traditions are like myths, ceremonies, legends and rituals verbally or nonverbally (Ford
et al. 2005, 98). For instance, shared language is very a visible traditional cultural attribute. It is learned
from parents and other family members who have it. As a result, cultural traditions are passed from
generation to generation (Ford et al. 2005, 98).

Secondly, each culture consists of several subcultures which are non-national cultures that share values
and mental programming (Velo 2011, 16). Diverse societies in which people originate from many parts
of the world often maintain a great deal of the original cultural traditions of their national culture.
Consequently, individuals frequently are part of a particular subculture in their new society. They share
cultural traits that set them apart from the rest of their new society. A subculture can be distinguished
based on its members’ race, nationality, tribe, religion, geographic region, ethnicity, socioeconomic
class, age, gender, occupation, politics, sexual orientation, or a combination of these factors. For
example, in the United States subcultures consist of different ethnic groups, such as African Americans,
Hispanics, and Asian-Americans, which are the three major ethnic groups (Reisinger 2009, 41). All these
subcultures share a common identity, food tradition, language, and other cultural traits that come from
their common ancestor background and experience. The cultural differences between members of a
subculture and national culture decline and eventually disappear. Accordingly, the subculture tends to
lose gradually their ancestry roots.

Thirdly, cultural universals are the last level of culture. These mean learned behavior patterns that are
collectively shared by everybody. It does not matter where these people live because everyone has
these cultural universal traits. Using age and gender to classify people are great examples of the
universal attributes. Even though there are universal manners of executing things, different cultures and
subcultures have developed norms, rules and specific ways of expressing them (Velo 2011, 16-17). Some
subcultures, for instance, likewise deaf subcultures, use sign language instead of verbal language.

2.1.2 Cultural distance

Cultural distance indicates a gap between different national cultures (Reisinger 2009, 111). Cultural
distance can be notified within organization, particularly within hospitality industry. Hospitality
organizations, likewise international and multinational tourism companies, likely hold several different
cultures within the property. There can be diverse cultures between employees or between employees
and customers. Organizations should decrease the cultural distance, especially between their
employees. The cultural distance affects interactions between employees from two different cultures.
The greater the distance gap is, the more conflicts appear and this lowers the rewards experienced from
working together (Chemers et al. 1995, 15).

Cultural distance is a vital component of international tourism and multinational companies. In essence,
it measures the extent to which national cultures differentiate and are related to the compared culture
(Crotts 2004, 85). Therefore, organizations and managers are advised to measure the cultural distance
within the property. There are numerous measures of the perceived cultural distance between countries
and cultures. Reisinger (2009, 113-114) suggests examples of measuring cultural distance by using the
cultural diversity index, cluster analysis index, self-rating method, and linguistic distance index. Cultural
diversity index ranks differences between each country from the base country according to Hofstede’s
four cultural dimensions. The index ranks all dimensions from very similar to very dissimilar. Cluster
analysis index differentiates language, religion, and geographical location into five clusters: Anglo,
Nordic, Germanic, Latin and the rest of the world. Each cluster’s distance is calculated from Great
Britain.

Moreover, self-rating method observes respondents’ cultural differences between their countries and
others by using a low-to-high distance scale whereas linguistic distance is based on language genetics or
common ancestor similarity by ranging the difference from 0 to 7. (Reisinger 2009, 113-114.)

Using cultural distance methods or other measurement tools as reviewed in the study, organizations will
be more aware of their employees, their cultural background and possible cultural distances. When they
have measured the differences and similarities between employees, they know which things to
emphasize and change, as well as what things to take into consideration in order to become more
knowledgeable of the cultural dimensions.
2.2 Cultural variability

In the hospitality industry diverse cultures infuse on a daily basis. There are several contrasts between
employees or between a customer and an employee in the hospitality organization. Cultural diversity
management is necessary in order to understand the variability of cultures that initially appear inside
the organization. It is important to recognize cross-cultural behavior if the company wants to have a
competitive edge in the hospitality industry.

Cultural variability involves both recognizing differences and accepting them. Acceptance is a respect of
culture and appreciation of differences in culture, such as values, norms, styles, behavior. The three
layers of culture should be valued and respected in a correct manner. (Rosinski 2003, 35.)

2.2.1 Sources of cultural differences

Cultural variability identifies major dimensions along which national cultures differ from each other.
There are multiple cultural differences among numerous nations. Cultural differences can appear in
verbal or nonverbal communication, social interaction, personality, gender, class or education (Rosinski
2003, 17).

They impact human behavior and how employees execute tasks.

Cultural difference also comprises systematic differences, for example, in beliefs, philosophy and values
of social regulation. Within an organization there might be a great deal of systematic differences across
cultures. Therefore, Hofstede (2012) has made a conclusion that Asian cultures are more collectivistic
whereas Western cultures tend to be more individualistic. It is really important for managers to take
these cultural differences into consideration due to their different characteristics, for example in terms
of collectivistic or individualistic goals. Managers who understand cross-cultural behavior are an asset
for any company in order to bring the best out of employees and be a coherent, consistent, and
successful organization. (Geert Hofstede 2012.)

As two people from two different cultures interact within the organization and attempt to find an
understanding to their cross-cultural approaches, these crosscultural partners bridge the cultures into a
so called third culture (Graen & Hui 1996, 65). The third culture includes methods of finding
compromises between distinct cultural practices. Cross-cultural partners find ways to create
organizational practices and management techniques that assists everybody within the organization. In
order to establish synthesized third cultures, systematic differences must be understood, reconciled and
transcended since it is a new system with infused cultural characteristics. The third culture is vital for
businesses that look for international partnerships. Therefore hospitality organizations and managers
should construct effective third culture practices. (Graen & Hui 1996, 6566.)

2.2.2 Cultural values and dimensions

According to Peterson (2004, 22) cultural values are principles and norms that a group of people
considers as good, right, or worthwhile. Values characterize the center of any type of culture and
comprise psychological, spiritual, and moral phenomena. In essence, values are standards of socially
desirable behavior. (Reisinger 2009, 91.) They differ from other cultures and explain cultural differences.
Changes in values impact people’s thoughts, beliefs and actions which may arouse conflicts and
disagreements. Therefore, cultural values have an important role in regulating customs and etiquettes
that occur in the workplace (Dong & Liu 2010, 224).

Cultural differences and values can be measured as well. The measurements give guidelines for the
company to recognize cultural differences and take action if needed. The cultural difference
measurements help the organization to acknowledge future requirements in terms of the culture of the
organization, employees, and customers. One of the most common cultural dimension measurements to
distinguish cultures is created by Hofstede (Minkov 2011, 45).

2.2.3 Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural variability

Hofstede conducted well-known studies of how values in a workplace are influenced by culture (Minkov
2011, 45). The study shows both national and organizational culture value impacts. He analyzed a
significant amount of data base about employee values from over 70 countries and published his results
in 1980. He indicated that the values that differentiated countries can be divided in four different
dimensions: power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity and uncertainty
avoidance. (Hofstede 1980, 14; Woodside & Martin 2007, 28.)

The first cluster, power distance, is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and
institutions expect that power is distributed unequally (Hofstede 2001, 79). Power distance refers to
dissimilarities which are expected and accepted within a culture (Mattila 1999, 378). For instance, Asian
cultures have a reasonably large power distance. Thus, in Asian cultures the lower social status will have
to respect and admire higher social status people.

Another culture-based variable that explains differences is individualism versus collectivism.

Individualism is the degree to which individuals are expected to look after themselves whereas
collectivist culture involves cohesive strong ingroups which will look after each other with automatic
loyalty (Hofstede 2001, 225). As concluded earlier, Asian cultures are more collectivistic than Western
cultures.

The third dimension involves masculinity versus femininity. Masculinity denotes the distribution of
gender roles. In the business world, this dimension is a basic issue for societies. The assertive and
competitive pole is typical of the masculine and the modest and caring pole is considered feminine
(Hofstede 1980,

79). For example, Middle Eastern countries are on the masculine side whereas Scandinavian countries
take place in the feminine side.

Finally, uncertainty avoidance consists of the tolerance of the society for ambiguity and uncertainty
(Hofstede 2001, 145). It explains how accepting people are toward others who have dissimilar opinions
to what they are used to. Uncertainty tolerant cultures attempt to have as few rules as possible.
Controversially, uncertainty avoiding cultures desire to minimize the possibility of surprising and
uncomfortable situations through strict laws and safety factors.

In addition to the four cultural value dimensions there is also a fifth dimension observed and added in
1985 by Michael Bond (Hofstede 2001, 351). It comprises long-term orientation versus short-term
orientation. Long-term oriented cultures value perseverance and thrift, whereas short-term oriented
cultures value protecting one’s face and fulfilling social obligations.
2.3 Corporate culture

In the past the term corporate culture was widely used by research professionals and managers in many
organizations all over the world, especially in Japanese and American corporations. Later, corporate
culture and its influence on the development of enterprises were profoundly studied which is one of the
main reasons why there are many different concepts of corporate culture today (Thu 2011, 19).
According to Edgar (2004) corporate culture (see Thu 2011, 19) refers to:

“The system of shared beliefs, values and standards of solving problems, which is created in the forming
and developing process of a corporation and demonstrated through physical and nonphysical forms and
behaviors of its members.”

Basically it is the same as culture within society focusing on the different norms, beliefs, values and
attitudes of each employee and creating corporate guidelines which serve equally every employee
within the organization.

Organizational culture involves a great deal of dimensions and levels. Therefore it can be compared to a
tree (King et al. 2007, 287). The roots represent both the core values and management style of the
organization and individual behavior describes the main stem of the tree. The branches and leaves of
the tree signify all the characteristics of the company influenced by members, such as philosophies,
myths, values, structures and systems within the organization (King et al. 2007, 287).

National culture characteristics play a vital role in the establishment of organizational culture (Lashley &
Lee-Ross 2003, 148). Within an organization there is a great deal of different cultures that managers and
employees must understand and obey. First of all, industry culture applies to the culture of a specific
industry, such as the hospitality industry. The hospitality industry is a whole other world from the
construction industry, for instance, with its customer-related business.

All industry cultures have a professional culture within the industry (Schneider & Barsoux 1997, 57). That
refers to the professional knowledge and terminology used in a specific profession. For example, the
healthcare industry is greatly distinguished from the hospitality business with dissimilar beliefs, values,
dress codes, codes of conduct and task requirements.

Consequently, corporate culture not only consists of industry and professional cultures, but also
functional cultures such as products and services (Schneider & Barsoux 1997, 57). Hospitality
organizational culture comprises mainly customer-related services, such as hotels, restaurants, resorts,
recreational spas, and other tourism products. Usually, hospitality organizations possess several
functional cultures within the property. Specific departments, for instance accounting, food and
beverage, recreation, housekeeping, spa, concierge, and banquet departments within a resort hold
characteristic cultures. Each department has their own way to perform and meet their goals, and their
own customers to serve.

3 CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN A WORKPLACE

3.1 What is cultural diversity?

With the diverse workforce of organizations, cultural diversity involves differences in gender, age, color,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, disability, education, personality, and skills (Lashley & Lee-Ross
2003, 204). Issues of diversity involve attributes that are harder to identify and which can be defined
after knowing the employee for a longer period of time, such as attitudes, values, traditions and
principles.

To begin with, diversity can be divided into primary and secondary differences. Primary differences are
stable factors that are distinguished by individuals, for example age, gender and racial background
(Clements & Jones, 2006, 13). These internal dimensions are basic factors that individuals live on a daily
basis and define personality. Secondary differences may tremendously alter, such as religious beliefs,
class, education and experience. A final layer of diversity is associated with the organizational context
involving the job or position held, seniority, or status at work. (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 37.)

Figure 2. Four layers of diversity (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 37).

Cultural diversity can be referred to as the variety of human groups, societies or cultures in a specific
region, or in the world all together. Cultural diversity indicates a mixture of both individuals and groups
with dissimilar backgrounds, beliefs, characteristics, customs, traditions, and values. It categorizes
people with diverse race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or language among various groups within a
community, organization, or nation. For example, a wide range of multicultural people can be found in
the United States. With one-third of multicultural and multiethnic people (Humes et al. 2011, 4), the
United States is a melting pot of all different cultures around the world. There are, for example,
AfricanAmericans, American Indians, Caucasians, Hispanics and Asian-Pacific Islanders. All these people
have their own ways of life and own identities that discrete from others. Minority cultural groups are
increasingly extending across the country. Especially within the last decade, 2000-2010, the minority
groups have increased 9.7 per cent (Humes et al. 2011, 4). It was seen that the United States ethnic
minorities involved 28 per cent of the population in 2005; by 2050 this ratio will have reached 50 per
cent. Thus, the American workforce has dramatically changed and is more diverse than ever before.
(Seymen 2006, 298.)

Not only societies or cultures in a specific region identify diversity but the mosaic of belief systems,
human social structures, and strategies for adapting to situations in different parts of the world define
cultural diversity. Many people with different demographics and socio-cultural characteristics argue that
they do not only represent a homogenous group; they rather belong to different groups with different
characteristics. For example, a person could claim to be Caucasian, European, Christian, female, Finnish,
middle class, and a young adult. There are also a large amount of variations on how societies arrange
themselves in the community in terms of morality, ethics, freedom and loyalty. (Reisinger 2009, 32-33.)

Another important feature of the cultural diversity of the global and international workplace is the
multi-levels of interpretations ranging from national to regional, organizational, professional, and team.
Different cultural factors at each level coexist, interact with each other, and together produce diverse
work environments of globally distributed work practices. However, the influence of different cultural
factors at different levels is not equal and varies across work environments. Some cultural factors may
be more visible than others and some may seem trivial compared to the predominant factors depending
on the cases. Thus, not all cultural diversities are noticeable; people can also differ in terms of hidden
attributes (Rosinski 2003, 22). For instance, in any group there will be different thoughts, values, social
backgrounds and levels of education. Other invisible attributes involve generation, sexual orientation,
marital status, political or religious beliefs, physical abilities and life experience. Invisible attributes
contribute a great deal to the mix of ideas and perspectives in a workplace. Thus, these internal and
external factors of individuals significantly influence organizational dimensions.

Moreover, cultural diversity can be also related to multiculturalism which refers to communities
containing multiple cultures. It supports a society which takes all distinct cultural groups into account
without having any culture predominating. Interculturalism can be associated with multiculturalism but
it is only interaction between two cultures. (Reisinger 2009, 33-34.) Instead multiculturalism involves
several cultures, and therefore can be referred to as cultural diversity.

3.2 Importance of cultural diversity

Cultural diversity is vital for companies in the long-term. It especially is important for hospitality industry
organizations to identify cultural diversity in advance when growing internationally. Unfortunately, there
are companies who go international without a strategic plan and get surprised by the cultural issues
which their international business encounters (Peterson 2004, 78).

When it comes to cultures, there might be thoughts of similarity. Some cultures are alike, especially the
countries who have language as a mutual bond, such as England, USA and Canada. However, among
similar cultures differences certainly exist and due to expectation of familiarity there might be even
more issues and barriers than people expect (Peterson 2004, 63).

It is important to recognize cultural backgrounds in any organization since dissimilarities can negatively
influence a company’s successful performance. Diversity management enables an organization to
transform diversity from a legal responsibility to an asset. The organization is able to take huge steps in
the right direction despite the cross-cultural barriers. Cross-cultural barriers may result in developing
invisible challenges within the organization. For example, planning, risk taking, styles of communication
as well as conflict management are some invisible elements (Sonnenschein 1997, 109).

Without diversity in the workplace, hospitality corporations run the risk of becoming monoculture
organizations that see things from a very limited perspective. Establishing diversity in the workplace is
not limited to laws that pertain to the hiring of women, disabled people, gay men and lesbians and
minority ethnic groups. Additionally, it is not limited to managing or even honoring differences between
people but it is about considering those differences and allowing them to work in the best possible way
for the benefit of both the organization and the worker. Significant cultural differences do exist and
definitely play a role in work and life with people from other cultures but that is the fact in every
globalized organization. In fact, as the economy becomes increasingly global, the workforce of any
organization will become increasingly diverse. Organizational competitiveness and success will depend
on the ability to effectively manage cultural diversity in a workplace and communicate effectively across
cultures (Okoro & Washington, 2012, 58). As soon as hospitality organizations evaluate the diversity
policies and plan for the future, the more profitable and valuable they will remain in the global
hospitality markets. Accordingly, an organization’s human capital will increase in the globalized economy
(Okoro & Washington, 2012, 58).

Human capital refers to one’s skills, knowledge and abilities which will produce economic value.

In order to make the hospitality business a successful work environment, Human Resources managers
and leaders must redefine diversity management and leadership (Kossek & Lobel 1996, 3). They have to
define the motives behind their interest in diversity and identify the specific ways diversity will benefit
their organizations. According to Kreitz (2007, 3) organizations should clearly explain the meaning of
diversity with one or more defining words in order to understand the framework of diversity.

3.3 Benefits of cultural diversity

An organization’s success and competitiveness depends upon its ability to embrace diversity and realize
its benefits. When organizations actively assess their handling of workplace diversity issues and develop
and implement diversity plans, there are multiple benefits for the organization. In essence, cultural
diversity creates cultural competence for the organization. It has several ways of providing a competitive
edge and increased productivity in the hospitality business (Devine et al. 2007, 122).

Cultural diversity in a workplace has a great socio-cultural aspect. First of all, cultural diversity
management enables employees to become more knowledgeable of diverse employees and customers
of the organization. It can help broaden their views and the way they approach problems in the future.
Organizations employing a diverse workforce can supply a greater variety of solutions to problems,
especially in customer service (Devine et al. 2007, 122). When people have different views and
backgrounds, they often observe a problem from distinct perspectives. Diverse members can better
understand and ultimately help those customers who are similar to them. From the customer’s
perspective, customers feel more comfortable dealing with an organization’s employees that are like
them. Customers feel an identity with associates like them and are more willing to interact with
organizational employees who are culturally knowledgeable. Thus, cultural diversity improves customer
service. Diverse members can provide more information, novel approaches, and richer perspectives on
solving organizational and customer problems. Basically people become more innovative by enhancing
creativity (Devine et al. 2007, 122). Employees bring experiences and individual skills to the work
community as well as more ideas and suggestions that are flexible in adapting to fluctuating markets and
customer demands. To conclude, cultural diversity increases problem solving through knowledge
resources and expands adaptability and flexibility within a hospitality organization, both with co-workers
and customers.

Diverse contributions are valued, not just the contributions of a few people or groups but the whole
community. Differences among individuals are understood, recognized and accepted. It provides equal
opportunities, values, and fairness, and removes organizational barriers. Diversity improves the
organization regardless of its mission; it makes the organization proactive and flexible to new things and
issues (PwC 2011, 1). As a result people are more encouraged to work together and this fosters an
inclusive culture that values the contribution of a workplace made of diverse individuals. Therefore,
monoculture, which refers to the assumption of being the same and having similar needs, is avoided and
it will help diverse people learn to work effectively together. (Clements & Jones 2006, 12)

The collection of a diverse workforce enables an organization to see things from a different perspective.
There are communications of varying points of view and it provides new ideas and experiences. Diverse
members tolerate altered ideas and understand organizational communication patterns. Additionally,
diverse employee collection of experiences and skills, for example, language and cultural understanding,
gives an advantage to organizations that have globalized customer service. (Devine et al. 2007, 122.)

Cultural diversity also results in more effective execution. It increases productivity on complex tasks.
These tasks usually require difficult cognitive input which in turn requires knowledge resources, like
information, skills, critical analysis and perspectives that diverse members can provide. Companies, who
encourage cultural diversity, also encourage and motivate people to perform to their highest ability.
Basically, cultural diversity reinforces continuous improvement. It will result in higher profit, productivity
and return on investment (Clements & Jones 2006, 14).

3.4 Challenges and problems with cultural diversity

Even though there are benefits to cultural diversity, there are also some challenges. Cross-cultural
challenges arise from cultural gaps. As the industry grows, opportunities for misinterpretation and
misunderstanding of workforce and customer needs can be enhanced (Rosinski 2003, 69). In order to
avoid cultural tensions and frustration and successfully deal with multicultural employees, hospitality
industry people must recognize and understand the importance of cultural differences in meeting
diverse coworkers’ and tourists’ needs. However, there are a great amount of challenges in terms of
cultural diversity which organizations should regulate and not just terminate. Racism, sexism, ageism,
and homophobia are great challenging factors in culturally diverse contexts which prohibit corporate
teams from achieving their goals (Sonnenschein 1997,

3).

First of all, communication is a huge challenge for culturally diverse organizations due to perceptual,
cultural and language barriers. (Devine et al. 123). Miscommunication is very likely to occur among
diverse organization members. Even if all the people around a table speak English, cultural differences
can create strong barriers to understanding (Peterson 2004, 64). There may be people who purposely
use language that excludes people from certain groups. Even simple misunderstandings caused by
cultural and other differences in behavior, work attitudes, and communication styles disturb the
workforce (Sonnenschein 1997, 3). Ineffective communication of key objectives results in confusion, lack
of teamwork, and low morale. Those need to be overcome in order to be successful within the
international and multicultural hospitality industry.

Secondly, commitment and loyalty can be a challenge for the organization (Sonnenschein 1997, 4).
Commitment usually attaches to the cultural background group; employees feel loyalty to their original
cultural background groups rather than to the whole organization which has different cultural groups.
There is a demanding task for management to resolve these limitations and have these small groups
remain faithful to the whole organization. There are always employees that will reject cultural diversity
and its changing patterns. They want things done the same way as always. This limits new ideas and
declines progress. In that case, implementation of diversity in workforce policies might be too
challenging for the company.

Furthermore, cultural diversity also complicates decision-making (Powell 2006, 14). It is not easy to find
solutions and compromises to complicated ethical dilemmas. The principles of ethical decision-making
certainly differ for the employees of the organization with different values, beliefs, and rituals. Changes
in values affect people’s thoughts and actions which likely results in conflicts. According to Reisinger
(2009, 79) people who do not share cultural values have greater difficulties in understanding each other.
To that extent employee differences enhance the potential for conflicts and misunderstandings.

One challenge is to create successful diversity management in the workplace.

Diversity training alone is not adequate for the organization’s cultural diversity management plan. There
has to be a strategy and implementation proposal for every department and function of the
organization.

3.5 Solutions and best practices for cultural diversity

Cultural diversity has both pros and cons but there are great solutions available in order to make
hospitality organization more successful through cultural diversity. The benefits are extensive with
cultural diversity but challenges are big as well. Solutions will bridge the gap between the benefits and
challenges. Accordingly, cultural diversity solutions are extremely important for the organizations.

First of all, hospitality organizations need to change and reassess their cultural diversity approach, and
make an effective cultural diversity management plan as a part of their corporate strategy (Friday &
Friday 2003, 864). Additionally the strategy should be convenient in order to implement it in practice,
particularly with diversity training. The most relevant and significant features of solutions and best
practices are profoundly discussed in this chapter.

3.5.1 Cultural diversity change

An organizational strategy is logical in order to achieve movement into a desired goal. It gives guidelines
how jobs and people should be organized. (Kossek & Lobel, 1996, 9.) For an organization to fully practice
the complexity of diversity culture change, it needs to pay attention to three major categories: individual
attitudes and behaviors, managerial skills and practices, and organizational values and policies
(Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 38.)

Individual attitudes and behaviors are really crucial to understand. Individuals should think about their
behavior and recognize their approaches and actions towards multiple diversity related topics. For
example, how they feel if coworkers are homosexual or if there are several languages spoken in the
workplace. In order to change more towards a diverse understanding of their work environment,
individuals at work must acknowledge their own behavior and attitudes towards all the diversity factors
and respectively appreciate them. These behaviors will eventually influence organizational culture,
openness to coworkers as well as customer service. However, individual changes are not that dominant
that it would influence to change the corporate culture. (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 38.)

Furthermore, cultural diversity change requires management professionalism. Managerial skills and
practices need to be changed to broaden management styles due to the mosaic of diverse individuals
with different skills and perspectives on tasks. The mixture of a culturally diverse workforce needs to be
managed actively by supervising, coordinating and directing (Friday & Friday 2003, 865). One style of
management is not possible for an organization with a wide range of employees in order to contribute
at the topmost heights of performance (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 38). Some employees need more
direct instructions or strict time rules than others as seen in Hofstede’s (1980, 268) uncertainty
avoidance. However, involvement and feedback from employees is recommended for the management
in order to improve the needs and equality. Management needs to know the differences of individuals
with the intention of improvement of team spirit, commitment, conflict management, and work
performance (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 38).

Finally, organizational values and policies are the most demanding tasks of the three cultural diversity
changes. They involve the fundamental policies and ethics of the whole organization: what the
organization eventually aims at, what image they want to promote in order to apply effective cultural
diversity workforce in hospitality management, what kind of workforce they want in the future, and
what kind of characteristics of workforce are vital for the performance (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 38).
In conclusion, hiring process and recruitment are crucial components which have to be implemented
equally.

Besides, it is more beneficial for the organization in the long-run when the diversity process is detailed.
It helps the organization remain on the systematic change approach in the midst of unintended
consequences. Thinking strategically about all possible consequences is very critical. (Gardenswartz &
Rowe 2009, 38.)

3.5.2 Corporate strategy for cultural diversity

Corporate strategy will critically help an organization improve cultural diversity in a hospitality
workplace. Changes in the organization will be implemented by a planned change approach by moving
proactively from one stage to another (Friday & Friday 2003, 867).

To begin with, the management and executive teams need to commit themselves to cultural diversity
(Kreitz 2007, 5). Leading by example is a great and effective tool for managing diversity (Sonnenschein
1997, 173). The executive level is not the only role model but all the employees at each level and
department of the organization must conduct cultural infusion and make a commitment to its practice.

Initially, hospitality organizations should make an assessment in order to understand their current state
regarding diversity and increase the organizations’ selfawareness (Sonnenschein 1997, 22, 179). An
assessment will help the management team acknowledge challenges and issues of diversity. SWOT-
analysis can be a great tool for investigating internal and external factors (Friday & Friday 2003, 867). It
gives a proposal for which things to add and which ones to eliminate. To that extent, assessments reveal
barriers that are preventing goal achievement or it suggests which inclusions to add. Fundamentally, the
assessment assists organizations to communicate and educate about diversity. It sets goals, objectives
and priorities for the corporations.

There are a couple of distinctive methods for gathering assessment data within the organization. The
first step is to review the existing data (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 40). For instance, it can comprise
demographic data of the workforce, customer satisfaction information or complaints. Basically, any kind
of information which is related to the company, such as statistics can be found in existing data.
Moreover, interviewing leaders with the information of the cultural diversity objectives and challenges
that they consider is another method of strategic assessment of cultural diversity. In a third method
assembling focus groups with managers, supervisors, and employees might be helpful in understanding
the barriers and issues with diversity. Ultimately, the last method will give statistical information about
employees’ perceptions of the organization’s diversity management. (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 40.)
These methods play a crucial role in defining cultural diversity in the hospitality business and give
guidelines for how to train the workforce.

One of the most vital practices is to recognize differences in resolving cultural diversity difficulties and
foster workforce homogenization. Management and the Human Resources Department have to
recognize and acknowledge the cultural differences and recognize that the different types arise for
different reasons and circumstances. They have to find a method for successfully dealing with a problem
and finding a system to become a cohesive workforce. Thus, a vital step in implementing proper cultural
diversity strategy is to establish a cultural diversity council within the organization. (Kossek & Lobel
1996, 3.)

All hospitality organizations are recommended to have a diversity plan (Kreitz 2007, 5). The plan should
be comprehensive, attainable, something in which everyone can participate, and finally, it has to be
measurable in order to observe regular improvement and development in cultural diversity.
Management and the executive team have to plan what to change and design a rational timeframe
executing the cultural diversity plan.

Furthermore, it is not adequate to possess a great cultural diversity plan but the implementation should
be considered in-depth as well. Management and the executive team should respect the diversity on a
personal level in order to practice cultural diversity management to their employees. One of the most
efficient ways to implement diversity to the employees is diversity training. Educating and training the
workforce leads to the development of in-house expertise (Clements & Jones 2006, 15). Organizational
efforts to inform and educate employees about diversity benefits to the organization will assist in
greater organizational performance.

In the long-run reassessments are vital in order to improve and measure the business. The first
assessments serve as a great benchmarking tool for future assessments. For instance, organizations can
launch a customizable cultural diversity employee survey as a reassessment method which provides
broad reporting from the entire workforce. Reassessments should answer two kinds of questions,
including the process as well as the results in order to profit the most from the evaluations
(Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 42). Moreover, valid and reliable performance measurements, such as
benchmarking or comparative analyses of other organizations are great assessment tools (Clements &
Jones 2006, 15). To conclude, both evaluations and assessments are an integral part of management.
They will show the current state of the cultural diversity strategic process.

Additionally, the Human Resources Department is responsible for taking care of staffing procedures to
meet the objectives of having a multicultural workforce (Kossek & Lobel 1996, 74). The Human
Resources Department makes sure that managers and executive team members incorporate cultural
diversity policies into all departments and functions of the organization. Their primary task is to
establish a culture that serves most beneficially the organization’s cultural diversity plan. Management
needs to create an attitude of honesty and openness that employees’ ideas and comments are
encouraged to be expressed. It also invents a feeling of equal value. For managers, promoting diversity
in leadership positions offers visibility and understanding of the genuine benefits of diversity. Managers
are recommended to consider a succession plan for identifying and developing a diverse pool of talent
for an organization’s potential future leaders as well as the recruitment process, which plays an integral
part in strategic cultural diversity leadership (Kossek & Lobel 1996, 79). It is a demanding project to find
a suitable supply of qualified, diverse applicants for employment.

These tools will give great assistance to the organization. In conclusion, there are great guidelines for
management and the executive team to improve cultural diversity. It is generally understood that
managers will follow the diversity process of assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

3.3.3 Cultural diversity training

Cultural diversity training is vital in creating awareness and helping people develop knowledge and skills.
Training can ultimately result in behavior change throughout the organization at individual and team
levels. Diversity training can play a major role in breaking down employee ignorance and creating a
more culturally enriched environment. (Clements and Jones 2006, 5-6.)

Cultural diversity training will also have various challenges, such as anger (Clements and Jones 2006,
128.). It is difficult to decide how to manage a workforce with different holidays, traditions, and manners
(Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 52). An organization needs to ensure that local employees understand the
needs of multicultural workers. They might be unaware of how to deal with people with different
cultures, beliefs, and abilities. For example, as nonnationals get a break to fit in with religious
observance, it can lead to feelings of unfairness and inequality. In the cultural diversity training there
can be a lot of tensions and conflict discussions. Thus, the management of diversity should really be as
much about changing attitudes, mindsets, and cultures as about regulations and procedures.

The main idea of cultural diversity training is to understand what it is and why it is important. Training
should also cover understanding culture at all levels: individual, national, and organizational levels.
(Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 41.) Trainers need to explain the behavioral influences of culture at the
job as well as defining the phenomena of stereotypes, prejudice, and assumptions. Diversity training has
following four key factors: understanding, seeing things in a new way, reflection and realization
(Clements and Jones 2006, 46-49).

In addition to employee diversity training there can also be management and supervisor training on
related topics (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 41). For instance building diverse teams or confronting
conflict efficiently in diverse groups are useful cultural diversity management training topics. Moreover,
in order to make the training more convenient, a great tool is to integrate diversity into already existing
training. For example, combining it into the current supervisorial training is an effective way to control
diversity training. (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 41.)

In addition, measurement and accountability are essential in training. In practice, there can be
assessments to get workers’ attention on topic and can more rapidly lead to results. Assessments obtain
learning intentions such as knowledge increase, behavior and attitude change (Clements & Jones 2006,
150).

The skills and attributes of the trainer need to be suitable for the task. First and foremost, they have to
be flexible, handle conflict management and manage group dynamics (Clements & Jones 2006, 7-8).
Diversity training can have multiple teaching methods, such as video, role play, theatre, quiz, and small
group work. It is important to consider which method will help people learn. (Clements

& Jones 2006, 116-131.)

3.6 The future of cultural diversity

“Diversity is more diverse than ever” (PwC 2011). It is obvious that globalization will shrink boundaries
and cultural diversity will become even more important. Diversity will become an essential factor in the
hospitality business, both in the workforce and the marketplace. Expanding international trade and
immigration flow will continue to develop and the diversity will exponentially grow in the future at the
expense of global markets. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics African Americans, Latinos, Asians
and women are expected to comprise 70 percent of the U.S. workforce by 2016 and white Americans
are expected to comprise less than 50 percent of their population (Lott 2010).

According to Velo (2012, 195) in 2020 networked phase will empower the crosscultural management.
Quick reactions, creativity and innovation will be even more vital in the culturally diverse business world.
Networks are based on knowledge and there will be a great emphasis on research-focus approach.
Nowadays incoming factors such as inventions, technology, social networks affect the whole globe at
the same time and in the same way. Thus, evolution goes towards the same practices and customs
across the world. This aspect of how technological progress changes cultures has led and continues to
lead to two interesting characteristics of these current times. First of all, culture will increasingly develop
in terms of subcultures and less in terms of national cultures, and second of all the big social and
economic differences will not be geographical, but rather knowledge-based. (Velo 2012, 195, 199.) As a
result, due to globalization throughout all the countries, the hospitality industry will meet even more
cultural infusion and homogenization.

As the people move across nations, so do cultural issues. Belief systems and values change between the
regions and cause a lot of trouble. In the future, religion will be a current issue for culturally diverse
organizations. It is challenging to manage a workforce with different traditions, values, holidays, and
manners (Gardenswartz & Rowe 2009, 52).

Additionally, the cultural diversity future is associated with demographics. The aging workforce, baby
boomers, will be an issue for developed countries and take action to people with disabilities. The young
world of tourism and hospitality is changing and to the greater extent, older people, especially over 60-
years old who are fitter and obtain more wealth to spend on travel, are extensively travelling and
participating in leisure activities (Baum 2006, 191).

4 STUDY ON CULTURAL DIVERSITY

4.1 Research methods

Qualitative research

In this section cultural diversity in hospitality industry is discussed from qualitative research perspective.
Qualitative research is likely to collect more so called rich information of relatively small amount of
cases whereas quantitative approach gathers more limited information with a great number of cases
(Veal 2006, 193).

There are different qualitative research methods; however, an interview is one of the most used
techniques in research and development work. Interview approaches vary in relation to what kind of
information people want to collect to support the development work. (Ojasalo et al. 2010, 95.) This
bachelor’s thesis has used in-depth interview as a qualitative research method. An in-depth interview is
similar to questionnaire-based survey but tends to get deeper in the topic, and encourages respondents
to talk and explain their answers (Veal 2006, 195). The seven in-depth interviews were implemented
with a target group of managers in a multinational organization JW Marriott San Antonio Hill Country
Resort & Spa, Texas, USA. The respondents were from different management levels involving two
supervisors, two managers, two directors and one executive manager. This research method was chosen
because there was a need to clarify in practice the development work of the thesis and support the
current facts of cultural diversity in a workplace.

First part of the in-depth interview as seen in Appendix 1 gathered certain background information of
manager’s personal cultural values and asked them to define cultural diversity in general and in a
workplace. Followed by present cultural diversity situation questions, the interview asked parallel
questions which could be related to other questions. The purpose of similar questions was to collect as
many perspectives and situations about cultural diversity as possible.

At the end the interview also consisted of questions of identifying management issues on the topic as
well as future visions. The interview was conducted at JW Marriott and each of the managers was
interviewed separately. Answers were transcribed by typing notes and voice recorder.

Quantitative research

However qualitative research method is widely used as a combination with some other research method
to support the results. (Ojasalo et al. 2010, 95.) In addition to qualitative research method there is also
quantitative research method used with captive questionnaire survey. It supports the interviews and
gives more viewpoints on diversity from employees’ perspective. The quantitative research was
conducted by anonymous captive questionnaire survey in three different hotels in Stillwater, Oklahoma,
USA. The hotels involved were Atherton Hotel, Hampton Inn & Suites, and Residence Inn. According to
each hotel’s website information; Atherton Hotel is a small boutique hotel at Oklahoma State University
campus (Atherton Hotel at OSU 2012), Hampton Inn & Suites has 81-room facility (Hilton Worldwide
2012) and Residence Inn promotes as a business hotel with a long stay (Marriott International, Inc.
2012). All the hotels’ clientele is mostly business travelers. The captive questionnaire survey was
conducted with all employees, not only management level. The amount of responses in the captive
questionnaire survey involved 25 employees in total of all three hotels.

This questionnaire as seen in Appendix 2 has used the method of assessment in corporate strategic
diversity plan by having a questionnaire to employees. Hospitality organizations should make an
assessment in order to understand their current state regarding diversity (Sonnenschein 1997, 22, 179).
An assessment will help the management team acknowledge values, barriers and issues with diversity.
This questionnaire illustrates statistic information about employees’ background, cultural values and
perceptions of their own and other employees’ cultural attributes.

4.2 Results of the manager interviews

4.2.1 Background of cultural values

To start with, managers’ adherence of their traditional cultural attributes varied a lot. Two of seven
managers (28,6%) mostly follow their traditional cultural values whereas only one manager (14,3%)
replied that cultural values are not important and does not pay attention to cultural values. The most
responses (42,9%) rarely follow cultural values as indicated in Figure 3. Changes in values impact on
people’s thoughts, beliefs and actions.
Adherence of traditional cultural values N=7

Always follow

Mostly follow

Somewhat follow

Rarely follow

Definitely not follow

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of Managers

Figure 3. Adherence of traditional cultural values of managers.

4.2.2 Importance of cultural diversity

All the managers have a mutual understanding what cultural diversity denotes. They all indicate that it is
a mixture of backgrounds which group together in an organization sharing their different values and
beliefs in order to get broader perspectives. One manager (14,3%) stated that:

“it is more related to ethnical background which will not be discriminated in the workplace.“

Instead, varied workforce will adapt and welcome everyone’s culture as well as celebrate it during the
work day.

When it comes to defining cultural diversity’s importance in hospitality management, all the managers
had a positive opinion of the vitality of cultural diversity. Most of them (71,7%) highlighted it to be
absolutely, extremely important. The following question requested particularly importance of cultural
diversity in a workplace. All responses were unilateral and managers approved its phenomenal
importance.
“Understanding the staff and co-workers, sharing ideas and educating them about different culture are
needed in order to complete a great productive team in this industry. The company will have a great
product at the end to deliver to guests.”

Two managers (28,6%) highlighted that it is important due to communication and relating to different
backgrounds helps to understand where people come from. It is vital to understand both other
employees as well as customers which may have unfamiliar etiquettes and customs, such as expressing
things.

4.2.3 Influences in a workplace

The interview also focused on influences of cultural diversity in the workplace. All of the seven managers
responded that cultural diversity has beneficial influences on the organization. Six managers (85,7%)
agreed that cultural diversity management will even influence on productivity in the long run.

Four managers (57,1%) credited cultural diversity as a potential benefit to hospitality business due to
global dimensions and customer service as a balanced approach (see Figure 4).

“The corporation operates on a global level and therefore needs to be aware of any changes in the
hospitality business. It will prepare the company for the future.”

One respondent (14,3%) agreed that people have mobility and access new markets to gain exposure to
new cultures. This manager also noted that Asian markets in particular are becoming presently
significant in the global market.

Only this manager expressed a sole interest in global dimensions.

Two exclusively emphasized cultural diversity’s ability to increase the motivation of employees which
results in improved customer service. Cultural diversity is important for employees to relate to and
understand diverse clientele as well as co-workers. According to Devine et al. (2007, 22) a diverse
workforce can supply a greater variety of solutions to problems and become more innovative in
customer service.

“The organization practices warm heart and family atmosphere which will automatically reflect to
customers. They will have a cozy experience which brings loyalty and value.”

It will be an advantage to build a professional relationship with the clientele they are serving as well as
the employees.

Figure 4. Beneficial dimensions of cultural dimensions.

When asking about cultural diversity’s reflection to work environment, three of seven managers (42,9%)
claimed that Human Resources Management is taking it into consideration and place a high value on
cultural diversity in a work environment (see Figure 5). There are training and groups with respect to
cultural diversity management. One respondent (14,3%) rejected it to obtain any reflection to work
environment. The last three managers (42,9%) associated their responses with personal values which
relating to Marriott values. These values highlighted open door polices and how to treat employees as
family. One of Marriott’s core principles states that by treating employees well, they will in turn take
care of the customer, resulting in the customer and the customer will come back (Marriott 2012).

Reflection of cultural diversity in a workplace

N=7

Human Resources No reflection Marriott & personal reflection values

Figure 5. Reflection of cultural diversity in a workplace.

In the area of organizational culture influences between departments, managers unilaterally responded
that organizational culture differs from between departments within the property. Functional cultures
such as products and services have dissimilar characteristics from department to another (Schneider &
Barsoux 1997, 57). Some differences are drastic like in the housekeeping department. Four respondents
(57,1%) mentioned housekeeping as a department that contains a concentration of employees with
certain ethnic background. Additionally two managers (28,6%) contrasted the spa employees which are
describes as emotional and caring with recreation which is described as a younger, louder workforce
with energetic and outgoing attitude. These two managers noted that departments with varying cultures
will attract different people for jobs. For example a job may require manual or technical work, and may
be located in the front or back of the house. As a result, each department has its own way of
performing, meeting goals, and serving customers.

4.2.4 Best practices of implementing cultural diversity

The interview also gathered information about practical ways to implement cultural diversity knowledge
in the workplace. Managers gave numerous suggestions, some of which are currently practiced by JW
Marriott. Others were suggested hypothetically as ideal cultural practices for the organization. Managers
had the option to give more than one suggestion. Four managers (57,1%) believed that a diversity
committee would be the best solution (see Figure 6).

“People would get into group, express past stories in an open form and educate people.”

Four managers (57,1%) advocated for organizing a cultural event. Suggestions included:

“Every quarter of the year there could be a cultural day of certain culture with its music, food and
language.”

All the managers agreed on participating in a cultural day if it was arranged by the organization.

All the managers mentioned a language bank to be an effective tool which is currently implemented by
JW Marriott. A language bank is program where employees are available to interpret different languages
for other employees who need translators. A language bank facilitates understanding and
communication between employees with different languages. According to one of the managers JW
Marriott has over 30 languages spoken within the property.

Other ideal practices were suggested by individual managers. One (14,3%) suggested that integrating
people from varying departments for a collaborative project would be the best practice.

“This project would include people that do not usually work with each other. The project would solve
problems more creatively.”

Additionally, a few (28,6%) stated that the hiring process at Marriott International Inc. is a great tool
implementing cultural diversity. The organization does not discriminate during hiring process but rather
encourages diverse people to apply for a position, regardless of background.

“Recruitment in college is a big part of the recruitment process which is definitely related to diversity.”

Two managers (28,6%) emphasized cultural diversity training as a beneficial tool for the workforce to
practice working together, brainstorming new ideas and choosing the best fit for the system.

Best practices of cultural diversity

N=20 Training

Recruitment

Project

Language bank

Cultural celebration event

Committee

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 6. Best practices of cultural diversity.

When infusing cultural diversity in the workplace, managers suggested cultural diversity committees,
cultural days and daily rehearsal examples (see Figure 7).

Managers had the option to give more than one suggestion. Daily rehearsal informs employees about
what is happening on the property. It increases everyone’s awareness of resort events and notifications.
Specifically, service and cultural notes give guidelines for employees to follow each day. Two managers
(28,6%) suggested that infusing cultures could be implemented practically through service and cultural
notes in daily rehearsal packages.

Ways to infuse cultural diversity

N=8
7

Committee Cultural day Daily examples

Figure 7. Ways to infuse cultural diversity.

Leading by example is a great and effective tool in managing diversity (Sonnenschein 1997, 173).
Executives are not solely responsible as role models but additionally all employees at every level and
department must conduct culture infusion and be committed to its practice. There are two practices
within the organization, that follow this model of cultural infusion, according to three managers (42,9%).
These include pot lucks and birthdays which incidentally educate employees concerning different
cultures. It was interesting that one manager disclosed:

“Managers attempt to educate their employees by reflecting those individuals who have same kind of
interests or situation in life, for instance managing time between work and family.”

Moreover, three out of seven responses (42,9%) gave specific responses about leading by example.
Asking questions assists to gain a better understanding of values and fosters respect among employees.
And showing interest in employees’ cultures builds trust. Specifically, two managers (28,6%) expressed:

“There is better implicit meaning when employees want to take time-off due to things which are relative
to their culture.”

One manager (14,3%) ensured that, providing the same level of service to all people, no matter what
they look like, is a vital leading by example tool. Accordingly associates will follow the manager’s
example.

Six out of seven responses (85,7%) recommended Intranet Marriott classes when discussing ways to
implement cultural diversity on management level. There is currently an online mandatory training class
on cultural diversity for supervisors, managers, directors and upper level management. There are also
other classes such as, conflict management, which focus on cooperation with different cultures and
personalities.

“The cultural diversity training process at JW Marriott is currently in a remodeling phase and there is a
new training class ‘Valuing our World of Differences’ for management to complete by March 2013.”
Nevertheless, only two managers (28,6%) were aware of the training and two other managers (28,6%)
were unsure if they had any training at the moment. The final three managers (42,9%) explained that
there was no training after the mandatory online training class.

However, four managers (57,1%) suggested cross training and benchmarking of different operations and
departments for being an effective learning tool, especially on the management level. It would broaden
their perspectives which assist in understanding own department.

4.2.5 Management issues

Additionally the interview focused on management issues in respect to cultural diversity in the
workplace. When questioned about interactions with other cultures, six out of the seven responses
collected (85,7%) recalled an employee situation where cultural values clashed. Language barriers
received two of six votes (33,3%), and two of six responses (33,3%) also referred to religion as being an
issue, with praying being a specific example. Values created another group which produces conflicts
between employees. Two managers explained different situations where two employees working closely
together with had dissimilar values which resulted in interaction barriers (see Figure 8). There were a lot
of conflicts and these employees needed an intermediary to solve the disrespectful situation. The
mediator tried to find different ways for the employees to work together and understand each other.
Cultural barriers needed to be overcome in order to reach a resolution.

Figure 8. Employee interaction barriers.

The greater distances between two different value perspectives cause the appearance of more conflicts
and lower the rewards experienced from working together (Chemers et al. 1995, 15). All managers listed
examples of areas where cultural distance is potentially problematic. Three of seven (42,9%) specifically
mentioned a guest encounter. Exemplary guest services are necessary to establish a comfortable and
authentic environment. The last thing managers want is for customers to feel unpleasant or upset. One
manager gave an example explaining that touching guests in the or at banquets, can be considered
problematic from guest perspective. Interestingly, one manager agreed employees having problems
adapting to certain clientele when seasons change. Employees develop a tendency to seeing certain
customers and when the clientele changes seasonally, they have problems accommodating to different
clientele. The manager claimed that associates make judgments about clientele when changes occur,
and eventually it will be problematic for the customer and quality of service.

When examining the employee to employee perspective, two of seven responses (28,6%) acknowledged
that cultural distance happens in every department, and likewise an age difference between the
workers. The majority of the Recreation Department is composed of young college students and cultural
distance could be strongly demonstrated if older, middle-aged people worked with or in recreation.
Three of seven managers (42,9%) highlighted communication issues to be the greatest component in
causing cultural distance. There are serious issues in communication between employees, and there is a
significant need for tiding that gap.

4.3 Results of the employee questionnaires

The captive questionnaire survey aimed at investigating employees attitudes towards cultural values,
own cultural enhancement and other cultures in the workplace. Results indicated:

Adherence of traditional cultural values of employees N=25

Always follow

Mostly follow

Somewhat follow

Rarely follow

Definitely not follow

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Number of managers

Figure 9. Adherence of traditional cultural values of employees.

It can be seen in the Figure 9 that cultural values managers have a selection of fluctuation whereas the
questionnaire indicated that cultural values of employees were more stable. The questionnaire
investigated that traditional cultural values are somewhat followed up to 14 people of total employees
(56%). Six employees (24%) mostly followed traditional cultural values.

Additionally, the questionnaire asked to identify one to eight the most valuable cultural attributes. The
attributes were attire/clothing, customs, food/cooking, holidays, language, music/dancing, religion and
traditions. The highest possible attribute score is 8 and the lowest is 1. All 25 employee responses were
averaged for each category and the top three average scores indicate the three most important areas of
culture within the context being addressed. With regarding values, the top three cultural attributes
reported included: language 5.6, customs 4.9 and holidays 4.9 (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Cultural attribute ranking.

In the area of enhancing employees’ own culture in the work environment, customs scored the highest
6.4. Language was the second highest cultural attribute with the score of 5.4, and holidays credited 4.6.
However, all of the cultural attributes resulted in relatively high scores. With regarding willingness to
other employees’ cultures, customs (6.1), music (5.2) and tradition (4.8) recorded to be the most
motivating cultural elements.

Overall it was recognized that there are numerous differences in employees’ values of cultural
attributes. The most valued and scored cultural attribute resulted to be customs by crediting to the top
three cultural attributes in every category.

A Chi -Square test was performed to investigate whether age or gender affect cultural attributes scores.
The chi-square test is designed to examine significant differences which might be difficult to address
from unclear pattern (Veal 2006, 340). Age was dichotomized to include a less than 30 years old and
over 30 years old group. Gender was dichotomized to include a male and female group. Cultural
attributes scores were dichotomized to include a high interest score group (>4) and a low interest score
group (<5).

In the case of values, neither age nor gender had a significant effect on any cultural attributes scores.
Enhancement is employees’ areas of interest on their own culture and improving their visibility in the
workplace. It could be indicated that females were more interested in enhancing holiday knowledge
than males. Additionally, it was remarkable that over 30-years old associates were more interested in
food than less than 30-years old employees. In the area of willingness to know about other associates’
cultural attributes, there were the most significant differences. Females were much more motivated to
know about holidays. Females also were motivated to know other associates’ religious beliefs.
Moreover, over 30-years old were more interested in customs then under 30years old employees.

Finally, the questionnaire asked employees to explain what would be the best way to enhance their own
culture in the work environment. In the open ended questions six of 25 employees (24%) reported
language and communication as areas to be enhanced in the current workplace.

The last question of the questionnaire asked willingness to participate in a cultural day arranged by the
organization (see Figure 11). Seven employees (28%) stated that they would definitely participate in a
cultural day. However, the results broadly varied and seven different employees (28%) would not really
participate in a cultural day.

Willingness to participate in a

cultural day N=25

8

Definitely not Not really Maybe Moderately Definitely

Figure 11. Willingness to participate in a cultural day.

4.4 Potential improvement areas for the future

Cultural diversity is a relatively new phenomenon in hospitality industry (Seymen 2006, 297). Therefore
it is crucial to address its importance in the hospitality business and incorporate it into corporate
strategy. The investigation of cultural diversity and cultural competence improvement will result in the
success of the global customer-related hospitality industry.

It should be noted that cultural diversity has been considered but not carefully implemented at JW
Marriott nor at any of the three Stillwater hotels. There are indicators of cultural diversity being
practiced; however there are many areas that need enhancement. There are particular areas for
suggested management improvement which will be discussed in this section.

In order to accommodate potential issues Human Resources should heavily incorporate cultural
diversity. Although less than half of the managers interviewed considered cultural diversity to be a
serious component of Human Resources; fostering diversity is an essential Human Resources
Management task. It is imperative that cultural diversity expand from being a noble idea to a functional
reality within the workforce.

4.4.1 The development of culture’s values and importance

Both managers and employees follow their personal traditional cultural values with extreme variation.
Cultural values having a varying level of appeal, and will attract some people more than others.
However, managers are categorized to adhere less of their self-identified culture than employees. I
strongly believe that the more cultural values are esteemed in your own life, the more attention you will
have towards other people’s cultural values and attributes. Therefore, the workforce would in theory be
more willing to incorporate cultural diversity when employees are highly invested in respecting and
understanding cultural values.

All the managers, from supervisor positions to executive levels admitted the importance of cultural
diversity in the workplace. Nevertheless, there is a possibility that managers realize the vitality of
cultural diversity, but do not fully comprehend the enormous impact cultural diversity can have on the
corporation’s success and ability to stand out from other hospitality markets.

4.4.2 The improvement of influences in a work environment

Over half of the managers stated that cultural diversity contributes beneficially to a global perspective.
The intangible “globe” is becoming smaller as more cultures continue to cross borders and barriers,
creating additional opportunities to grow in an international perspective. Global dimensions will be
extremely beneficial in the long-run due to development of cultural knowledge all around the world.
Having a greater emphasis on customer-related influences is a great tool to motivate people and to
infuse cultures within the workplace. The hospitality business, encounters diverse clientele from all
walks of life and from all around the world. The more diverse workforce, the better infusion of culture –
This infusion prepares employees for future customers and enables them to serve customers
remarkably. This in turn will create quality service and enhance overall guest experience. In conclusion,
the thesis indicates that cultural diversity has global dimensions and customer service influences within
hospitality industry. Therefore those influences should be emphasized and given more respect.

This industry heavily involves managing interactions and explanations, whether it is concerning
employees or customers. Less than half of managers recognized that cultural diversity could result in
workforce improving communication abilities. I strongly agree that communication is the most
important key to being successful in the hospitality business. The questionnaire for employees also
revealed the elevated status of communication. Employees selected language and communication as
areas to be enhanced in the current work environment. Therefore there should be a heavy focus on
communication practices in corporation’s cultural diversity strategy.

4.4.3 The enhancement of best practices of implementing cultural diversity

The thesis collected data about practical ways to implement cultural diversity knowledge in the
workplace in order to effectively manage cultural diversity and respond to the international customer-
oriented influences. There are several helpful ways to enhance implementing cultural diversity in
practice. Overall, four of seven managers desired more education on the topic of cultural diversity
because there are not adequate resources available to instruct managers. It is recommended to have
proper cultural diversity education offered separately to management and employees.

It was an excellent experience diagnosing that there was a desire to have a cultural diversity committee
within the organization. A cultural diversity committee creates opportunities for education and
networking. It can also serve as a catalyst for the workforce community by actively promoting cultural
diversity and encouraging people to get involved in infusing cultures. I strongly agree that committees
will positively influence on a workforce and inspire employees to take part in the action. It would be a
relatively simple method, and it would enhance planning and implementing cultural diversity activities.
A couple examples of possible activities to be implemented include a cultural event or language bank.
Moreover room decorations and cultural days would give opportunities to embracing cultures and more
celebration.

All managers were willing to participate in a cultural day arranged by the organization. Nevertheless, the
employees’ willingness to attend varied immensely. This demonstrates their unwilling attitudes and
behavior toward other cultures and learning from other cultures.

However, cultural infusion should not just be for special occasions but should be practiced daily in the
workplace. The committees, cultural events and language banks are not available in every day routines.
When more frequent cultural infusion is arranged, the workplace develops and fosters cultural
knowledge and mutual understanding. For example, attaching cultural notes in daily rehearsal packages
would represent such an effective technique as recommended by one manager.

The committee is a great tool to bring employees together but, it has limitations, in that it might not
serve the fundamental idea of infusing cultural diversity. Instead, a project would provide a better
means of infusing culture through the goal of teamwork. Similar to what the leadership manager
suggested, having people from different and personal backgrounds brainstorm would result in diverse
ideas allowing the team to reach a consensus. Projects would definitely strengthen the perspectives of
employees but the project is not a full proof. In fact, it can lead to a rise in tensions, disagreements and
cultural distance. Additionally, it is a time-consuming method because of the 24-hours working systems
of different departments (creating a difficulty in finding available time to implement these projects), but
is still certainly one of the most productive methods.

It was interesting to observe that only two of seven managers reported cultural diversity training as an
effective way of implementing cultural diversity in the work environment. Cultural diversity training is
crucial to overall inclusion. Diversity training provides the knowledge, skills and tools to assist team
members for in improving behaviors and attitudes. Training is important for creating and sustaining
change that fosters a more diverse, inclusive, respectful and productive organization.

When referring to cultural diversity training at the management level, there are Intranet Marriott classes
available. However the amount of cultural diversity related classes are insignificant and even dismal
because there is a lack of concentrated effort. Such classes are clearly not mandatory at JW Marriott
since some of the managers were completely unaware that these training classes exist. I strongly
recommend that more education classes are needed to cultivate cultural diversity on management level.
Classes should be constructed both in independent studies and in classes with face to face interactions
and discussion. Online classes would give essential tools for the managers and an in person class would
foster theory with practical examples.

In addition to training, it was encouraging that some managers suggested cross-training and
benchmarking of different operations and departments, especially on the management level. Cross-
training between departments should be more fundamentally supported. Each department has its own
process of accommodating and implementing ideas. It reaches more hand-on work, brings new ideas to
own department. As a result, departments link together and are more united which reflects to
customers’ overall satisfaction at the end.

Furthermore, it was noted many times during the interviews that an open door policy is an excellent
strategy to lead by example and makes employees feel more comfortable and welcome in the work
environment. Nonetheless, there should be even more considerations and suggestions on how to create
comfortable and welcoming employee atmosphere. Managers do not collaborate with the employees in
the field but the employees should work as a unified team. Thus, there should be more emphasis on
cross-cultural training between employees rather than manager-employee situations. Manager-
employee interactions are also vital but the focus should be concentrated on the workers which will
have the most influence and impression on the customer.

When enhancing the recruiting process as a best practice for the organization, new hires should be
coached in-depth to cultural diversity issues in recruitment process. Only two of seven managers
requested a class from Human Resources or cultural diversity training involved in new hire orientation. If
the cultural diversity training would be incorporated in the orientation, new employees would be more
prepared and aware of potential issues related to cultural diversity. In the actual selection of new hires,
staff should consider applicants and choose the best candidate that will suit the team and also will bring
something new. In the long run this hiring process would result in a more diverse and productive team.

To sum up, management can practice cultural diversity with numerous methods. The thesis
demonstrates practical ways to successfully manage cultural diversity in a long term perspective, to
infuse all the cultures of employees and to change the diverse workforce into unified team.

4.4.4 The advancement of management issues

It can be noted from the interview responses that a majority of managers has encountered an employee
to employee-interaction where cultures have conflicted. Disagreements are a major element of cultural
competence which need to declined and be avoided if possible. Because results scored high in this
section, it signifies a lack of methods available to tide up the gap of the cultural distance and create a
third culture between the employees. There are many different values which can result in
disagreements. This is especially true within departments with different ages and ethnicities present,
where focus tends to correspond with values and beliefs. This ultimately results in small distinctive
groups within the larger organizational whole, rather than one cohesive work community. Small groups
have a tendency to create negative ambiance and perpetuate judgmental ideas. Thus, improvement of
cultural distance and third culture should be fully administered among employees through the
dissolution of small groups and creating an environment that is sustained by unity.

Moreover the cultural distance gap among employees needs to be adjusted first in order to serve
customers with more respect and sympathy. As a consequence, employee-customer situation should be
prioritized after narrowing the gap between employees. The importance of employee interactions
should be more coordinated and advised due to rapid reflection of atmosphere within the employees to
customers. Therefore, there is a significant need for the cultural diversity education and training.

In order to minimize cultural disconnects concerning employees, there has to be improvement on

cultural attributes that other workers value. Employees evaluated customs, music and tradition to be
the most motivating cultural elements of other cultures. It was surprising to notice that three managers
suggested food to be a connector to other cultures. Furthermore three of seven managers believe on
knowing etiquettes; how people perform in daily work and what their customs entail. As a result,
knowing customs of other employees’ cultures should be emphasized. It was suggested by the managers
that if you get to know your employee little by little, then it becomes easier to relate and will eventually
strengthen the business system. Accordingly gaps will tide and bring employees even closer together. All
managers agreed to be very open-minded and willing to learn from other cultures. Dedicating the effort
to learn more about people not just on a business level but on personal level, demonstrates that
managers care and will create greater relationship in the workplace.

4.5 Envisions of cultural diversity

In the future cultural diversity will continue to grow rapidly as people move throughout the world. Four
of seven (57,1%) managers claimed that in the next decade JW Marriott will hold cultural diversity as
high value, and the company will only improve in understanding different cultures. All managers
anticipated that cultural diversity will impact changes within the next decade. For example, there will be
natural changes in generation of employees, such as the retirement of baby boomers. People will be
more receptive to changes and therefore becoming more accepting.

Cultural diversity training becomes even more crucial for the organization as the cultures cross the
borders and infuse within corporations. According to five managers (71,4%) cultural diversity training
will become even more prominent and will occur more frequently due to union of more diverse people
(see Figure 12). In addition to the union of people, two managers (28,6%) believe that as the United
States grows, and particularly certain cities like Washington D.C. grow, cultural diversity training will
become more prevalent. However, one manager (14,3%) made a great point about the need for cultural
diversity training in their organization.

“JW Marriott is a global brand and it services travelled accomplished clientele. Additionally in 2014 JW
Marriott brand will obtain more international than domestic properties.”

The organizations will grow to be increasingly global and employees to virtually work anywhere. Thus,
more training on the topic will eventually be required.

Future of cultural diversity

7 N=16

3
2

More value on cultural Cultural diversity will Need of cultural diversity diversity change training

Figure 12. Future of cultural diversity.  

5 CONCLUSIONS

In a summary, the purpose of this thesis was to illustrate the influences of cultural diversity in hospitality
management and increase awareness of its importance in today’s globalizing industry. It aimed at
incorporating some best practices of cultural diversity and demonstrating potential improvement areas
for the management. It attempted to gather experiences and ideas from the management level as well
the employee level. This study resulted in attaining various suggestions on improvement and
development of cultural diversity in the hospitality organization. It was interpreted throughout the
results that cultural diversity committee, language bank and cultural event are effective ways for
hospitality management to infuse different cultures and become a coherent diverse workforce.
Additionally customs are the most appealing cultural attribute which the workforce wants to discover
from other cultures.

The cultural diversity will continue to grow in the future as the global market becomes more diverse and
cultures infuse across borders and barriers. Cultural diversity has been considered in the hospitality
business but is not carefully implemented. Therefore, there is a strong need for more education and
training on cultural diversity in the future.

The primary purpose of the bachelor’s thesis research method was to focus on employees’ background
information and introduce methods on infusing cultures within the corporation and to discover
employees’ attitudes on cultural diversity in the workplace. Gathering information about employees and
their attitudes on cultural diversity is a part of a corporate strategy of cultural diversity. Initially the
amount of responses was insufficient, and therefore management interviews were implemented
because the responses did not reach desired goal. The questionnaire could only give demographic
information, cultural values, and expose employees’ attitudes and behavior towards cultural diversity in
the workplace. Additional comments in open ended section of questionnaire revealed that there are
varying attitudes towards other cultures. These comments should be considered seriously by the
organization and they also provide a starting point for changing the attitudes of employees through
cultural diversity training and infusion of cultures. It is important to recognize cross-cultural behavior
with the explicit intention of creating and maintaining cultural competence in the hospitality industry.

Thus, the questionnaire could have been formulated differently in order to ask more probing questions
and elicit responses more in-depth to the topic. Additionally questions could have been better
articulated considering there was a comment by one of the participants about some confusion on one of
the questions.

The interviews resulted as a great tool to gather more scientific support for the bachelor’s thesis. The
main goal of the in-depth interviews was to collect more comprehensive information and novel ideas.
The interviews greatly corresponded to the theory of the thesis and confirmed the importance of
cultural diversity in the workplace and illustrated improvement areas within the hospitality corporation.

In the future, there needs be more research conducted on cultural diversity training. The research could
profoundly focus on improving cultural diversity training. It could also give more specific guidelines on
which issues to take into consideration. This research would be beneficial for organizations to have
access to methods and practical examples for understanding and changing the attitudes of both
managers and employees in the workforce. The research could give a knowledge base for cultural
diversity training; demonstrate how to design the training, teaching tactics, and evaluation. Additionally
genuine action methods could be developed in order to give advice for cultural diversity training. The
present bachelor’s thesis provided ground work on the topic and now I am optimistic to see where the
future studies take it.

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Appendix 1. Cultural diversity interview

JW Marriott

Veera Korjala

30 min

BACKGROUND

What is your position at JW?

What culture do you associate with?

How important are cultural attributes to you?

How much do you follow your cultural values? 1 definitely not follow - 5 always follow
DEFINITIONS

How would you define cultural diversity?

How would you define cultural diversity’s importance in hospitality management?

PRESENT SITUATION

How do you see your cultural values reflected in a work environment?

How important is cultural diversity in a workplace? Why?

In your opinion, what are some practical and effective ways for JW to implement cultural
diversity?
 How do you lead as an example your employees in terms of cultural diversity?

How do you currently implement cultural diversity at JW management level?

Please, briefly explain your current CD training process?

In your opinion, are cultural diversity and its proper management a benefit for the organization?
Why?

What influences cultural diversity has to hospitality management?

In your opinion, can cultural diversity and its proper management have productivity influences?

How organizational culture differ between departments?

How could management infuse all the diverse cultures in the workplace?

MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Have you experienced any employee situations where cultural values clashed?

Where are some potential areas where cultural distance could be problematic?

Do you see areas where cultural diversity could be improved?

How willing are you to learn about the other cultures of your employees? How are you going to
do that?

What aspects/cultural values do you feel are important to learn in order to minimize cultural
disconnects?

FUTURE

How do you envision cultural diversity training looking in the future?

In your opinion, how will cultural diversity look like in 5 years/10 years?

Would you be willing to attend to a cultural day arranged by JW? Thank you!

Appendix 2. Cultural diversity questionnaire

CULTURAL DIVERSITY QUESTIONNAIRE

My name is Veera Korjala and I am a graduate student in Hospitality Management at Turku University of
Applied Sciences. This questionnaire is part of my bachelor thesis. The aim of this questionnaire is to
gather data about the cultural diversity of organization’s employees. The data will be used in
resolving a thesis project. Mark the options or write in your text. Please answer as many questions as
you feel comfortable; this s urvey is voluntary. This questionnaire is anonymous.

○Please mark to ensure that you understand that thi s questionnaire is voluntary and it only
attempts to improve the work environment.

1. Gender?
 ○ Female ○ Male

How old are you?

Less than 20 ○ 20-29 ○ 30-39

○ 40-49 ○ 50-59 ○ More than 60

Please indicate the primary racial/ethnic group with which you identify. (If you are of a multi-
racial or multi- ethnic background, indicate that group with which you identify most of the time.)

African American/Black o American Indian/Alaskan Native o Asian/Pacific Islander o

Hispanic/Latino o Middle Eastern o White Caucasian

Other.(Please
Specify):______________________________________________________________

From which country did your ancestors originate?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

Where are you from?

o Country:__________________________________________________________________________ o
State: ____________________________________________________________________________ o
City:_____________________________________________________________________________

What is your religion?

Buddhist ○ Christian, please specify: _________________ ○ Hindi

○ Islam ○ Jewish ○ Mormon ○ None/Atheist

○ Other non-Christian religion, please specify:
________________________________________________

What cultural attributes are the most important to you? Please rank from 1-8, 1 meaning the
most important and 8 the least. Place 0 for items where no interest.

_ Attire/Clothing _ Language

_ Customs (e.g. gestures, etiquette) _ Music/Dancing

_ Food/Cooking _ Religion

_ Holidays _Traditions (e.g. leisure activities,

entertainment)

_Other.Please specify:
___________________________________________________________________

Which number represents the degree to which you follow the traditional cultural values of your
ethnic background? Circle.

I do not follow rarely follow somewhat follow mostly follow always follow

1 2 3 4 5

What in your opinion would be the best way to enhance your own culture in the work
environment? Please rank from 1-8, 1 meaning the most important and 8 the least. Place 0 for items
where no interest.

_ Attire/Clothing _ Language

_ Customs (e.g. gestures, etiquette) _ Music/Dancing

_ Food/Cooking _ Religion

_ Holidays _Traditions (e.g. leisure activities,

entertainment)

_Other.Please specify:
___________________________________________________________________
 Please explain how would you enhance your culture in your current work environment?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_

What would you like to know about the cultural traditions of other employees? Please rank from
1-8, 1 meaning the most important and 8 the least. Place 0 for items where no interest.

_ Attire/Clothing _ Language

_ Customs (e.g. gestures, etiquette) _ Music/Dancing

_ Food/Cooking _ Religion

_ Holidays _Traditions (e.g. leisure activities,

entertainment)

_Other.Please specify:
___________________________________________________________________

Would you be interested in participating in a cultural day arranged by your workplace?

Definitely not not really maybe moderately definitely

1 2 3 4 5

Please feel free to comment on the above questionnaire or on any other cultural diversity issues you
may have.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire.

Global companies have long expected talent from all over the world to work together, whether
remotely or in the same location. McKinsey research has shown that a diverse workforce is in the best
interest of businesses. The varied approaches workers with different characteristics and backgrounds
bring to creativity, problem-solving, and leadership drive innovation and growth more effectively.

However, the different norms and value systems that come into play when people from diverse cultural
backgrounds interact can lead to misunderstandings, especially in sensitive workplace situations such as
conflict resolution, giving and receiving feedback, and consensus building.

“The less we know a person, the more we end up relying on cultural norms. And so, as a result, we may
have misunderstandings because what I say or do is not what you understand,” said Lionel Laroche,
founder and principal at MultiCultural Business Solutions Consultants in Toronto, who spoke at the
AICPA Women’s Global Leadership Summit.

These mix-ups arise due to invisible differences in the ways we think and communicate, which depend
to a great extent on the culture where we grew up and where we attended school and university,
according to Laroche, who has provided cultural competency training to over 100,000 people in 18
countries over the past two decades.
When Gabriela Butler, ACMA, CGMA, a commercial finance manager at Interserve Facilities
Management, moved to the UK a decade ago, she found the diversity quite different from her native
Romania, where foreigners were few and far between. She also had to adapt her ways of working to the
new environment. For instance, asking many questions is considered normal in Romania, a means of
establishing transparency and directness.

However, this was viewed as confrontational in the UK. To build deeper trust in relationships, Butler
learnt to ask fewer, more focused questions. In her voluntary work with the Aston Business School
Transformation for Growth Project, which focused on entrepreneurship and transformational change to
unlock business growth potential, this new approach helped Butler build a strong relationship with 40
small and midsize enterprises.

In this manner she leveraged a cultural difference to become a better problem-solver, and is now
considered by her seniors as a turnaround manager in a multicultural environment. Butler also thinks
that it is crucial for employers to set the agenda for cultural diversity so that all employees feel included.

A look at other cultural factors

A few other variables in workplace interactions are strongly defined by our cultural backgrounds. Two
are nonverbal communication and a sense of hierarchy, according to Laroche.

In the case of the former, mismatches occur because our cultures teach us to express positive and
negative emotions with different levels of intensity. For example, when colleagues try to communicate
concern in stressful situations, or when a manager attempts to gauge enthusiasm for an opportunity, a
worker may feel others are overreacting or not eager enough. Sometimes, gestures, facial expressions,
and tone are not clear to a person from another culture.

One needs to understand the emotional scale of the other person in order to avoid these divergences,
Laroche said. Verbal communication to acknowledge that they have been understood will help, and at
times, mirroring the emotional state of the other person may be required to gain their confidence.

A worker’s sense of hierarchy comes into play in interactions between managers and team members.
Employees from some countries such as Canada and the UK tend to look for greater autonomy from
their managers, while those from Mexico and Pakistan may be more apt to expect more frequent
direction, according to Laroche. Clearly, when manager and team member are from different cultures,
there is room for misinterpretation until a strong personal equation is established.
According to Laroche, two ways of learning to navigate a diverse environment are by building similarly
varied personal networks within and outside the workplace and finding mentors from the new culture.

Ilham Punjani, commercial director at 4S Investments, in the United Arab Emirates and Canada, is of
Indian origin, and has worked and studied mostly in the Middle East. As a student, she attended
educational institutions with students and teachers from varied cultural backgrounds. Her work
experience has also been with Indian, American, European, and Middle Eastern organisations; and she
has family all over the globe.

Punjani, who speaks six languages, has found that this diverse background makes it easier for her to
adapt quickly to cultural nuances.

In certain cultures, Punjani observed that it is the oldest person at the meeting whose opinions hold
greatest weight, regardless of official designations.

When language has been a barrier in client meetings, one approach that Punjani has used is to ask
politely for concerns or main points to be explained in English — the point being to aid understanding by
choosing a language in which one is most comfortable.

Organisational culture

Another variable is the culture of the organisation itself. This largely stems from where it is
headquartered, according to Laroche. Therefore, it will serve employees well to learn the cultural
nuances of that country or region, and maybe even the language, if they are seeking to build careers
within that organisation.

Organisational culture is also shaped by the sector in which the business operates. For instance, the
work culture of auditors in an accounting firm could be quite different from that of professionals who
work in the accounting function of a mining firm, Laroche observed. Further complexity also comes in
when multiple cultures are driving organisational behaviour — as in the case of an offshore subsidiary of
a business based in another country.

In all these scenarios, organisations must endeavour to find a common framework for smooth daily
functioning. This would include important metrics such as performance criteria and feedback scales, and
unspoken customs such as the format for questioning one’s manager. “You need to discuss the rules of
engagement, write down unwritten laws, explaining to people how things are done,” said Laroche.
Tips for spoken and written communication

“Once we know one another, we can separate the individual from the culture,” Laroche said. But up to
that point, we can follow a few dictums he has arrived at through research and observation to
appreciate one another’s cultural traits and find mutually agreeable ground in the workplace:

Awareness is 50% of the solution. When we realise that the other person’s behaviour and actions stem
from cultural differences and are not directed at us personally, this makes it easier to adjust to.

Patience is a virtue. Once we are aware of cultural differences, the other 50% involves persistence to
find common ground, and even change long-standing habits to do so, if needed.

Communicate with care. Communication is not just about sending messages; it is also about ensuring
that the message sent is the message that was meant to be sent.

Monitor your impact on other people. Stop and clarify when the impact you have is not the impact you
want to have.

Consider how you’re receiving messages. Monitor your emotional state to determine when you are
impacted negatively. Analyse your own emotions to identify the trigger of these negative emotions and
don’t act on them.

Separate impact from intention. The way you feel may not be the way your counterpart meant to make
you feel.

Follow the “platinum rule”. The golden rule needs to be replaced by the platinum rule, which roughly
translates as “Do unto others as they would want done to them.” Being helpful or respectful means
different things to different people.

— Shilpa Pai Mizar is a freelance writer based in the UK. To comment on this article or to suggest an idea
for another article, contact Sabine Vollmer, an FM magazine senior edito

1. INADEQUATE JOB DESCRIPTIONS

A well-written job description eliminates misunderstandings between management and employees and
becomes the very foundation of performance reviews, creating a baseline of measurement. Job
descriptions serve as a documented record of what an employee should accomplish in their position and
what activities they must perform well to meet those objectives. This should be treated as an
employment contract, creating the tool to measure job performance. Make sure that job description
documents are provided to all employees and that they are utilized regularly.

2. LACK OF TRAINING

Nothing has become more apparent in today’s workplace than the lack of employee training. Some
companies merely throw new employees onto the front line, forcing them to learn on their own through
trial and error. Others provide formal training, but in the wrong manner. Both are equally detrimental to
corporate performance.

Formal training is a must. Effective training must directly pertain to the employee’s job description. It
should address how an employee can best accomplish position objectives and complete supporting
activities. Additionally, training must include accountability. Every skill taught must be paired with
performance accountability, which requires management to measure each employee’s progress. In
many cases, training classes never receive another mention from management after they’re completed,
and, as a result, nothing ever changes. The final aspect of effective training is using the right trainer. All
too often, human resource people teach classes. These are individuals who have read the books but
don’t have practical experience on the subject they are to teach. Great teachers have walked their talk.

3. INEFFECTIVE JOB PERFORMANCE REVIEWS

In an ineffective performance review, the boss often does all the talking, doesn’t know what they’re
talking about, or doesn’t have all the information. They are often only completing the review because
they have to.

To put performance reviews back on track, management must first recognize the stakes. The few hours
spent discussing an employee’s performance will affect what the employee thinks and does for the next
full six months to a year. A lot of homework and heart needs to be put into reviews. Managers should
make sure to use the employee’s job description and review their performance in the context of a
discussion. The manager should ask the employee to share their perspectives on each subject first. And,
the manager should first focus on performance strengths before addressing areas that need
improvement.

A successful performance review ends with agreement between the employee and manager, and with a
jointly designed set of performance objectives going forward. This leaves the employee with a sincere
vote of confidence.

4. LACK OF TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION

Great managers know how to do a great job and great leaders know how to get employees to do a great
job. Regular two-way communication lies at the very foundation of what great leaders deliver. When
employees know what a manager knows, it creates an attitude and behavior of company ownership that
leads to excellent performance. Management should make a regular concerted effort in communicating
with all employees through as many mediums as possible.

5. INEFFECTIVE EMPLOYEE RECOGNITION

It’s nice to have awards and contests at work, but what counts most is the daily thank you. This turns
employee recognition from a project into a culture. This takes a concerted effort by management and an
understanding that there is always something positive that can be said to each employee each day.

6. LACK OF JOB-RELATED ACCOUNTABILITY

What irks great employees more than anything is witnessing poor performing employees being allowed
to continue on being poor performing employees. This can lead to corporate financial failure, as good
employees either leave or shrink down to being equally as poor as the rest. As important as it is to
recognize great employee performances, the job performance review process provides the means to
enforce accountabilities. Follow proper training and corrective action, and if employees fail to measure
up, terminate employment. Too many employers are being held hostage by poor performing employees,
when in fact they would be miles ahead if they were rid of them.

7. IMPROPER OR EXCESSIVE COMPANY POLICIES

All companies must have policies that all employees follow. However, a company should strive to have
as few policies as possible. One of the most recent discoveries is that a business environment that
provides freedom and the invitation to be creative always leads to the highest performing employees.
Too many policies stifle employee performance.

8. LACK OF EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

Management must make sure to pay attention to the type and condition of equipment that is being
utilized by the employees. Capital expenditures on equipment and facilities are a very high percentage
of operation expenses. Know what is needed, furnish it and then maintain it. And, make sure employees
participate all the way. Safety goes up, right along with morale.

9. LACK OF CHARITABLE COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Charitable community involvement has proven to be a powerful element of employee development.

Employers should support employees’ opportunity to spend, for example, one day per quarter serving a
charitable organization within the community and paying them for doing so. Businesses that commit to
this culture earn employees who have a much higher appreciation for their jobs and company.

10. A LOUSY MANAGER

A positive business environment includes the presence of managers who are good role models for
employees. Measure success in this area by seeking evaluations from employees. It is key for
management to ask how
LGBTQ GLOSSARY

Rainbow-colored ribbons hanging in the air.No glossary could encompass the range of identities and
terms that are used within LGBTQA communities. If you hear a term you don’t recognize, or feel like
someone is using a term in a new way, ask the individual what the term means to him or her. This
glossary is meant as an introduction to the community, and is not the definitive answer as to how
everyone understands these terms.

Ally: An ally is a person who confronts heterosexism, sexism, homophobia, biphobia, transphobia, etc.,
in themselves and others out of self-interest and a concern for the well-being of LGBTQ people, and who
is committed to social justice and equal rights.

Androgynous: Gender expression that falls somewhere in between masculinity and femininity, or
perhaps on some other dimension all together.

Aromantic: Someone who does not experience romantic attraction to others.

Asexual: Someone who does not experience sexual attraction towards other people, and who identifies
as asexual. May still have romantic, emotional, affectional, or relational attractions to other people.
Asexuality is distinct from celibacy, which is the deliberate abstention from sexual activity. Some
asexuals do have sex. There are many diverse ways of being asexual. Sometimes shortened as “ace.”

Agender: Without gender. Often used as an identification for people who do not identify with or
conform to any gender.

Bigender: Having two genders; exhibiting cultural characteristics of male and female roles.

Biphobia: Fear or hatred of people who are bisexual, pansexual, omnisexual, or nonmonosexual.

Bisexual: A person who is emotionally, romantically, sexually, affectionately, or relationally attracted to

both men and women, or who identifies as a member of the bisexual community. Also referred to as “bi-
affectionate” or “bi.”
Cisgender: A term for individuals whose gender identity generally matches with that assigned for their
physical sex. In other words, a person who does not identify as transgender. Derived from the Latin root
“cis,” meaning “on the same side.”

Closeted: Used as slang for the state of not publicizing one’s sexual/gender identity, keeping it private,
living an outwardly heterosexual/cisgender life while identifying as LGBT, or not being forthcoming
about one’s identity. At times, being in the closet also means not wanting to admit one’s identity to
oneself.

Coming Out: To disclose one sexual identity or gender identity. It can mean telling others or it can refer
an internal process of coming to terms with one’s identity. In some situations, a heterosexual ally may
feel the need to come out about her or his identity.

Crossdresser: Individual who dresses in clothing usually associated with a sex that differs from the one
assigned at birth. This is done for a variety of personal reasons. Crossdressing is not indicative of sexual
orientation. This term replaces the sometimes pejorative term transvestite.

Demisexual: A person who may experience sexual attraction after a strong emotional attachment is
formed. May be seen as falling on the asexual spectrum.

Drag: A public performance that involves playing with gender norms and expectations. Often refers to a
man who wears women’s clothing (a drag queen), or a woman who wears men’s clothing (a drag king).

FTM: Female-to-male transsexual or transgender person. Probably identifies as a trans man. Someone
assigned female at birth who identifies on the male spectrum.

Gay Male: A man who is emotionally, romantically, sexually, affectionately, or relationally attracted to
other men, or who identifies as a member of the gay community. At times, “gay” is used to refer to all
people, regardless of gender, who have their primary sexual and or romantic attractions to people of the
same gender. “Gay” is an adjective (not a noun) as in “He is a gay man.”

Gender: A socially constructed system of classification that ascribes qualities of femininity and
masculinity to people. The attributes of gender can change over time and differ between cultures. Terms
for gender identity include woman, man, genderqueer, and agender.
Gender Confirmation Surgery (GCS): The procedures that some trans individuals might undergo so their
external bodies can better reflect their internal gender identities. Other names involve sexual
reassignment surgery and gender affirmation surgery. These procedures may be called “top surgery”
(e.g. reshaping a chest or providing breast augmentation) and “bottom surgery” (e.g. reshaping
genitals).

Gender Expression: How one expresses oneself externally, in terms of dress, speech, and mannerisms
that society characterizes as “masculine” or “feminine.”

Genderfluid: A person who shifts in gender identity and/or gender expression. May be a gender identity
itself. Refers to the fluidity of identity.

Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender. Cisgender, transgender, man, woman,
and genderqueer are all examples of gender identities.

Genderism: The belief that there are, and should be, only two genders and that one’s gender is
inevitably tied to one’s assigned sex.

Gender Non-Conforming: A person who does not subscribe to gender expressions or roles expected of
them by society.

Genderqueer: A person whose gender identity and/or gender expression falls outside of the
masculine/feminine gender binary.

Heteronormativity: Processes through which social institutions and policies reinforce the notion that
there are only two possibilities for sex, gender, and sexual attraction: male/masculine/attracted to
women and female/feminine/attracted to men.

Heterosexism: Norms and behaviors that result from the assumption that all people are or should be
heterosexual. This system of oppression assumes that heterosexuality is inherently normal and superior
and negates LGBTQ peoples’ lives and relationships.

Heterosexual: A person who is emotionally, romantically, sexually, affectionately, or relationally

attracted to members of a different sex. Often called a straight person.
Homophobia: Fear of, hatred of, or discomfort with people who love and sexually desire members of the
same sex. Homophobic reactions often lead to intolerance, bigotry, and violence against anyone not
acting within socio-cultural norms of heterosexuality. Because most LGBTQ people are raised in the
same society as heterosexuals, they learn the same beliefs and stereotypes prevalent in the dominant
society, leading to a phenomenon known as internalized homophobia.

Homosexual: The clinical term, coined in the field of psychology, for people with a same-sex sexual
attraction. The word is often associated with the idea that same-sex attractions are a mental disorder,
and is therefore offensive to some people.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT): The process by which trans individuals choose to take a
prescription of artificial hormones. For trans women, that may include estrogen as well as testosterone-
blockers. For trans men, testosterone, or T.

Intersex: Term used for a variety of medical conditions in which a person is born with chromosomes,
genitalia, and/or secondary sexual characteristics that are inconsistent with the typical definition of a
male or female body. The term differences of sex development (DSD) also describes these conditions.
Replaces the inaccurate term “hermaphrodite.”

Lesbian: A woman who is emotionally, romantically, sexually, affectionately, or relationally attracted to

other women, or someone who identifies as part of the lesbian community. Bisexual women may or may
not feel included by this term.

LGBTQIAA: Abbreviation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Questioning, Intersex, Asexual and Ally.
An umbrella term that is used to refer to the community as a whole. Often shortened to LGBT or LGBTQ,
but not as a means to exclude other identities.

Lifestyle: A word often used outside the LGBTQ community to describe life as an LGBTQ person, e.g. “the
homosexual lifestyle.” Many people find this word inappropriate because it trivializes identity, implies
that sexual orientation is a choice, and ignores the variety of lifestyles that LGBTQ people live.

Mono-amorous: The state or practice of having a single romantic relationship during a period of time.
MSM: An abbreviation for men who have sex with men. This term emphasizes the behavior, rather than
the identities of the individuals involved.

MTF: Male-to-female transsexual or transgender person. Probably known as a trans woman. Someone
assigned male at birth who identifies on the female spectrum.

Non-binary: An umbrella term describing anyone whose gender identity falls outside the binary of
woman/man.

Omnigender: Possessing all genders. The term is specifically used to refute the concept of only two
genders.

Pangender: Exhibiting characteristics of multiple genders; deliberately refuting the concept of only two
genders.

Pansexual: A person who is emotionally, romantically, sexually, affectionately, or relationally attracted to

people regardless of their gender identity or biological sex. Use of the term often signals a repudiation of
the concept of binary sexes (a concept implied by “bisexual”).

Polyamorous: The state or practice of having more than one romantic relationship during a period of
time.

Queer: Term describing people who have a non-normative gender identity, sexual orientation, or sexual
anatomy — can include lesbians, gay men, bisexual people, transgender people, and a host of other
identities. Since the term is sometimes used as a slur, it has a negative connotation for some LGBT
people; nevertheless, others have reclaimed it and feel comfortable using it to describe themselves.

Questioning: Refers to individuals who are in the process examining their sexual orientation and/or
gender identity.

Romantic Orientation: A way of characterizing one’s attraction to other people characterized by the
expression or non-expression of love/romance/non-sexual interaction. People use a variety of labels to
describe their romantic orientation, including aromantic, homoromantic, and heteroromantic.
Same-Gender Loving (SGL): How some African Americans prefer to describe their sexual orientation,
seeing “gay” and “lesbian” as primarily white terms. “Same-sex loving” is also in use.

Sex: A biological term dividing a species into male or female, usually on the basis of sex chromosomes
(XX = female, XY = male); hormone levels, secondary sex characteristics, and internal and external
genitalia may also be considered criteria. Terms to describe sex include female, male, and intersex.

Sexuality: The complex range of components which make us sexual beings; includes emotional, physical,
and sexual aspects, as well as self-identification (including sexual orientation and gender), behavioral
preferences and practices, fantasies, and feelings of affection and emotional affinity.

Sexual Fluidity: The concept that sexual orientation can vary across the lifespan and in different
contexts. This does not mean that it can be changed through volition or therapy.

Sexual Orientation: An enduring emotional, romantic, sexual, and/or affectional attraction. Terms
include gay, lesbian, heterosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and asexual. Sexual orientation is fluid, and
people use a variety of labels to describe their own.

SGM: An abbreviation for sexual and gender minorities. Used as an umbrella term rather than as an
identity for a specific person, particularly in international contexts.

SOGI: An abbreviation for sexual orientation and gender identity.

Stealth: A description for people who, after beginning their transition and living as their preferred
genders, do not readily tell others about their pasts, specifically their birth-assigned genders. Others
may choose to be more or less open about their trans statuses.

Third Gender: A term for those who belong to a gender category not recognized in the Western binary.
For example, Native American two-spirit people, hijra in India, kathoeys in Thailand, and travestis in
Brazil. Recognizes that people’s identities are specific to their culture.

Transgender: An umbrella term for those individuals whose gender identity does not match with that
assigned for their physical sex. Includes, among others, transsexuals, genderqueer people, and
crossdressers. In its general sense, it refers to anyone whose behavior or identity falls outside of
stereotypical expectations for their gender. Transgender people may identify as straight, gay, bisexual,
or some other sexual orientation. Sometimes shortened as trans or trans*.

Transition: An individualized process by which transsexual and transgender people move from living as
one gender to living as another gender. There are three general aspects to transitioning: social (e.g.
name, pronouns), medical (e.g. hormones, surgery), and legal (e.g. gender marker and name change).
Each path through transition is unique to the individual.

Transsexual: Term referring to a person whose gender identity consistently differs from what is
culturally associated with his/her biological sex at birth. Some choose to physically change their body so
it matches their gender identity. Use caution with this term as many trans people do not identify with it.

Transphobia: Fear of, hatred of, or discomfort with people who are transgender or otherwise gender
non-normative.

Two-Spirit: Contemporary term chosen to describe certain Native American and Canadian First Nation
people who identify with a third gender, implying a masculine and a feminine spirit in one body.
Replaces the problematic term berdache.

WSW: An abbreviation for women who have sex with women. This term emphasizes the behavior,
rather than the identities of the individuals involved.

Gender glossary

A list of different terms related to gender and their definitions.

Asex: Having no obvious sex or sex organs. Asexual can also refer to a person who does not experience
sexual attraction.

Assigned female at birth (AFAB): People who are declared to be female at birth based on how their
genitals appear, and who are generally raised in a female gender role.

Assigned male at birth (AMAB): People who are declared to be male at birth based on how their genitals
appear, and who are generally raised in a male gender role.

Agender: Identifying as having no gender.

Bigender: Identifying as both male and female genders.

Biological sex: The physical characteristics - including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy - that
categorize people as male, female or intersex.

Cisgender: Having a gender and gender identity that is the same as one’s assigned sex as birth; not
transgender.

Gender: The roles, attributes and activities that society uses to define people. Gender is based on many
factors including biology, socialization, cultural expectations and roles, and personal feelings.

Gender fluid: A gender expression or identity that is not fixed, but changes across time or circumstances.
Gender fluid people may present sometimes as men, sometimes as women, or sometimes as non-
binary.

Genderqueer / gender non-conforming / gender non-binary: A gender-variant person whose gender

identity does not conform to the gender binary of male or female. They may identify as neither male nor
female, between or beyond genders, or some combination of genders.

Intersex: Refers to a person who is born with chromosomes, reproductive or sexual anatomy that do not
fit the usual definitions of female or male.

Transgender: Having a gender that is different from a person’s assigned sex at birth; not cisgender.

Trans man: A man who was assigned female at birth.

Trans masculine: An umbrella term for people who were assigned female at birth, but who identify as
trans and whose gender expression leans towards the masculine.

Trans woman: A woman who was assigned male at birth.

Trans feminine: An umrella term for people who were assigned male at birth, but who identify as trans
and whose gender expresssion leans towards the feminine.

Two-Spirit: A holistic term used by some Indigenous communities to encompass sexual, gender, cultural
and/or spiritual identities, including non-heterosexual and non-cisgender identities.

Although it might seem that we could easily recognize a social group when we come across one, it is
actually not that easy to define what makes a group of people a social group. Imagine, for instance, a
half dozen people waiting in a checkout line at a supermarket. You would probably agree that this set of
individuals should not be considered a social group because the people are not meaningfully related to
each other. And the individuals watching a movie at a theater or those attending a large lecture class
might also be considered simply as individuals who are in the same place at the same time but who are
not connected as a social group.

Of course, a group of individuals who are currently in the same place may nevertheless easily turn into a
social group if something happens that brings them “together.” For instance, if a man in the checkout
line of the supermarket suddenly collapsed on the floor, it is likely that the others around him would
begin to work together to help him. Someone would call an ambulance, another might give CPR, and
another might attempt to contact his family. Similarly, if the movie theater were to catch on fire, a group
would form as the individuals attempted to leave the theater. And even the class of students might
come to feel like a group if the instructor continually praised it for being the best (or worst) class that he
or she has ever had. It has been a challenge to characterize what the “something” is that makes a group
a group, but one term that has been used is entitativity (Campbell, 1958; Lickel et al., 2000). Entitativity
refers to something like “groupiness”—the perception, either by the group members themselves or by
others, that the people together are a group.

The concept of entitativity is an important one, both in relation to how we view our ingroups, and also in
terms of our perceptions of and behavior toward our outgroups. For example, strong perceptions of
ingroup entitativity can help people to retain their sense of collective self-esteem in the face of difficult
circumstances (Bougie, Usborne, de la Sablonniere, & Taylor, 2011). Seeing our ingroups as more
entitative can also help us to achieve our individual psychological needs (Crawford & Salaman, 2012).
With our outgroups, our perceptions of their entitativity can influence both our prosocial and antisocial
behaviors toward them. For instance, although in some situations individuals may feel more xenophobic
toward outgroups that they perceive as more entitative (Ommundsen, van der Veer, Yakushko, &
Ulleberg, 2013), they may in other contexts choose to donate more money to help more entitative
outgroups (Smith, Faro, & Burson, 2013).

Similarity

One determinant of entitativity is a cognitive one—the perception of similarity. As we saw in our

discussions of liking and loving, similarity is important across many dimensions, including beliefs, values,
and traits. A group can only be a group to the extent that its members have something in common; at
minimum, they are similar because they all belong to the group. If a collection of people are interested
in the same things, share the same opinions and beliefs, or work together on the same task, then it
seems they should be considered—by both themselves and others—to be a group. However, if there are
a lot of differences among the individuals, particularly in their goals, values, beliefs, and behaviors, then
they are less likely to be seen as a group.

Given the many differences that we have discussed in other chapters between members of
individualistic and collectivistic cultures in terms of how they see their social worlds, it should come as
no surprise that different types of similarity relate more strongly to perceptions of entitativity in each
type of culture. For instance, similarity in terms of personal traits has been found to be more strongly
associated with entiativity in American versus Japanese participants, with the opposite pattern found for
similarity in terms of common goals and outcomes (Kurebayashi, Hoffman, Ryan, & Murayama, 2012).

People, then, generally get together to form groups precisely because they are similar. For example,
perhaps they are all interested in playing poker, or follow the same soccer team, or like martial arts. And
groups are more likely to fall apart when the group members become dissimilar and thus no longer have
enough in common to keep them together (Crump, Hamilton, Sherman, Lickel, & Thakkar, 2010; Miles &
Kivlighan, 2008).

Communication, Interdependence, and Group Structure

Although similarity is important, it is not the only factor that creates a group. Groups have more
entitativity when the group members have frequent interaction and communication with each other
(Johnson & Johnson, 2012). Although communication can occur in groups that meet together in a single
place, it can also occur among individuals who are at great distances from each other. The members of a
research team who communicate regularly via Skype, for instance, might have frequent interactions and
feel as if they are a group even though they never or rarely meet in person.

Interaction is particularly important when it is accompanied by interdependence—the extent to which

the group members are mutually dependent upon each other to reach a goal. In some cases, and
particularly in working groups, interdependence involves the need to work together to successfully
accomplish a task. Individuals playing baseball are dependent upon each other to be able to play the
game and also to play well. Each individual must do his or her job in order for the group to function. We
are also interdependent when we work together to write a research article or create a class project.
When group members are interdependent, they report liking each other more, tend to cooperate and
communicate with each other to a greater extent, and may be more productive (Deutsch, 1949).
Still another aspect of working groups whose members spend some time working together and that
makes them seem “groupy” is that they develop group structure—the stable norms and roles that
define the appropriate behaviors for the group as a whole and for each of the members. The relevant
social norms for groups include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of
the group. Particularly important here are injunctive norms, which specify how group members are
expected to behave. Some of these are prescriptive norms, which tell the group members what to do,
whereas some are proscriptive norms, which tell them what not to do. In general, the more clearly
defined and the widely agreed upon the norms in a group are, the more entitativity that the group
members will feel.

Effective groups also develop and assign social roles (the expected behaviors) to group members. For
instance, some groups may be structured such that they have a president, a secretary, and many
different working committees. Different roles often come with different levels of status, or perceived
power, and these hierarchies. In general, groups are more effective when the roles assigned to each
member are clearly defined and appropriate to those individuals’ skills and goals. Also, if members have
more than one role, for example, player and coach, it is important that these roles are compatible rather
than contradictory. High-performing groups are thus able to avoid placing members under role stress.
This occurs when individuals experience incompatible demands and expectations within or between the
roles that they occupy, which often negatively impacts their ability to be successful in those roles
(Forsyth, 2010).

Social Identity

Although cognitive factors such as perceived similarity, communication, interdependence, and structure
are often important parts of what we mean by being a group, they do not seem to always be necessary.
In some situations, groups may be seen as groups even if they have little independence, communication,
or structure. Partly because of this difficulty, an alternative approach to thinking about groups, and one
that has been very important in social psychology, makes use of the affective feelings that we have
toward the groups that we belong to. As we have read, social identity refers to the part of the self-
concept that results from our membership in social groups (Hogg, 2003). Generally, because we prefer
to remain in groups that we feel good about, the outcome of group membership is a positive social
identity—our group memberships make us feel good about ourselves.

According to the social identity approach, a group is a group when the members experience social
identity—when they define themselves in part by the group that they belong to and feel good about
their group membership (Hogg, 2010). This identity might be seen as a tendency on the part of the
individual to talk positively about the group to others, a general enjoyment of being part of the group,
and a feeling of pride that comes from group membership. Because identity is such an important part of
group membership, we may attempt to create it to make ourselves feel good, both about our group and
about ourselves. Perhaps you know some people—maybe you are one—who wear the clothes of their
sports team to highlight their identity with the group because they want to be part of, and accepted by,
the other group members. Indeed, the more that we see our social identities as part of our membership
of a group, the more likely we are to remain in them, even when attractive alternatives exist (Van Vugt
& Hart, 2004).

The Stages of Group Development

Although many groups are basically static, performing the same types of tasks day in and day out, other
groups are more dynamic. In fact, in almost all groups there is at least some change; members come and
go, and the goals of the group may change. And even groups that have remained relatively stable for
long periods of time may suddenly make dramatic changes; for instance, when they face a crisis, such as
a change in task goals or the loss of a leader. Groups may also lose their meaning and identity as they
successfully meet the goals they initially set out to accomplish.

One way to understand group development is to consider the potential stages that groups generally go
through. One widely used approach here is the model developed by Tuckman and Jensen (1977). As you
can see in Figure 10.3, “Stages of Group Development,” the different stages involve forming, storming,
norming and performing, and adjourning.

Figure 10.3 Stages of Group Development

Figure 10.3 Stages of Group Development

The forming stage occurs when the members of the group come together and begin their existence as a
group. In some cases, when a new group, such as a courtroom jury, forms to accomplish a goal, the
formation stage occurs relatively quickly and is appropriately considered the group’s first stage. In other
cases, however, the process of group formation occurs continually over a long period of time, such as
when factory workers leave their jobs and are replaced by new employees.

The forming stage is important for the new members, as well as for the group itself. During this time, the
group and the individual will exchange knowledge about appropriate norms, including any existing
group structures, procedures, and routines. Each individual will need to learn about the group and
determine how he or she is going to fit in. And the group may be inspecting the individual’s
characteristics and appropriateness as a group member. This initial investigation process may end up
with the individual rejecting the group or the group rejecting the individual.
If the forming stage can be compared to childhood, there is no doubt that the next stage—storming—
can be compared to adolescence. As the group members begin to get to know each other, they may find
that they don’t always agree on everything. In the storming stage, members may attempt to make their
own views known, expressing their independence and attempting to persuade the group to accept their
ideas. Storming may occur as the group first gets started, and it may recur at any point during the
group’s development, particularly if the group experiences stress caused by a negative event, such as a
setback in progress toward the group goal. In some cases, the conflict may be so strong that the group
members decide that the group is not working at all and they disband. In fact, field studies of real
working groups have shown that a large percentage of new groups never get past the forming and
storming stages before breaking up (Kuypers, Davies, & Hazewinkel, 1986).

Although storming can be harmful to group functioning and thus groups must work to keep it from
escalating, some conflict among group members may in fact be helpful. Sometimes the most successful
groups are those that have successfully passed through a storming stage, because conflict may increase
the productivity of the group, unless the conflict becomes so extreme that the group disbands
prematurely (Rispens & Jehn, 2011). Groups that experience no conflict at all may be unproductive
because the members are bored, uninvolved, and unmotivated, and because they do not think
creatively or openly about the topics of relevance to them (Tjosvold, 1991). In order to progress, the
group needs to develop new ideas and approaches, and this requires that the members discuss their
different opinions about the decisions that the group needs to make.

Assuming that the storming does not escalate too far, the group will move into the norming stage, which
is when the appropriate norms and roles for the group are developed. Once these norms have been
developed, they allow the group to enter the performing stage, which is when group members establish
a routine and effectively work together. At this stage, the individual group members may report great
satisfaction and identification with the group, as well as strong group identity. Groups that have
effectively reached this stage have the ability to meet goals and survive challenges. And at this point, the
group becomes well tuned to its task and is able to perform the task efficiently.

In one interesting observational study of the group development process in real groups, Gersick (1988,
1989) observed a number of teams as they worked on different projects. The teams were selected so
that they were all working within a specific time frame, but the time frame itself varied dramatically—
from eight to 25 meetings held over periods ranging from 11 days to six months. Despite this variability,
Gersick found that each of the teams followed a very similar pattern of norming and then performing. In
each case, the team established well-defined norms regarding its method of attacking its task in its very
first meeting. And each team stayed with this approach, with very little deviation, during the first half of
the time it had been allotted. However, midway through the time it had been given to complete the
project (and regardless of whether that was after four meetings or after 12), the group suddenly had a
meeting in which it decided to change its approach. Then, each of the groups used this new method of
performing the task during the rest of its allotted time. It was as if an alarm clock went off at the halfway
point, which led each group to rethink its approach.
Most groups eventually come to the adjourning stage, where group members prepare for the group to
end. In some cases, this is because the task for which the group was formed has been completed,
whereas in other cases it occurs because the group members have developed new interests outside the
group. In any case, because people who have worked in a group have likely developed a strong
identification with the group and the other group members, the adjournment phase is frequently
stressful, and participants may resist the breakup. Faced with these situations, individuals frequently
plan to get together again in the future, exchanging addresses and phone numbers, even though they
may well know that it is unlikely they will actually do so. Sometimes it is useful for the group to work
ahead of time to prepare members for the breakup.

Keep in mind that this model represents only a general account of the phases of group development,
beginning with forming and ending with adjourning, and will not apply equally well to all groups . For
instance, the stages are not necessarily sequential: some groups may cycle back and forth between
earlier and later stages in response to the situations they face. Also, not all groups will necessarily pass
through all stages. Nevertheless, the model has been useful in describing the evolution of a wide range
of groups (Johnson & Johnson, 2012).

Key Takeaways

Social groups form the foundation of human society—without groups, there would be no human
culture. Working together in groups, however, may lead to a variety of negative outcomes as well.

Similarity, communication, interdependence, and group structure are variables that make a collection of
individuals seem more like a group—the perception of group entitativity.

Most groups that we belong to provide us with a positive social identity—the part of the self-concept
that results from our membership in social groups.

The more we feel that our identities are tied to the our group memberships, the less likely we are to
leave the groups we belong to.

One way to understand group development is to consider the potential stages that groups generally go
through. The normal stages are forming, storming, norming and performing, and adjourning.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

Compare some of the social groups that you belong to that you feel have high and low levels of
entitativity. How do these groups differ in terms of their perceived similarity, communication,
interdependence, and structure?
Describe a situation where you experienced role stress. What were the causes of that stress and how did
it affect your performance in that role?

Think about a group that you belong to now, which is very important to you. Identify one prescriptive
and one proscriptive norm for this group. How do you think that these norms help the group to function
effectively? What do you think would happen if a group member violated those norms?

Consider groups that provide a particularly strong social identity for their members. Why do you think
social identity is so strong in these groups, and how do you think that the experience of identity
influence the group members’ behavior?

Think about a group that you have been a member of for a long time. Which of Tuckman and Jensen’s
stages do you think that the group is currently in? Overall, how well do you think that their stage model
helps to explain how this group has developed over time?

References

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Francophone and Anglophones Quebecers: Using a historical perspective to explore the relationships
among collective relative deprivation, in‐group entitativity, and collective esteem. British Journal Of
Social Psychology,50 (4), 726-746.

Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregate persons as
social entities. Behavioral Science, 3, 14-25.

Crawford, M. T., & Salaman, L. (2012). Entitativity, identity, and the fulfilment of psychological needs.
Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology,48 (3), 726-730.

Crump, S. A., Hamilton, D. L., Sherman, S. J., Lickel, B., & Thakkar, V. (2010). Group entitativity and
similarity: Their differing patterns in perceptions of groups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(7),
1212–1230. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.716.

Deutsch, M. (1949). An experimental study of the effects of cooperation and competition upon group
processes. Human Relations, 2, 199–231.

Forsyth, D. (2010). Group dynamics (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Gersick, C. J. (1988). Time and transition in work teams: Toward a new model of group development.
Academy of Management Journal, 31(1), 9–41.
Gersick, C. J. (1989). Marking time: Predictable transitions in task groups. Academy of Management
Journal, 32, 274–309.

Hogg, M. A. (2003). Social identity. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity
(pp. 462–479). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Hogg, M. A. (2010). Human groups, social categories, and collective self: Social identity and the
management of self-uncertainty. In R. M. Arkin, K. C. Oleson, & P. J. Carroll (Eds.), Handbook of the
uncertain self (pp. 401–420). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, F.P. (2012). Joining Together – Group Theory and Group Skills (11th ed).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Kurebayashi, K., Hoffman, L., Ryan, C. S., & Murayama, A. (2012). Japanese and American perceptions of
group entitativity and autonomy: A multilevel analysis. Journal Of Cross-Cultural Psychology,43(2), 349-
364.

Kuypers, B. C., Davies, D., & Hazewinkel, A. (1986). Developmental patterns in self-analytic groups.
Human Relations, 39(9), 793–815.

Lickel, B., Hamilton, D. L., Wieczorkowska, G., Lewis, A., Sherman, S. J., & Uhles, A. N. (2000). Varieties of
groups and the perception of group entitativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 223–
246.

Miles, J. R., & Kivlighan, D. M., Jr. (2008). Team cognition in group interventions: The relation between
coleaders’ shared mental models and group climate. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice,
12(3), 191–209. doi: 10.1037/1089–2699.12.3.191

Ommundsen R, van der Veer K, Yakushko O, Ulleberg P. Exploring the relationships between fear-related
xenophobia, perceptions of out-group entitativity, and social contact in Norway. Psychological Reports
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Rispens, S., & Jehn, K. A. (2011). Conflict in workgroups: Constructive, destructive, and asymmetric
conflict. In D. De Cremer, R. van Dick, & J. K. Murnighan (Eds.), Social psychology and organizations (pp.
185–209). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Smith, R. W., Faro, D., & Burson, K. A. (2013). More for the many: The influence of entitativity on
charitable giving. Journal Of Consumer Research, 39(5), 961-975.

Tjosvold, D. (1991). The conflict-positive organization. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Tuckman, B., & Jenson, M. (1977). Stages of small group development revisited. Group and
Organizational Studies, 2, 419-427.

Van Vugt, M., & Hart, C. M. (2004). Social identities as glue: The origins of group loyalty. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 585-598.

Section I: Social Structure

Sociologists define the concept, "society" as a group of interacting individuals who share the same
territory and participate in a common culture. As we have already seen, "interaction" is a process by
which communicating individuals influence each others' thoughts and activities. All of this interaction
must be ordered or organized some way; according to some framework--- We refer to this frame work
as social structure.

Social structure is the organization of social positions and the distribution of people in them. Our text
defines social structure as "the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships"

It's important to realize that we are not concerned with personalities but positions; e.g., faculty
member; short stop; half-back; President of the U.S., etc. (This is not as easy as it seems--- Think of the
President. What thoughts fill your mind? Now think of the president who served before Clinton. What
kinds of thoughts enter your mind? It is difficult to separate the man from the position).
The basic components of social structure are: Statuses; Roles; Groups; and Institutions. We've already
discussed six basic social institutions:

1. FAMILY-- caring for the young

2. EDUCATION-- transmitting cultural knowledge from one generation to the next

3. RELIGION-- reaffirming the values that bind people together

4. POLITICS-- governing people, maintaining order

5. ECONOMY-- providing food, shelter, and necessary services

6. RECREATION--entertainment/ recreation/ relaxation

There are two levels of social structure: 1.) Micro level: small, interpersonal level-- dorm life;
organizational network in the office. 2.) Macro level: the "Big Picture" how does it fit into society? (The
relationships between components of society -- education in American Society).

Example: The Prison

Micro level: Look at a prison. We see that it's comprised of administrators, guards, and prisoners.
There's also an elaborate set of rules governing the relationships between the three. But when we look
deeper we find more. There's an informal network among the prisoners and they divide themselves into
many different categories and these categories describe what they do in the prison. Here are some of
the positions in prison argot: (Sykes and Messinger)
toughs: those who quarrel easily and fight without cause

gorilla: those who use violence to obtain their goals

merchant or peddler: buys and sells goods; exploits fellow prisoners by manipulation, not force

wolf or fag: prisoners who enter into homosexual relationships (label applies to the role they take) [Tusk
hogs at Richmond State Pen.?]

square John: they conform to the values of the greater society (in effect, support prison officials)

rat or squealer: informers

real man or right guy: quiet; doesn't talk; doesn't push people around, but can handle the toughs and
the gorillas; doesn't let other prisoners down--- i.e. the Clint Eastwood type

The importance of this is that some prisoners assume much admired roles-- the real men; while others
are considered scum-- the rats. The problem for prison administrators is to maintain order and control
when they are in the minority--- more prisoners than guards. Prisoners certainly don't obey from love or
respect. They are at the legal limits of coercion. How do they do this, then? They allow the breaking of
trivial rules in exchange for cooperation. They allow an "informal social structure" to develop where
prison leaders (prisoners, themselves) have a say in what goes on. In May, 1980 very violent riots took
place in the New Mexico State Pen. Why? The informal structure was disrupted. Cries of political
corruption booted out leaders to other prisons and left the prisoners without leaders. As a result, the
toughs and gorillas took over-- macho contests. A riot ensued: When the authorities tried to negotiate,
they found that they had to deal with several different groups of prisoners.
The Macro Level: Here we wouldn't focus on the internal workings of a particular prison, but rather how
prisons fit into the larger society.

· What is the purpose of prisons (containment and isolation; punishment; retribution;

rehabilitation)?

· What percent of the U.S. population is in prison? (over 1,000,000 in prison on any given day in
U.S.-- a % greater than most countries; well over 1 million on probation/parole).

· What types of prisons are there?

· What are the characteristics of prisoners-- age, sex, religion, race?

· Are prisons overcrowded? (From 1993 World Almanac: It is estimated that state prisons were 16 to
31 percent above their capacities in 1990.

Contents

The Components of Social Structure-- Some Terms:

status: refers to a position in the social structure; Each person possesses several statuses, age, sex, race,
occupation, nationality, son, daughter, mother, father, etc.
master status: This is the basic one in giving you a sense of who you are. Think of the question, "Who
and what are you, what do you do?" (Usually its a job).

ascribed status: This one has been assigned or given to us and we can't change it easily-- race, sex, age,
etc.

achieved status: It is earned by us; Doctor, Lawyer, college graduate, etc.).

social class: Roughly a social class consists of people who occupy the same status in society. (Marx --
depends on relationship to the means of production (job); Weber-- status group, people who share
similar interests, atti tudes, likes, and dislikes). (College professors can have different life-styles; one
goes to bars and basket ball games while the other goes to fancy restaurants and classical music
concerts). According to Weber garbage collector and factory owner can both belong to the same status
group if they both like Mozart and have similar likes and dislikes.

roles: Roles are socially prescribed ways of acting in a particular status. They involve certain behavior
patterns, obligations and privileges. We play a different role for each of the different statuses we
occupy. Usually one status (say President of the U.S.) has many different roles assigned to it. (Run
country, veto bills, State of the Union Address, commander of armed forces, submit budget to Congress,
greet foreign dignitaries, etc). We call this a role set.
role set: Each status usually has several roles attached to it-- Doctor as medical professional; Doctor as
nurse supervisor; Doctor as instructor to other Doctors; Doctor as medical researcher; Doctor as hospital
administrator; Doctor as surgeon.

role model: A person who occupies a status and plays the roles associated with that status in the way
that we would like to play them. (Sort of an ideal). Be able to hit the ball like Ted Williams or Mickey
Mantle.

role expectations: social norms that define how a role should be played. (What is an English Profes sor
supposed to teach? How are children expected to behave in front of company?)

role performance: actual role behavior--- how well we actually play the roles we have.

role strain: difficulties that result from the differing demands and expectations associated with the same
social position (status). The Captain of a Navy ship has many roles. One of them is to maintain high
morale among the officers and crew. Another is to accomplish the assigned mission or task. Often these
two are incompatible, and it's hard to meet role expectations.

role conflict: Difficulties that occur when incom patible expectations arise from two or more social
positions (statuses) held by the same individual. For example; a priest hearing confession--- a man
comes in and confesses to killing the President of the U.S. Here, two different roles, associated with two
different statuses-- (priest's confidentiality vs his role as a responsible citizen to report a crime to the
police) have two roles which are in conflict. How many people have seen the movie Ser geant York? Gary
Cooper has serious doubts about joining the Army. In fact, he won't do it until those doubts are settled.
(Man of God vs. soldier expected to kill). He will not assume that second status (soldier) until he resolves
the dilemma. He was trying to avoid role conflict by not assuming the position (status) of soldier. How
does he re solve this problem? He decides that a man of God can, and must, under certain
circumstances, kill. In other words the roles do not necessarily con flict. Once he resolves this dilemma
he readily accepts the second status which is that of soldier.

groups: A group is a number of people (three or more) who interact together in an orderly way on the
basis of shared expectations about each other's behavior. Note the distinction between group and
category. The latter are people who share the same characteristic-- red hair, for example. Note that a
group is more than a simple aggregate-- people who happen to be at the same place at the same time.

primary group: relatively small number of people who interact over a relatively long period of time on
an intimate, face-to-face basis. These groups are the building blocks of social structure families,
roommates, husband and wife, peer group, small town, or neighborhood.

secondary group: relatively large number of people who interact on a temporary, ananymous, and
impersonal basis. Formal organizations like Ford Motor Company, IBM, DuPont; they exist to serve a
purpose.

associations and institutions: What's the difference between the terms "association" and "institution?"
An institution is a stable cluster of values, norms, statuses, roles, and groups that develops around a
basic social need. Simply stated--- an organized procedure-- an established way of pursuing some basic
social need. On the other hand an association is any organized group, large or small that; has structure;
has continuity; continues beyond the individuals that start it; has an identity (name)

Institution: Association:

education VCU
family Kennedy

religion Greek Orthodox Church

govrnment Richmond City Council

What are some of the characteristics of institutions? They are inherently conservative. we say that
patterns of behavior become institutionalized. By this we mean that they become fixed, rigid,
traditional. It's difficult to change and innovate. Education; stop the experimenting--- get back to the
basics. Religion; bring prayer back into the schools. Recreation; Until recently, refusing to change the
criteria for amateur status in the Olympics, (Why not let the pro's participate? What took them so long
to allow women to run the marathon?) Economy; In the U.S. we're afraid of socialized medicine when it
would provide better care for the poor. Government; campaigning takes more and more time from the
presidency, yet people resist implementing 1 six-year term. Institutions are closely linked within the
social structure. Religion, politics, recreation, economy, family, education all are compatible and
interrelated within a given society. If not, the society would disintegrate. (Witness the tremendous
strain Catholicism places upon the government in communist Poland. Because institutions are linked
together when one changes, the others tend to experience "adjusting changes."

Functions of institutions: There are two kinds (from Robert Merton): manifest and latent. Manifest
functions are those that are intended. Latent functions are hidden and unintended. What is the manifest
function of education, for example? -- Education is intended to provide training which enables
individuals to function in society. --It is intended to teach the youth. What is a latent function of
education? It gets the kids out of the home and frees up mothers from baby sitting so they can get into
the labor force.

Contents

Socio-Cultural Evolution (Lenski) -- Types of Societies and the Complexity of Social Structure

Low Complexity High Complexity

<---------------------------------------------------------------------->

Hunting/Gathering Pastoral Horticultural Agricultural Industrial

Societies world wide, in the present and the past display general patterns of characteristics which are
based upon the complexity of their social structures. These patterns have been gathered into five
different types:

Hunting and gathering:

o very small scattered groups

o high level of equality

o no material wealth

o no division or specialization of labor

o little or no warfare

o status based upon sex, age, or kinship

o religion is simple. No gods-- just unseen spirits that must be taken account of not worshiped.

Pastoral societies: (subsistence strategy based on the domestication of animals)

o larger population possible

o some stratification from wealth possible

o nomadic, material possessions few in number

o develop trading and barter

o warfare and slavery exist

o belief in gods

Horticultural Societies: (gardeners cultivating donesticated plants by hand-- slash and burn technology)

o large populations possible

o stratification by wealth and power is possible.

o Hereditary chieftanships develop.

o specialization and division of labor possible

o warfare is common-- cannibalism, head hunting, human sacrifice

o belief in gods
o permanent settlements and elaborate cultural artifacts

Agricultural Societies: (6000 years ago the plow was invented. It greatly improved the productivity of the
soil; brings surface nutirents that have sunk out of the reach of the roots of the plants).

o land continually cultivated-- permanent settlements emerge

o food output increased greatly--- substantial surpluses.

o much greater population size possible

o more highly refined division of labor

o first time cities appear

o power is in the hands of one individual, hereditary monarchies develop

o inequality of wealth

o religion becomes a separate social institution

o economic institutions more complex, more elaborate trade; money developes

o almost always at war

o permanent armies

o system of writing developed

o efficient transportation system is developed.

o many more cultural artifacts

Industrial societies: (originated in the industrial revolution in England 250 yrs ago). They have learned to
appply scientific knowledge to the technology of production

· technological innovation is swift

· continuous, rapid social change

· very large populations, 100 million or more

· highly complex division of labor

· family and kinship become less important

· influence of religion weakens

· wide diversity of values and beliefs

· importance of science as institution increases

· education becomes distinct institution

· mass literacr (requires formal education)

· reduction in inequality

· incidence of warfare decreases

· more and more social life occurs in secondary groups

· problems with pollution, resource depletion, social disorganization

Contents

The Distinction Between Pre-Industrial and Industrial Societies:

EMEINSCHAFT GESELLSCHAFT (Ferdinand Tonnes)

(community) (association)

MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY (Durkheim)

FOLK SOCIETY URBAN SOCIETY (Robert Redfield)

Contents

Section II: The Importance of Social Groups

Groups are important to sociologists because most of our day-to-day activities are spent in the
company of other people in a group; whether it be at home, at school, or at work. There are virtually
countless groups in society. They vary in size, but almost everybody belongs to a large number of them.
For example, you may think that it would be difficult to name 25 groups that you belong to. But VCU
students have easily provided the following:.

VCU Student Body

Suite/Dorm Mates

English Class

Spanish Class

Math Class
Sociology Class

Biology Class

Class of 2000, etc.

Immediate Family

Extended Family

Sports Team/Club

High School Class

Bank

Auto Club (AAA)

Auto Insurance Co.

College Meal Plan

Neighborhood

Religious Affiliation

Political Party

Employment Group
Fraternity/Sorority

Peer Group (Friends)

Academic Program

Video Club

Internet Access

Most of our socialization occurs in groups. In groups we learn to enact various roles and most roles have
meaning only within the context of groups. Example:

Leader: Leader of what? (Band, class, parade, military organization, sports team, etc.). All these
examples involve groups.

Mother/Father the family (another group)

Treasurer, Secretary, President (club; company)

Teacher class (also a group)

Contents

Definition of a Group:

A group is simply a collection of people who: 1.) Interact on a fairly regular basis; 2.) occupy specific
status's and know the roles expected of those status's; 3.) Show general agreement on goals, rules,
values; 4.) Have a sense of shared identity.

Classification of Groups:

Primary Group: The primary group is very important to the development of the human as a social being.
It is the locus of our socialization. Some of the characteristics:

A high degree of intimacy among members (promotes loyalty). Face-to-face, personal interaction

Relatively small size (usually less than 20 people)

Great emotional depth

The group tends to last a long time to endure.

Examples of primary groups:

the family

street gangs

play groups

certain social clubs (fraternities, sororities, etc.)

sports team

Secondary Group: The secondary group reflects characteristics that are the opposite of the above. It is
large, formal and impersonal group that does not display social intimacy. Key attributes:

Far less intimacy, much more impersonal large, more bureaucratic;

Usually formed for a specific purpose;

People relate to each other not so much face to face but according to specific positions (and roles).

Relationships between individuals are not emotional but are based upon calculation

We join these groups for what they can do for us, not what they mean to us.

Examples of secondary groups:

civic organizations

college classes

work groups task forces

auto club (AAA)

business corporations

government departments

the Army (but not the squad or platoon)

the bank

In-groups and Outgroups: (This concept was first developed by William Graham Sumner when he spoke
of "we" and "they" feelings. The "in-group" is the group that we belong to (or feel that we belong to).
The "out group" is one that we feel we don't belong to, (and act as if we wouldn't want to belong). In-
group feelings promote group solidarity and, in some cases, group superiority. I know a Virginia Tech
graduate whose license plate reads: "NOT UVA". (U.Va. graduates will chide their Tech friends with
comments like; "Joe didn't go to college, he went to Tech."
Reference Groups: A reference group is any group of people that individuals use as a standard for
evaluating themselves and their own behavior (Schaefer). The term "reference group" was coined by
Herbert Hymen in 1942 in a study of social class. Hymen discovered that what people perceived their
social status to be could not be predicted solely from factors of income and levels of education. A
person's self evaluation depended upon the groups used as a framework for judgment. In many cases
individuals modeled their behavior after groups to which they did not belong. Reference Groups can be
primary or secondary groups:

Reference Groups fall into three categories:

Those in which we hold official membership (VCU).

Those to which we would like to belong (Nobel Prize Winners; Olympic Atheletes; Good Parents, etc.)

Those we reject and don't want to belong to. (Crooked Politicians, Deadbeat Spouses, etc.)

Reference groups may vary from situation to situation. Example: You got a "C" on your last test. So
what? Is that good or bad. What class was it? Sociology or Organic Chemistry? In this case we compare
ourselves to the rest of the class. A "C" in Psychology may not be so hot; but a "C" in organic may be
great. "C" is a respectable grade if everybody else got "D's" and "F's."

Subdivisions of reference groups:

Normative: This group sets the standards for our own actions.

Comparative: We use this group to judge our performance How well did I do in comparison to the other
members of the class?

Audience: We can adjust our behavior with regard to how the group reacts to what we say and do.

Contents

Leadership in Groups:
All groups (primary and secondary) tend to have leaders-- people who are able to influence the
behavior of others consistently.

What makes a leader? It's difficult to say what specific personal characteristics are important. The
argument that "leaders are born not made" doesn't hold water, but there are some physical
characteristics that seem to emerge often among leaders: (Of course, there are numerous exceptions to
the following):

Often they are taller: This may seem hard to believe, but American Presidents have tended to be taller
than the average population Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, (more recently, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton!)
Of course, there are some major exceptions to this.

More attractive people are often found in leadership positions.

More intelligent people usually emerge as leaders.

Self-confident people tend to be leaders.

Sociable people tend to lead.

Assertive people, people who begin conversations emerge as leaders.

The situation is very important in determining leadership. Usually by this we mean what the purpose of
the group is (what it does) and the skills that the leader has.

A good example of this is Capt. John Smith and the situation involving the Jamestown colony in Virginia.
The colony of about 105 settlers was in danger of being wiped out by famine, hostile indians, and poor
leadership. Smith, by far was the ablest leader there experienced, brave, charismatic (he was short 5'2").
But he was also brash and, at times, disrespectful to authority. On the way across the Atlantic he had
been placed under arrest and was not released until a month after the colonists had landed (Dabney, p.
2). After a initial problems and the failings of other leaders, Smith was asked to take over and organized
the colony in the early years, 1607-1609. He was the main reason why it survived. In 1609 he suffered a
serious injury (gunshot wound accidental) and returned to England in the Fall of that year. There were
about 500 colonists when he departed. The next Spring 60 colonists were left. (Indian hostility was the
primary reason for the deaths most colonists starved to death, others were massacred, still others
succumbed to disease). It is questionable whether or not Smith could have fared any better than those
who were left to lead the colony, but he was its best leader.
Small group research has shown that there are two types of leaders:

Instrumental leaders are goal oriented. They concentrate on the task at hand, and direct the group
toward its goals. They perform what is called the "tasking function."

Expressive leaders concentrate on maintaining harmony among group members. They perform what is
often called the "maintenance function."

Usually, when a group is formed, both these functions are assumed by one person, but as time goes on
they split and a new person usually emerges to take over the maintenance. One reason for this is that
the instrumental leaders tend to lose popularity they tell everybody what to do and give them a hard
time if it's not done.

Styles of leadership: Usually, you'll find that leadership has been divided into three separate kinds:

Authoritarian: One person or a small group of people have total control and give all the orders. An
authoritarian style of leadership is especially effective in emergency situations where action must be
quick, coordinated and effective. This is precisely the kind of leadership one finds in the military, where
one person has "authority" to make decisions (at various levels) and there is a definite chain of
command to follow. (Culturally, In the United States this form of leadership is not the most effective in
the small group situation, because it leads to dissension and in fighting.)

Democratic: Here the leader attempts to win consensus on his decision before carrying it out. "Is
everybody happy?" This form of leadership generally works well in small groups and in countries like the
United States where people value the opportunity to have a say in the final decision. However, it is not
applicable to certain situations. Can you imagine the Captain of a ship taking a vote every time the ship
needed to change course?

Laissez-faire (Virtually "Hands-off" leadership) In this case, there is a designated leader but he/she lets
the group run itself.

Contents
Group Size:

TWO PERSON GROUPS OR "DYADS"

Perhaps one of the most important characteristics of a group is its size. Size determines the kind of
interaction that occurs within a group-- basically how the group works. The smaller the group, the more
intense the interaction. Group conformity is very strong in a small group.

A German sociologist, Georg Simmel (1858-1918) is perhaps the first to emphasize the importance of
interaction processes within groups. He pointed out that as a group grows in size, it must develop
"forms and organs which serve its maintenance and promotion." These forms and organs are things that
a smaller group doesn't need. On the other hand, small groups have qualities that disappear when
groups grow larger. (Schaefer, 1983).

The smallest group is the dyad, (a two person group). Here the emotional level is very intense because
the two people in the group depend on each other for existence of the group. One reason for this is that
you can't hide responsibility for things that occur within the confines of the dyad. (It's either you or me,
and I know I didn't do it). Simmel pointed out that the thought of termination of the group hangs over a
dyadic relationship perhaps more than any other type of relationship. (Schaefer, 1983).

THREE PERSON GROUPS OR "TRIADS"

In Triads or three person groups, many of these qualities change. In many respects, a whole different
world exists. ("If it's not me, it's gotta be you!" no longer exists).

Coalitions two against one can form.

The third person can act as a mediator and bind the other two together (a child settling an argument
between its parents).
"Divide and rule" strategy can emerge where one individual can pit the other two against each other.
(Ask the class if they had any difference between two and three roommate situations.

"SMALL GROUPS"

Small Groups: When we refer to "small groups," we mean that there are sufficiently few members that
all members can relate to each other as individuals According to Theodore Caplow, the upper limit of
such groups is about 30 people. (Our text seems to imply that 20 people is the largest a primary group
can become).

Small groups can either be primary or secondary.

While still considered "small", once a group gets to be above 12 people or so, there is a need for a
leader to serve the purpose of channeling communication. (Studies have shown that 7 people can do
well without a leader for this purpose).

The larger the group, the greater the necessity to rely upon rules and regulations to guide behavior in
the group. As size increases, the structure becomes more rigid and formal. (Written rules and
regulations emerge to guide behavior-- Such groups are called "formal organizations").

Contents

Group Formation:
Why do groups form in the first place?

Goal achievement: Very often, groups are formed for the purpose of getting something done. (IBM,
FORD, GM; The Environmental Protection Agency)

Proximity: How do you make friends, in the first place? Unless you're strange, you tend to meet and
make friends in the immediate circle of your personal contacts. (There are some people who live in a big
city and have no friends in that city, but do maintain an extensive friendship network of pen pals, or
other friends through CB or Amateur radio).

Similarity: People who share the same likes, dislikes, values, beliefs, etc., will often form clubs and social
networks.

Contents

Group Boundaries:

How does a group define its own boundaries so that it can distinguish itself form the surrounding
population or other groups? In some cases it's easy as the groups adopt badges, emblems, uniforms,
etc. which they wear or display and serve to distinguish them from the surrounding population. (Fire
Department, Police, Military, all are good examples). In other cases, the differences are not as obvious
and we have to spend a little more time studying a group before we can tell what characteristics its
members have adopted to distinguish itself from the surrounding world. Here are some examples:

argot (language, slang, key phrases)-- Many groups and organizations have their own slang or
terminology. The military, in particular, is known for its use of acronyms (words made up of initials from
longer phrases). Naval personnel are very familiar with words like "BUPERS" (Bureau of Personnel) or
"BUMED" (Bureau of Medicine) there's even a "DICNAVAB" (Dictionary of Naval Abbreviations)!

subtle elements of dress or personal appearance-- the business suit and briefcase vs blue jeans and
flannel shirt. (Do professors of business and law dress differently from their colleagues in engineering,
sociology and psychology?

By establishing norms of physical appearance groups reinforce their boundaries and develope a sense of
"we" (the in-group) and "they" (the out-group).

There are also other ways that group identity is reinforced. "Rites of passage" are special ceremonies
that emphasize the importance of joining or forming a group. Special holidays and "anniversaries"
(Independence Day or July Fourth, for example) reinforce group identity. The wedding ceremony is one
"rite of passage" that marks the formation of a new group in our society. At another level, to become a
citizen when you're born outside the U.S. requires lots of studying, a written exam, and usually an
elaborate "swearing-in" ceremony).

Contents

Group Decision Making:

Which is better at making a decision-- a group or an individual? Research on this question indicates that
the answer depends on the kind of task that is involved: Tasks can be divided into two different kinds:
determinate and indeterminate:
Determinate tasks have one definite solution that is quickly apparent. Designing an automobile, or
bridge or even doing a simple crossword puzzle are examples of such tasks-- There is one correct
solution. Goups can perform these tasks more quickly because they have a larger pool of talent and
experience.

Indeterminant tasks do not have immediately apparent correct decisions. Selecting applicants for
college admissions or choosing job applicants are examples of indeterminant tasks and it is not clear
whether groups out-perform individuals in these situations.

The Risky Shift: Groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals. It is hypothesized that when in a
group, responsibility for the decision is "diffused" among the members. Individuals are more visibly
accountable for the decisions that they make alone. Thus, individual decision-making tends to be more
conservative.

Group Think: Inside the group, there is normative pressure to conform and produce unanamous
decisions. This pressure may cause people to ignore or play down information that goes against group
norms guiding the decision process. "Don't rock the boat" is a good example of this. Group Think can
have disasterous consequences. (Some writers have pointed to U.S. policy in Vietnam as an example of
this, where Congress was slow to question involvement in the war). Schaefer has a great example of
how the Persians avoided the dangers of "group think." They decided an important issue twice. First,
they would address the issue while sober. Then they would get drunk and revisit it. (The idea being that
alcohol, as a releaser, would remove people's inhibitions against opposing group norms)!

Contents

Group Size; Communication, Conflict, and Cohesiveness:

As we've seen, in a two person arrangement (a dyad), the members are totally dependent on each
other, but in a triad, alliances can form and an individual can benefit from a disagreement between the
other two members.
As group size increases, the total number of possible relationships increases from

One in a two person group

Twenty-five in a four person group

966 in a seven person group

28500 in a ten person group

We actually have a formula to use when computing the total number of possible relationships:

R = ((3n 2n+1) + 1) / 2

When a group starts getting up beyond seven members, leaders start dominating communications and
the group's procedures become more formal. When a group starts getting very large, certain things
start happening. It tends to become less less cohesive and there is an increase in internal conflict. Of
course there are exceptions to this.

Contents

Formal Organizations:

A formal organization has been commonly defined to be a large social group that is deliberately and
rationally formed to achieve specific objectives. Private compamies like IBM or public agencies like the
Internal Revenue Service are good examples. Generally, formal organizations share the following
characteristics:
A collective identity or name

A charter or "vision statement" which outlines its purpose

A list of members

An Organization Chart or some other means of defining the organizational hierarchy

Formal organizations can be voluntary (People join of their own will-- political parties, churches, etc.);
coercive (People are forced to join the draft, attend schools or some alternative form of schooling); or
utilitarian (People join for practical purposes work ing for IBM).

Bureaucracy: When we speak of formal organizations we usually think of bureaucracy and the work of
Max Weber. Bureaucracy is the part of a formal ogranization responsible for planning, coordinating, and
supervising work. Essentially, it is the formal organization's administrative arm.

Common sense may tell us that bureaucracies are inherently inefficient but Weber points out that
overall, they are very efficient in doing what they're supposed to do-- distrributing vast amounts of
information and material across a large area. Still, we are all aware of bizzarre things that can happen in
bureaucracies: The Department of Defense has come under intense scrutiny for $2000.00 toilet seats
and $500.00 hammers, for example.

Max Weber applied his concept of "ideal type" to the study of bureaucracy and found that the typical
bureaucracy has the following features:

1. Clearly defined and specific purposes with associated rules and regulations which govern the behavior
of officials.

2. A well defined division of labor with people assigned to do different tasks.

3. Offices and authority arranged in a hierarchy. (Pyramidal authority).

4. The members of the bureaucracy are personally free. That is they are contractual workers and are
paid for their work. (They can quit the job if so inclined).

5. People are promoted (or moved up) based upon seniority, performance, or both. Initially they are
hired on basis of technical competence in the particular job they seek.
6. Workers perform their job in a disciplined and impersonal manner tend to treat people as cases.

7. The bureaucracy maintains a set of detailed written records or files.

8. Individuals are committed to their "office." Example; an artist is committed to his craft a bureaucrat to
his desk.

Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy:

Inefficiency-- Despite the fact that they are designed to be efficient, bureaucracies create "red tape"
which often seems to slow down what should be very simple tasks.

Bureaucracies do not handle exceptional cases very well because they are set to meet "standard
requirements").

"Trained incapacity" is a term that refers to the fact that workers in a bureaucracy are so narrowly
trained that they can't handle problems outside one' own specific position.

Bureaucrats become focused on their own internal workings and may tend to forget the major problem
that they were created to solve in the first place. (A special government commission formed to do one
task may spend much of its time trying to perpetuate or even expand itself).

Communications may be slowed as they must travel along a large number of offices to get to those
responsible for carrying them out.

Individual personalities may be repressed by the formality of the position a person holds.

Parkinson's Law: Work expands to fill the available time allotted for completion. Therefore there is a
tendency for an organization to grow.

Peter Principle: Employees tend to get promoted to positions above their levels of competence. (They
get promoted above their capabilities).

Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy: In a bureaucracy, leaders and managers tend to promote people similar
to themselves and eventually, power becomes concentrated in the hands of a few.

Body Modification

There are all sorts of different types of body modification. Basically, anything that you do to your body
to alter the way that it naturally appears is a body modification, so it includes body building, hair dye,
and plastic surgery. More "punk" or alternative means of altering one's body, including tattoos,
piercings, scarification, various implants, ear shaping, etc., are also considered body modifications.

Below, I've gone over the more alternative body modifications you are likely to encounter. You won't
see modifications such as neck stretching or foot binding on the list, although they are two primitive
types of modifications, because they are not as common in today's society.

Tattoos and Piercings

Scarification

Implants

Tongue Splitting

Other Modifications

A butterfly wings tattoo on the back. (Flickr Image by spaceninja)

A butterfly wings tattoo on the back. (Flickr Image by spaceninja)

1. Tattoos and Piercings

Tattoos and piercings are more common body modifications that you will encounter. It has taken years,
but, to some extent, both of these modifications are becoming more and more accepted among today's
adults and seniors.

Although both tattoos and piercings both have long histories, stemming from our tribal pasts, they fell
out of popularity as civilization modernized and, well, civilized. Their popularity have since rebounded,
but that does not mean that everyone accepts them.

About Tattoos

Tattoos are a permanent body modification, and the removal process is more painful and expensive
than actually getting them, which is why you should carefully think yours out before going to the shop.
We all cannot afford tattoo removal.

There are so many different designs and patterns that you can have tattooed, but if you are thinking
about getting one, you may want to find a design or create your own that has symbolism to you, versus
a random pattern on the wall of the tattoo shop.
Double Navel Piercing by Christina

Double Navel Piercing by Christina

About Piercings

Piercings, on the other hand, are more temporary, and when you're tired of one, you can take it out and
let the hole close. Now, that does not mean that you will not have a scar or impression left behind, but
the actual hole will no longer be there.

The exception is when you stretch a piercing. With stretching, there will be a point of no return, which is
generally different for everyone. After that point, your piercing will typically only shrink so much and
never go back to normal. So, if you decide to stretch a piercing, you want to make sure that you make
every stretch as though it were irreversible.

Branding by Karl Schmidt

Branding by Karl Schmidt

2. Scarification

Scarification is a body modification that is slowly gaining more popularity, but it is not nearly as popular
as tattoos. More adults accept tattoos than they do scarification; many adults assume that those who
purposely cut or burn themselves for a scar have some mental instability.

Scarification, like tattooing and piercing, is another tribal body modification that was used as a rite of
passage to marking an important point in a person's life, such as a hunt, marriage, or just coming of age.

Skin Removal by Cali

Skin Removal by Cali

Types of Scarification

There are different types of scarification, which include:

Ash rubbing

Branding

Cutting

Chemical scarification

Dremel scarification

Injection scarification

Tattoo gun scarification

Skin removal

Microdermal Implant

Subdermal Implant

Microdermal Implant

3. Implants

The type of implant determines the procedure and extent of the body modification. There are typically
five different implants, some of which are not exactly legal everywhere.

Eye Implants: Eye implants are actually illegal in most countries, and if you want to have an eyeball
jewelry implant, you may have to travel.

Magnetic Implants: A magnet is placed under the skin so that the other half of the magnet can be
attached to the outside of the skin.

Microdermal Implants: Similar to a transdermal implant, but smaller. They are also known as surface
anchors and are an alternative to the surface piercing.

Subdermal Implants: This implant is pretty much 3D body art with a piece of teflon or silicone material
placed under the skin, creating a raised design.
Transdermal Implants: This implant is not legal in all areas because it is more complex than a piercing
and typically requires anesthetics—which, if conducted by a non-medical practitioner, can cause a legal
concern. Basically, a labret-type stud with a flat back is pocketed into the tissues with part of the jewelry
on the outside.

A split tongue.

A split tongue.

4. Tongue Splitting

Ok, I had to add tongue splitting. Who thinks of hardcore body modifications and doesn't think of tongue
splitting? Ha.

How It's Done

Basically, it is what it is. The person typically starts with a tongue piercing, and slowly stretches the size
of the barbell until there is just a small sliver of tissue on the tongue. A knife is typically used to cut the
last piece. There are other methods of splitting a tongue, but that is the more commonly used one.

The only cool thing about a split tongue is that, with training, you can train both sides to move
independently.

5. Other Body Modifications

You may encounter the following modifications as well:

Amputations

Corseting or waist training

Ear cropping

Elf ears

Various adult hardcore modifications that I'm not going to mention, as the list is pretty extensive.

But, for the most part, anything you do that alters your natural body can be considered a body
modification. And, yes, that includes having male infants circumcised after birth.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute
for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

Comments

duncan Wilkie on May 29, 2019:

can anyone do the two horns on top of forehead around the city area, if so, how much and how long
would it take, cash in hand, id it possible today, already have face tattooed, am willing to be advised to
consider any other consider any additional body modifications, piercings and tattoos you consider would
be great.

don't worry, im on disability and 58y/io gay male

jeff on April 17, 2019:

my name is jeff

pierced_celt on July 18, 2010:

@gamergirl:permanent ple hooks wouldn't work due to the imense amount of pressure they would
come under during the suspension.

Varnadore on January 10, 2010:

I have three microdermal implants in my chest and I love them, they just look like a pretty necklace with
an "invisible" string. They don't hurt nearly as bad as people make it seem or as bad as it looks. Its like a
hard pinch on your arm and a warm feeling from the adrenaline. I'd suggest them to anyone who wants
something a little bit different but still classy.

Whitney (author) from Georgia on October 10, 2008:

Typically you can go to a tatto shop for branding and scarification, but not all tattoo shops will do it.
There are some that actually have people specialized in it.

Kandie Kay from Hollister, CALI on October 09, 2008:

Where can i get branding or scarification done???

Whitney (author) from Georgia on October 03, 2008:

Patty some of these mods are pretty tribal, but like you, many people see them and cringe. Personally,
I'd never get an implant just because the process look painful, but the piercings and tattoos are pretty
simple and handleable for me. The rest can be a little much, for me. Ha. I like the idea of the body
suspensions, but I'm just not sure how people get the spiritual rush that most people claim.

Patty Inglish MS from USA and Asgardia, the First Space Nation on October 03, 2008:

I've seen very beautiful scarification among Africans, but I cannot think of piercing without a cringe, and
flesh-hanging - some Chinese martial artists practice this but I don't know why. But then, I just don't like
makeup, jewelry or any decorations for myself at all. A shaved head and space helmet are my ideal. lol

Whitney (author) from Georgia on October 03, 2008:

For like body suspension? I'm not sure how effect they really are though. I mean the point of the
suspension is the thrill so to speak is really getting the hooks and then the hanging. I'm not sure how
well the suspension would go over if you had the plugs, I'm not sure how well they would heal especially
for future hangings. It's definitely something I'll have to look up though, as it is an interesting concept.

Kiz Robinson from New Orleans, Louisiana on October 03, 2008:

Woohoo! Good stuff!

Have you ever heard of the plugs that you can put in your back to support hooks (as in for frequent
flesh-hanging?)

BY WHITNEY

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Culture and Society Defined

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of
a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to
society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects:
language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and
institutions. This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and cultural meanings associated with
specific social activities. Common institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.

Popularly speaking, being cultured means being well‐educated, knowledgeable of the arts, stylish, and
well‐mannered. High culture—generally pursued by the upper class—refers to classical music, theater,
fine arts, and other sophisticated pursuits. Members of the upper class can pursue high art because they
have cultural capital, which means the professional credentials, education, knowledge, and verbal and
social skills necessary to attain the “property, power, and prestige” to “get ahead” socially. Low culture,
or popular culture—generally pursued by the working and middle classes—refers to sports, movies,
television sitcoms and soaps, and rock music. Remember that sociologists define culture differently than
they do cultured, high culture, low culture, and popular culture.
Sociologists define society as the people who interact in such a way as to share a common culture. The
cultural bond may be ethnic or racial, based on gender, or due to shared beliefs, values, and activities.
The term society can also have a geographic meaning and refer to people who share a common culture
in a particular location. For example, people living in arctic climates developed different cultures from
those living in desert cultures. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose around the world.

Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of the “objects” of a society, whereas a
society consists of the people who share a common culture. When the terms culture and society first
acquired their current meanings, most people in the world worked and lived in small groups in the same
locale. In today's world of 6 billion people, these terms have lost some of their usefulness because
increasing numbers of people interact and share resources globally. Still, people tend to use culture and
society in a more traditional sense: for example, being a part of a “racial culture” within the larger “U.S.
society.”

Social media, instant news, and powerful voices. As technology evolves, education grows, and
employees speak up, businesses have an obligation to address concerns over cultural differences and
diversity in the workplace.

Employees, customers, partners, and press will hold brands to higher standards. It’s critical that diversity
and inclusive culture is built into a company's mold from the get-go, and it’s not treated as an added on
benefit.

What is cultural diversity?

Culture is considered to be the underlying values that direct how people behave. Cultural diversity in the
workplace is a result of practices, values, traditions, or beliefs of employees based on race, age,
ethnicity, religion, or gender.

Economic globalization is one of the driving forces of cultural diversity in the workplace. The modern
workforce is made up of people of different genders, ages, ethnicity, religions, and nationalities.
Employers have realized that workforce diversity provides both material and intangible benefits. In
order for employers to reap the benefits of cultural diversity in the workplace, they must communicate
their commitment to addressing the challenges of a diverse workforce. Employers must be seen to be
celebrating their employees’ diversity to avoid workplace issues, like awkwardness and hostility.

Types of diversity
Diversity in the workforce refers to specific groups of people who have typically experienced
discrimination. To help these employees overcome barriers at work, many companies have created
diversity and inclusion programs.

The Importance of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace_Content image2-min

When you think about diversity, that can mean a lot of things. Here are just some of the different types
of diversity in the workplace.

Race – Race is maybe one of the first things you think of when you think about diversity. Employees of
color have often faced challenges — getting hired, being accepted by the co-workers, receiving fair
compensation.

Education – Not everyone’s path to employment is the same. Having a mix of educational backgrounds
is a huge asset to an organization, but can also create conflict.

Ethnicity – As the workforce becomes more and more global, ethnic diversity might bring about
language barriers or cultural differences in how business is carried out. To address this, some companies
have specialist ethnic groups like the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce for under-represented
communities.

Generations – Yes, age counts as diversity. Generation X, millennials, and Gen Z are some of the
different generations that make up a diverse workforce. And each group has different expectations and
experiences they bring with them to work. For example, millennials are known for seeking flexibility in
their work and doing jobs that align with their personal values. That wasn’t something Gen X focused on
when they joined the workforce.

Gender – According to the World Economic Forum, it will take 208 years to reach gender equality in the
U.S. Cultural diversity in the workplace also applies to gender. And gender doesn’t have to be binary,
which is a new way of thinking for many organizations.

Religion – Religious diversity can impact your staff’s dress, dietary requirements, and request for
particular days off.
Sexual Orientation – The LGBTQI community is made up of distinct groups who have unique needs and
experiences. Companies need to bear this in mind when creating LGBTQI strategies in order to address
this group’s needs. Additionally, new laws are being created to protect the rights of these groups. For
example, in the United States, the Supreme Court recently ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which
prohibits sex discrimination, applies to discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.

Workers with disabilities – Diversity in the workplace also applies to workers with disabilities. Whether
impairments from vision, learning, or mental health, diversity comes in many ways. As a result,
companies need to ensure that their diversity and inclusion programs recognize and make provision for
the wide spectrum of disabilities.

Military veterans – The Department of Labor specifies targets for contractors and federal agencies in
terms of employing military veterans. Although veterans generally have many transferable skills, like
teamwork and strong discipline, they may need a company’s assistance in transitioning from a military
environment to a workplace.

Examples of diversity in the workplace

Although some big-name brands have shown diversity in the workplace, companies of any size can also
provide positive examples of diversity. Smaller companies may not receive public recognition for their
diversity initiatives, but you can still experience the advantages of a diverse workforce.

Here are some workplace diversity examples:

Nike joined other companies who have marked Juneteenth a paid company holiday. Juneteenth
commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States.

Reddit co-founder and former CEO, Alexis Ohanian, stepped down from Reddit’s board in 2020 with the
request that his seat go to a Black board member.

Johnson & Johnson appeared on the number one spot on Diversity Inc’s top companies for diversity in
2018. Starting with recruitment, Johnson aimins to stop gender bias with the use of technology.
Interviewers are also trained to fight bias during interviews. The company works with Harvard University
to train their managers on how to reduce unconscious bias. This training is supplemented by additional
resources that remind managers of the concepts that they’ve already learned.
AT&T has also received nods for its commitment to diversity in the workplace. Initiatives such as Peace
Through Business, which provides business education to women entrepreneurs in Rwanda and
Afghanistan, has helped to demonstrate that AT&T is a positive example of diversity in the workplace.
AT&T has also worked with a job placement agency to provide internships for adults with cognitive
disabilities at their Dallas headquarters. As AT&T celebrated its 50th anniversary, it has spent about
$158 billion working with women, minority groups and service disabled veteran businesses through its
supplier diversity program.

Kellogg Company is another example of diversity in the workplace. The Kellogg Company appears at
number 18 on the Diversity Inc’s list. The Kellogg Company has been earmarked as one of the most
diverse companies in 2018 due to the fact that it has a third more women in top management positions
in comparison to the national average. The company has also implemented a new parental leave policy
in North America, which increased the amount of parental leave from one week to a possible four
weeks. Additionally, paid maternity leave increased from 10 weeks to 14 weeks.

Workplace issues involving cultural diversity

Every company that’s emerged as a positive example of cultural diversity has faced issues in relation to
facilitating people from different groups to work cohesively. HR personnel and the company’s leadership
should be responsive to these issues.

The following are some diversity workplace issues that you might need to address:

Conflict – This occurs when discrimination, prejudice, lack of respect, and racism are allowed to fester in
a workplace. Intolerant attitudes can turn into open conflict if companies don’t take the correct steps to
show that any type of discrimination won’t be tolerated.

Harassment – Training should be provided as to what constitutes harassment. Employees who harass
others should be dealt with according to company procedures. Like all the other issues arising from
diversity in the workplace, harassment can have a devastating effect on employees and the company as
a whole. Uber is an example of a company that has suffered damage as a result of harassment claims.

Disregarding needs – Some companies ignore the needs of disabled employees by failing to provide
them with the necessary equipment to access all facilities and to undertake their jobs. Employers need
to lead the way in creating a comfortable workplace for all of its employees, irrespective of whether
they have a disability.

Managing diversity in the workplace

The issues around a diverse workplace can be managed and mitigated if employers take active steps to
ensure that their companies are recognized for tolerance and acceptance.

Here are some tips for managing diversity in the workplace:

Create written policies – Companies should include their policy in relation to diversity in their employee
handbook. The policy should contain information about non-discrimination laws, the code of conduct,
and the compensation and benefits policy.

Provide sensitivity training – Employees should be provided with sensitivity training to create a better
workplace culture. Sensitivity training can help employees to value views that are different, understand
words, and actions that cause offense and what needs to be done if they’ve been offended.

Create an accountability plan – Use regular surveys to check in on your progress, and have a plan in
place for how you’re going to ensure staff uphold these policies.

Address micro-aggressions – Micro-aggressions are “thinly veiled, everyday instances of racism,

homophobia, sexism (and more) that you see in the world.” Examples might be commenting on how
well an ethnically diverse person speaks English or saying that a Black co-worker is well-dressed. Use
trainings to help address these mico-aggressions

Impose a zero-tolerance policy – After employees have received the handbook and training about
diversity issues, the company needs to set the tone about how violations will be dealt with. Employees
should be aware that inappropriate behavior will not be tolerated and every reported incident will be
taken seriously.

Benefits of cultural diversity

It’s important to review the benefits that both the company and employees can enjoy when answering
the question “why is cultural diversity important in the workplace?”

The Importance of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace_Content image1-min

The advantages of cultural diversity include:

Leadership - Diversity in the workplace can have a powerful impact on your leadership. From building
company culture to attracting diverse candidates during recruitment, your leadership is the face and the
voice of your company.

Innovation – Where everyone in a company is from the same background, they’re likely to have similar
ideas. In order to remain competitive, companies need new ideas and concepts. A diverse workforce
brings unique perspectives on how to solve problems and innovate to gain a competitive edge.

Respect – A diverse workforce enables team members to appreciate the differences in others because of
the positive contribution that different people bring. Where co-workers are open to learning from each
other, they appreciate that diversity enables them to function better as a team. Therefore, gain a mutual
respect for colleagues who are different.

Reputation – A commitment to diversity demonstrates that a company values fairness and equality.
These characteristics have a positive effect on its reputation with suppliers and consumers. A company
that openly recruits the best candidates for a job, irrespective of which group they are in, will gain
customer loyalty and a good reputation.

Productivity – The diversity of a company is an indication of how productive its employees will be. The
Forbes Global Diversity and Inclusion Fostering Innovation Through a Diverse Workforce report found
that 77% of companies used productivity as a measure to gauge the success of diversity programs.
Respondents in the Forbes research advised that their companies have experienced an increase in
productivity due to a diverse workforce.

Growth – Where a company has a diversified workforce, they position themselves to build relationships
with people from different cultures. Diverse employees can advise the companies about the best
strategies to use to gain new customer bases. Employees who speak different languages and are aware
of the cultural norms of international markets can be vital to a company’s growth.
Recruitment – Research shows that 67% of job seekers advised that a company’s diverse workforce is a
key factor when evaluating job offers. These findings demonstrate that diversity is a key aspect when
recruiting the best talent. Job seekers are aware of the importance of a diverse workforce and want to
be part of a company that will value and appreciate their difference.

Compliance – Companies need to comply with both federal and state laws that ban them from carrying
out discriminatory practices. Promoting a diverse workplace where everyone is respected helps
companies to obey the law and also ensures that every employee is treated with the respect he or she
deserves.

Why diversity is important in the workplace

The importance of cultural diversity in the workplace can’t be understated. Having diverse employees
increases the bottom line and also assists in staying on the right side of the law. Companies that have a
clear diversity and inclusion policy (and are seen to enforce this policy) benefit from happier and more
productive employees and a great reputation.

A key area where companies that employ an hourly workforce needs to demonstrate fair treatment is
the allocation of leave. Schedule a call with a Deputy rep and see how the leave function will help you to
keep track of your employees time off to ensure that they receive the leave they’re entitled to.

Important Notice

The information contained in this article is general in nature and you should consider whether the
information is appropriate to your needs. Legal and other matters referred to in this article are of a
general nature only and are based on Deputy's interpretation of laws existing at the time and should not
be relied on in place of professional advice. Deputy is not responsible for the content of any site owned
by a third party that may be linked to this article and no warranty is made by us concerning the
suitability, accuracy or timeliness of the content of any site that may be linked to this article. Deputy
disclaims all liability (except for any liability which by law cannot be excluded) for any error, inaccuracy,
or omission from the information contained in this article and any loss or damage suffered by any
person directly or indirectly through relying on this information.

ARTICLE
TheSocial media, instant news, and powerful voices. As technology evolves, education grows, and
employees speak up, businesses have an obligation to address concerns over cultural differences and
diversity in the workplace.

Employees, customers, partners, and press will hold brands to higher standards. It’s critical that diversity
and inclusive culture is built into a company’s mold from the get-go, and it’s not treated as an added on
benefit.

What is cultural diversity?

Culture is considered to be the underlying values that direct how people behave. Cultural diversity in the
workplace is a result of practices, values, traditions, or beliefs of employees based on race, age,
ethnicity, religion, or gender.

Economic globalization is one of the driving forces of cultural diversity in the workplace. The modern
workforce is made up of people of different genders, ages, ethnicity, religions, and nationalities.
Employers have realized that workforce diversity provides both material and intangible benefits. In
order for employers to reap the benefits of cultural diversity in the workplace, they must communicate
their commitment to addressing the challenges of a diverse workforce. Employers must be seen to be
celebrating their employees’ diversity to avoid workplace issues, like awkwardness and hostility.

Types of diversity

Diversity in the workforce refers to specific groups of people who have typically experienced
discrimination. To help these employees overcome barriers at work, many companies have created
diversity and inclusion programs.

The Importance of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace_Content image2-min

When you think about diversity, that can mean a lot of things. Here are just some of the different types
of diversity in the workplace.

Race – Race is maybe one of the first things you think of when you think about diversity. Employees of
color have often faced challenges — getting hired, being accepted by the co-workers, receiving fair
compensation.
Education – Not everyone’s path to employment is the same. Having a mix of educational backgrounds
is a huge asset to an organization, but can also create conflict.

Ethnicity – As the workforce becomes more and more global, ethnic diversity might bring about
language barriers or cultural differences in how business is carried out. To address this, some companies
have specialist ethnic groups like the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce for under-represented
communities.

Generations – Yes, age counts as diversity. Generation X, millennials, and Gen Z are some of the
different generations that make up a diverse workforce. And each group has different expectations and
experiences they bring with them to work. For example, millennials are known for seeking flexibility in
their work and doing jobs that align with their personal values. That wasn’t something Gen X focused on
when they joined the workforce.

Gender – According to the World Economic Forum, it will take 208 years to reach gender equality in the
U.S. Cultural diversity in the workplace also applies to gender. And gender doesn’t have to be binary,
which is a new way of thinking for many organizations.

Religion – Religious diversity can impact your staff’s dress, dietary requirements, and request for
particular days off.

Sexual Orientation – The LGBTQI community is made up of distinct groups who have unique needs and
experiences. Companies need to bear this in mind when creating LGBTQI strategies in order to address
this group’s needs. Additionally, new laws are being created to protect the rights of these groups. For
example, in the United States, the Supreme Court recently ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which
prohibits sex discrimination, applies to discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.

Workers with disabilities – Diversity in the workplace also applies to workers with disabilities. Whether
impairments from vision, learning, or mental health, diversity comes in many ways. As a result,
companies need to ensure that their diversity and inclusion programs recognize and make provision for
the wide spectrum of disabilities.

Military veterans – The Department of Labor specifies targets for contractors and federal agencies in
terms of employing military veterans. Although veterans generally have many transferable skills, like
teamwork and strong discipline, they may need a company’s assistance in transitioning from a military
environment to a workplace.

Examples of diversity in the workplace

Although some big-name brands have shown diversity in the workplace, companies of any size can also
provide positive examples of diversity. Smaller companies may not receive public recognition for their
diversity initiatives, but you can still experience the advantages of a diverse workforce.

Here are some workplace diversity examples:

Nike joined other companies who have marked Juneteenth a paid company holiday. Juneteenth
commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States.

Reddit co-founder and former CEO, Alexis Ohanian, stepped down from Reddit’s board in 2020 with the
request that his seat go to a Black board member.

Johnson & Johnson appeared on the number one spot on Diversity Inc’s top companies for diversity in
2018. Starting with recruitment, Johnson aimins to stop gender bias with the use of technology.
Interviewers are also trained to fight bias during interviews. The company works with Harvard University
to train their managers on how to reduce unconscious bias. This training is supplemented by additional
resources that remind managers of the concepts that they’ve already learned.

AT&T has also received nods for its commitment to diversity in the workplace. Initiatives such as Peace
Through Business, which provides business education to women entrepreneurs in Rwanda and
Afghanistan, has helped to demonstrate that AT&T is a positive example of diversity in the workplace.
AT&T has also worked with a job placement agency to provide internships for adults with cognitive
disabilities at their Dallas headquarters. As AT&T celebrated its 50 th anniversary, it has spent about $158
billion working with women, minority groups and service disabled veteran businesses through its
supplier diversity program.

Kellogg Company is another example of diversity in the workplace. The Kellogg Company appears at
number 18 on the Diversity Inc’s list. The Kellogg Company has been earmarked as one of the most
diverse companies in 2018 due to the fact that it has a third more women in top management positions
in comparison to the national average. The company has also implemented a new parental leave policy
in North America, which increased the amount of parental leave from one week to a possible four
weeks. Additionally, paid maternity leave increased from 10 weeks to 14 weeks.

Workplace issues involving cultural diversity

Every company that’s emerged as a positive example of cultural diversity has faced issues in relation to
facilitating people from different groups to work cohesively. HR personnel and the company’s leadership
should be responsive to these issues.

The following are some diversity workplace issues that you might need to address:

Conflict – This occurs when discrimination, prejudice, lack of respect, and racism are allowed to fester in
a workplace. Intolerant attitudes can turn into open conflict if companies don’t take the correct steps to
show that any type of discrimination won’t be tolerated.

Harassment – Training should be provided as to what constitutes harassment. Employees who harass
others should be dealt with according to company procedures. Like all the other issues arising from
diversity in the workplace, harassment can have a devastating effect on employees and the company as
a whole. Uber is an example of a company that has suffered damage as a result of harassment claims.

Disregarding needs – Some companies ignore the needs of disabled employees by failing to provide
them with the necessary equipment to access all facilities and to undertake their jobs. Employers need
to lead the way in creating a comfortable workplace for all of its employees, irrespective of whether
they have a disability.

Managing diversity in the workplace

The issues around a diverse workplace can be managed and mitigated if employers take active steps to
ensure that their companies are recognized for tolerance and acceptance.

Here are some tips for managing diversity in the workplace:

Create written policies – Companies should include their policy in relation to diversity in their employee
handbook. The policy should contain information about non-discrimination laws, the code of conduct,
and the compensation and benefits policy.

Provide sensitivity training – Employees should be provided with sensitivity training to create a better
workplace culture. Sensitivity training can help employees to value views that are different, understand
words, and actions that cause offense and what needs to be done if they’ve been offended.

Create an accountability plan – Use regular surveys to check in on your progress, and have a plan in
place for how you’re going to ensure staff uphold these policies.

Address micro-aggressions – Micro-aggressions are “thinly veiled, everyday instances of racism,

homophobia, sexism (and more) that you see in the world.” Examples might be commenting on how
well an ethnically diverse person speaks English or saying that a Black co-worker is well-dressed. Use
trainings to help address these mico-aggressions

Impose a zero-tolerance policy – After employees have received the handbook and training about
diversity issues, the company needs to set the tone about how violations will be dealt with. Employees
should be aware that inappropriate behavior will not be tolerated and every reported incident will be
taken seriously.

Benefits of cultural diversity

It’s important to review the benefits that both the company and employees can enjoy when answering
the question “why is cultural diversity important in the workplace?”

The Importance of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace_Content image1-min

The advantages of cultural diversity include:

Leadership – Diversity in the workplace can have a powerful impact on your leadership. From building
company culture to attracting diverse candidates during recruitment, your leadership is the face and the
voice of your company.
Innovation – Where everyone in a company is from the same background, they’re likely to have similar
ideas. In order to remain competitive, companies need new ideas and concepts. A diverse workforce
brings unique perspectives on how to solve problems and innovate to gain a competitive edge.

Respect – A diverse workforce enables team members to appreciate the differences in others because of
the positive contribution that different people bring. Where co-workers are open to learning from each
other, they appreciate that diversity enables them to function better as a team. Therefore, gain a mutual
respect for colleagues who are different.

Reputation – A commitment to diversity demonstrates that a company values fairness and equality.
These characteristics have a positive effect on its reputation with suppliers and consumers. A company
that openly recruits the best candidates for a job, irrespective of which group they are in, will gain
customer loyalty and a good reputation.

Productivity – The diversity of a company is an indication of how productive its employees will be. The
Forbes Global Diversity and Inclusion Fostering Innovation Through a Diverse Workforce report found
that 77% of companies used productivity as a measure to gauge the success of diversity programs.
Respondents in the Forbes research advised that their companies have experienced an increase in
productivity due to a diverse workforce.

Growth – Where a company has a diversified workforce, they position themselves to build relationships
with people from different cultures. Diverse employees can advise the companies about the best
strategies to use to gain new customer bases. Employees who speak different languages and are aware
of the cultural norms of international markets can be vital to a company’s growth.

Recruitment – Research shows that 67% of job seekers advised that a company’s diverse workforce is a
key factor when evaluating job offers. These findings demonstrate that diversity is a key aspect when
recruiting the best talent. Job seekers are aware of the importance of a diverse workforce and want to
be part of a company that will value and appreciate their difference.

Compliance – Companies need to comply with both federal and state laws that ban them from carrying
out discriminatory practices. Promoting a diverse workplace where everyone is respected helps
companies to obey the law and also ensures that every employee is treated with the respect he or she
deserves.

Why diversity is important in the workplace

The importance of cultural diversity in the workplace can’t be understated. Having diverse employees
increases the bottom line and also assists in staying on the right side of the law. Companies that have a
clear diversity and inclusion policy (and are seen to enforce this policy) benefit from happier and more
productive employees and a great reputation.

A key area where companies that employ an hourly workforce needs to demonstrate fair treatment is
the allocation of leave. Schedule a call with a Deputy rep and see how the leave function will help you to
keep track of your employees time off to ensure that they receive the leave they’re entitled to.

Important Notice

The information contained in this article is general in nature and you should consider whether the
information is appropriate to your needs. Legal and other matters referred to in this article are of a
general nature only and are based on Deputy’s interpretation of laws existing at the time and should not
be relied on in place of professional advice. Deputy is not responsible for the content of any site owned
by a third party that may be linked to this article and no warranty is made by us concerning the
suitability, accuracy or timeliness of the content of any site that may be linked to this article. Deputy
disclaims all liability (except for any liability which by law cannot be excluded) for any error, inaccuracy,
or omission from the information contained in this article and any loss or damage suffered by any
person directly or indirectly through relying on this information.

ARTICLE

Inspector – ISTJ Personality

The ISTJ can be considered an intimidating personality type to approach, especially without a prior
relationship. ISTJs appear serious, formal, and proper. This personality type places great importance on
tradition and old-school values. Patience, hard work, honor and social and cultural responsibility are all
cherished by the ISTJ. They are reserved, calm, quiet, and upright. These traits result from the
combination of Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, and Judging. The result is a personality type that is often
misunderstood.

pp-CONTINUE
counselor-infjThe Counselor – INFJ Personality

INFJs are visionaries and idealists. This personality type oozes creative imagination and brilliant ideas
from every pore. They have a different, frequently profound, way of looking at the world that is not
always understood. INFJs favor substance and depth in the way they think. This personality type will
never accept anything at surface level or refuse to countenance a better way to approach problems.
Others may perceive the INFJ as odd or amusing due to this variable outlook on life.

pp-CONTINUE

mastermind-intj

The Mastermind – INTJ Personality

INTJs are true introverts. This personality type tends to be quiet, reserved and comfortable in their own
company. INTJs are usually self-sufficient and prefer to work alone than in a group. Socializing
significantly drains the energy of this personality type, causing them to need to recharge. Do not weight
down an INTJ with small talk! They are more interested in big ideas and theories. When observing the
world, INTJs regularly question why things happen the way they do. Uncertainty is the enemy of the
INTJ. They excel at developing plans and strategies for every eventuality.

pp-CONTINUE

Supercharge your company with Myers Briggs

PersonalityPerfect is expanding to include the workplace!

Picture a workplace where your team members perfectly understand what motivates, inspires and
delights each other. That’s the power of PersonalityPerfect at Work.

giver-enfjThe Giver – ENFJ Personality

ENFJs are eternal people-pleasers. They are extroverted, idealistic, charismatic, outspoken, highly
principled and ethical. This set of traits ensures that an ENFJ can usually connect with others of varying
backgrounds and personalities. ENFJs rely more on intuition and feelings, living more in their
imagination than the real world. This can be troublesome, for the individual themselves and those
around them. Rather than living in the, “now” and what is currently happening, ENFJs tend to
concentrate on the abstract and what could possibly unfold in the future.
pp-CONTINUE

16 personality types

The Craftsman – ISTP Personality

ISTPs are mysterious and oft-misunderstood people. This personality type is typically defined by
rationality and logic but is also capable of spontaneity and enthusiasm. The personality traits of the ISTP
are tougher to recognize than those of other types. Even people who know the ISTP well cannot always
anticipate their reactions. Deep down, ISTPs are spontaneous, unpredictable individuals, but they
sometimes hide those traits from the outside world, favoring an approach of logic and culpability.

pp-CONTINUE
provider-esfjThe Provider – ESFJ Personality

ESFJs are the stereotypical extroverts. This personality type is effortlessly social, born of a need to
interact with others. This desire to make others happy usually results in popularity for the ESFJ. The ESFJ
often tends to be the cheerleader or sports hero in high school and college. Later in life, they continue to
revel in the spotlight. ESFJs are primarily focused on organizing social events for their families, friends
and communities. ESFJ is a common personality type and one that is liked by many people.

pp-CONTINUE

idealist-infp

The Idealist – INFP Personality

INFPs, like most introverts, are quiet and reserved. This personality type prefers not to talk about
themselves, especially upon first meeting a new person. They prefer spending time alone in quiet places.
This provides the opportunity for the INFP to make sense of the world around them. INFPs love
analyzing signs and symbols, often considering them to be metaphors that have deeper meanings
related to life. This personality type can become lost in their imagination and daydreams. This
occasionally leads to the INFP drowning in the depth of their thoughts, fantasies, and ideas.

pp-CONTINUE
performer-esfpThe Performer – ESFP Personality

ESFPs have an Extroverted, Observant, Feeling and Perceiving personality, and are commonly seen as
Entertainers. Born to provide amusement and distraction to others and to hog the limelight, ESFPs love
to hold court in a group. ESFPs are thoughtful explorers who enjoy learning – and sharing what they
learn with others. ESFPs live for company, and typically have strong interpersonal skills. They are lively
and fun, and will never decline the opportunity to be the center of attention. Despite this court jester-
like demeanor however, ESFPs are warm, generous, and friendly. They are also typically sympathetic and
concerned for the well-being of others.

pp-CONTINUE

champion-enfp

The Champion – ENFP Personality

ENFPs have an Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling and Perceiving personality. This personality type is highly
individualistic. Champions are not followers, and care little for the status quo. Instead, they strive
toward creating their own methods, looks, actions, habits, and ideas. ENFPs do not welcome cookie
cutter people into their circle and loathe being forced to live inside a box. They do enjoy company
though – assuming it is the “right” company – enjoying strong intuition when it comes to themselves
and others. ENFPs operate from their feelings most of the time. This is no bad thing, as they are highly
perceptive and thoughtful.

pp-CONTINUE

doer-estpThe Doer – ESTP Personality

ESTPs have an Extroverted, Sensing, Thinking, and Perceptive personality. ESTPs live for social
interaction, drawing power from feelings and emotions. This does not mean that ESTPs are flippant.
They enjoy logical processes and reasoning, provided this does not stand in the way of freedom in
thought and deed. Theory and abstracts will not retain the attention or interest of an ESTP for long. This
personality type prefers to leap before they look, fixing mistakes as they go. This is preferable to sitting
idle or preparing contingency plans.

pp-CONTINUE
supervisor-estj

The Supervisor – ESTJ Personality

ESTJs place a great deal of emphasis on traditional values. These include organization, honesty,
dedication and dignity. This personality type believe firmly in doing what they believe is right and
socially acceptable. Though the paths towards “good” and “right” are difficult to define, an ESTJ will act
as the leader of the pack and extol personal views. They are the epitome of good citizenry. People often
look to ESTJs for guidance and counsel, and this personality type will always be happy to provide such
assistance.

pp-CONTINUE

commander-entjThe Commander – ENTJ Personality

An ENTJ’s primary concern is focus is managing external circumstances with logic and discipline. Once
this has been achieved, intuition and reasoning take effect. ENTJs are the most natural leaders among
the 16 personality types. This personality type will always relish the opportunity to take charge. ENTJs
live in a world of possibilities, often viewing challenges and obstacles great opportunities to push
themselves. They have a natural gift for leadership and never shirk from making decisions. Options and
ideas will be quickly yet carefully reviewed. ENTJs are “take charge” people who do not like to sit still
and allow life to happen around them.

pp-CONTINUE
thinker-intp

The Thinker – INTP Personality

INTPs are highly regarded for brilliant theories and unrelenting logic. This makes sense, as this
personality type is arguably the most logical of all. INTPs love patterns, have a keen eye for picking up on
discrepancies, and possess the ability to read people. This makes it inadvisable to lie to an INTP. People
of this personality type lack interest in practical, day-to-day activities and maintenance. When an INTP
finds an environment that provides the opportunity to stretch their creative muscles, there is no limit to
the time and energy expended. A sensible and unbiased solution becomes likely.

pp-CONTINUE

nurturer-isfjThe Nurturer – ISFJ Personality

ISFJs are philanthropists. This personality type is always ready to give back, and any generosity received
will be returned threefold. The people and things an ISFJ believes in will be upheld, and supported with
enthusiasm and unselfishness. This makes this among the most warm and kind-hearted personality
types. Harmony and cooperation are important to the ISFJ, and this type is likely to be sensitive to the
feelings of others. The ISFJ is valued for their consideration and awareness, and often bring out the best
in others.

pp-CONTINUE

visionary-entp

The Visionary – ENTP Personality

The ENTP personality is among the rarest in the world, which is understandable. Although they are
extroverts, ENTPs reject small talk – and may not thrive in social situations. This is especially true is the
ENTP is surrounded by vastly different personality types. ENTPs are intelligent and knowledgeable, and
as a result they need to be constantly mentally stimulated. This personality types relishes the
opportunity to discuss theories and facts in extensive detail, needing little encouragement to set the
world to rights. ENTPs are logical, rational and objective in their approach to information and
arguments. They expect the same from a debating partner.

pp-CONTINUE
16 personality typesThe Composer – ISFP Personality

ISFPs are introverts but may not always seem this way. Even if an ISFP has difficulties connecting to
other people initially, they eventually grow warm, approachable, and friendly. ISFPs are fun to be
around and very spontaneous. This makes them the perfect friend to tag along with an activity, planned
or unplanned. ISFPs look to live life to the fullest and embrace the present. This ensures they are always
keen to encounter a new experience or make a discovery. ISFPs find wisdom in understanding, so they
find more value in meeting new people than other introverted personality types.

pp-CONTINUE

16 Personality Types

Everyone wants to learn about themselves. Our TypeExplorer personality test shows you what it means
to be you. The TypeExplorer assessment is based on the 16 personality types that were developed by
Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs, which was built on the work of Carl Jung in the early
1900s.

which supervisors can utilize hands-on strategies that welcome and encourage diversity in the
workplace.

Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity is a term that we've certainly gotten used to hearing over the last several years. At its
most basic, cultural diversity refers to the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a
society. Typically, when we think of a cultural group, our first thought is that of an ethnic group such as
Indian, Caucasian, or African American; however, cultures come in many forms. Examples of different
cultural groups can be middle class groups, Republicans, bisexuals, millennials, or basically any group
that has its own distinct culture.
Managing a Diverse Workforce

Knowing that there are many different cultural groups out there, it stands to reason that there is quite a
diverse cultural representation in most workplaces. Because of this, it is imperative that supervisors
know how to manage a culturally diverse workforce. Let's discuss several strategies for doing just that.

1. Understanding Discrimination

Anyone who supervises employees, whether that number is 2 or 2,000, needs to understand modern
discrimination laws as well as what the penalties are for violating them. In addition, that knowledge
should be shared with everyone in the group on a yearly basis. This can prevent workers from making
poor decisions based on age, gender, race, religion, or color.

2. Being in Touch with One's Preconceptions

Leaders must be able to identify their own misconceptions and biases about those whose cultures differ
from theirs before they can make sound decisions for and about those people, and in doing so, they
should encourage their employees to do the same. This may not always be comfortable, but it's
necessary.

3. Investing in Diversity Training

Companies should invest in diversity training to reinforce policies and to encourage appropriate
behavior among workers. Just as the United States has been called the Great Melting Pot, many
companies are also melting pots, albeit on a much smaller scale, and it's important that everyone know
and understand how to respect each others' differences.

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RegisterA to Z: Strange and Common List of Phobias

By Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD Updated on August 13, 2020

Print

Phobias are one of the most common mental illnesses in the United States. The National Institute of
Mental Health suggests that 8% of U.S. adults have some type of phobia. Women are more likely to
experience phobias than men. Typical symptoms of phobias can include nausea, trembling, rapid
heartbeat, feelings of unreality, and being preoccupied with the fear object.
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) identifies three different categories of phobias: social
phobias, agoraphobia, and specific phobias.1 When people talk about having a phobia of a specific
object such as snakes, spiders, or needles, they are referring to a specific phobia.

Types of Specific Phobias

Verywell / JR Bee

A–Z List of Some of the More Common Phobias

While not comprehensive, this phobia list offers a glimpse of the many phobias that can have a serious
impact on a person’s life. As you may notice while you browse through this list, most specific phobias fall
into one of four major categories:

Fears of the natural environment

Fears related to animals

Fear related to medical treatments or issues

Fears related to specific situations

One important thing to remember is that virtually any object can become a fear object. The names of
specific phobias are often formed as nonce words, or words coined for a single occasion only.

These names themselves are often formed by taking a Greek prefix that represents the fear object and
adding the -phobia suffix. Because of this, any attempt at a completely exhaustive list of phobias would
simply be an exercise in futility. Any list of phobias could grow with the addition of newly coined terms
for previously unnamed specific phobias.

While listing all of the phobias that may exist is not possible, it can be helpful to look through a list of
some of the more commonly described phobias. As you can see by looking at this list, almost any object
or situation can become the source of fear.

Achluophobia – Fear of darkness

Acrophobia – Fear of heights

Aerophobia – Fear of flying

Algophobia – Fear of pain

Agoraphobia – Fear of open spaces or crowds

Aichmophobia – Fear of needles or pointed objects

Amaxophobia – Fear of riding in a car

Androphobia – Fear of men

Anginophobia – Fear of angina or choking

Anthrophobia – Fear of flowers

Anthropophobia – Fear of people or society

Aphenphosmphobia – Fear of being touched

Arachibutyrophobia – Fear of peanut butter

Arachnophobia – Fear of spiders

Arithmophobia – Fear of numbers

Astraphobia – Fear of thunder and lightning

Ataxophobia – Fear of disorder or untidiness

Atelophobia – Fear of imperfection

Atychiphobia – Fear of failure

Automatonophobia – Fear of Human-Like Figures

Autophobia – Fear of being alone

Bacteriophobia – Fear of bacteria

Barophobia – Fear of gravity

Bathmophobia – Fear of stairs or steep slopes

Batrachophobia – Fear of amphibians

Belonephobia – Fear of pins and needles

Bibliophobia – Fear of books

Botanophobia – Fear of plants

C
Cacophobia – Fear of ugliness

Catagelophobia – Fear of being ridiculed

Catoptrophobia – Fear of mirrors

Chionophobia – Fear of snow

Chromophobia – Fear of colors

Chronomentrophobia – Fear of clocks

Chronophobia – Fear of Time

Claustrophobia – Fear of confined spaces

Coulrophobia – Fear of clowns

Cyberphobia – Fear of computers

Cynophobia – Fear of dogs

Dendrophobia – Fear of trees

Dentophobia – Fear of dentists

Domatophobia – Fear of houses

Dystychiphobia – Fear of accidents

Ecophobia – Fear of the home

Elurophobia – Fear of cats

Entomophobia – Fear of insects

Ephebiphobia – Fear of teenagers

Equinophobia – Fear of horses

Gamophobia – Fear of marriage

Genuphobia – Fear of knees

Glossophobia – Fear of speaking in public

Gynophobia – Fear of women

H

Haphephobia – Fear of touch

Heliophobia – Fear of the sun

Hemophobia – Fear of blood

Herpetophobia – Fear of reptiles

Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia – Fear of long words

Hydrophobia – Fear of water

Hypochondria – Fear of illness

Iatrophobia – Fear of doctors

Insectophobia – Fear of insects

Koinoniphobia – Fear of rooms

Koumpounophobia – Fear of buttons

Leukophobia – Fear of the color white

Lilapsophobia – Fear of tornadoes and hurricanes

Lockiophobia – Fear of childbirth

Mageirocophobia – Fear of cooking

Megalophobia – Fear of large things

Melanophobia – Fear of the color black

Microphobia – Fear of small things

Mysophobia – Fear of dirt and germs

Necrophobia – Fear of death or dead things

Noctiphobia – Fear of the night

Nosocomephobia – Fear of hospitals

Nyctophobia – Fear of the dark

Obesophobia – Fear of gaining weight

Octophobia – Fear of the figure 8

Ombrophobia – Fear of rain

Ophidiophobia – Fear of snakes

Ornithophobia – Fear of birds

Papyrophobia – Fear of paper

Pathophobia – Fear of disease

Pedophobia – Fear of children

Philematophobia – Fear of Kissing

Philophobia – Fear of love

Phobophobia – Fear of phobias

Podophobia – Fear of feet

Porphyrophobia – Fear of the color purple

Pteridophobia – Fear of ferns

Pteromerhanophobia – Fear of flying

Pyrophobia – Fear of fire

Samhainophobia – Fear of Halloween

Scolionophobia – Fear of school

Scoptophobia – Fear of being stared at

Selenophobia – Fear of the moon

Sociophobia – Fear of social evaluation

Somniphobia – Fear of sleep

Tachophobia – Fear of speed

Technophobia – Fear of technology

Tonitrophobia – Fear of thunder

Trypanophobia – Fear of needles/injections

Trypophobia – Fear of Holes

V-Z

Venustraphobia – Fear of beautiful women

Verminophobia – Fear of germs

Wiccaphobia – Fear of witches and witchcraft

Xenophobia – Fear of strangers or foreigners

Zoophobia – Fear of animals

A Word From Verywell

Phobias can have a serious impact on well-being, but it is important to remember that you are not
alone. Phobias are common, but also treatable.2

If you believe that you have the symptoms of some type of phobia, consult your doctor for further
evaluation and treatment advice. to view this lesson

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Lesson 6 in chapter 13 of the course:

Organizational Behavior: Help and Review

30 chapters | 302 lessons | 1 flashcard set

Ch 1. The Evolution of Organizational...

Ch 2. Management and Organizational Behavior:...

Ch 3. Foundations of Individual Behavior:...

Ch 4. Personality and Behavior in...

Ch 5. Emotions and Moods in the Workplace:...

Ch 6. Emotions & Moods in...

Ch 7. Attitudes and Values in the Workplace:...

Ch 8. Ethics in the Workplace: Help and...

Ch 9. Perception and Attribution: Help and...

Ch 10. Learning in the Workplace: Help and...

Ch 11. Employee Motivation: Help and...

Ch 12. Individual Decision Making in...

Ch 13. Workforce Diversity: Help and Review

Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Definition, Trends & Examples5:39

Gender Diversity in the Workplace: Definition, Trends & Examples6:17

Age Diversity in the Workplace: Definition, Trends & Examples4:56

Ability and Disability Diversity in the Workplace: Definition, Trends & Examples5:44

Managing a Diverse Workforce in Contemporary Organizations5:31

Managing Cultural Diversity in the Workplace3:54

Go toWorkforce Diversity: Help and Review

Ch 14. Organizational Communication in...

7:54

Next Lesson

The Communication Process

What are the Functions of Communication? - Definition & Examples5:26

Types of Communication: Interpersonal, Non-Verbal, Written & Oral8:08

Organizational Communication5:15

Formal Communication Networks vs. the Grapevine: Definition & Contrast5:21

Computer-Mediated Communication in Organizations: Definition, Types & Advantages7:07

Cross-Cultural Communication: Definition, Strategies & Examples8:26

Workplace Communication: Importance, Strategies & Examples4:59

Barriers to Effective Communication: Definition & Examples7:37

Internal Communication in an Organization: Definition, Strategies & Examples3:36

What Is Two-Way Communication? - Definition, Systems & Examples4:46

Go toOrganizational Communication in Business: Help and Review

Ch 15. Groups and Work Teams: Help and...

Ch 16. Group Decision Making: Help and...

Ch 17. Conflict in the Workplace: Help and...

Ch 18. Leadership in Organizational Behavior:...

Ch 19. Leadership Theory in Organizational...

Ch 20. Leadership Styles in Organizational...

Ch 21. Organizational Structure and Design:...

Ch 22. Job Design: Help and Review

Ch 23. Organizational Culture: Help and...

Ch 24. Organizational Change and...

Ch 25. Managing Workplace Stress: Help and...

Ch 26. Career Management: Help and...

Ch 27. Theories of Leadership

Ch 28. Leadership Styles

Ch 29. Individual Behavior in...

Ch 30. Global Implications of Organizational...

Managing Cu

Introduction to Cultural Diversity

1. DTR 6012 CULTURAL DIVERSITY TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY

2. COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME Explain the concept of cultural diversity and workplace diversity in
tourism and hospitality industry Discuss about the management and issues of cultural diversity in
tourism and hospitality industry Study the impact on cultural diversity in tourism and hospitality
industry

3. What you can realize from this photo?

4. What you can realize from this photo?

5. WOULD YOU LIKE TO LIVE/WORK IN A PLACE WHERE EVERYONE : IS THE SAME? (HOMOGENEOUS) OR
Is different? (Heterogeneous)

6. CULTURAL DIVERSITY CULTURE • “The set of common beliefs and practices that a person shares with
a group” (robins et al., 2006) • The values, beliefs, attitudes, languages, symbols, rituals, behaviors and
customs unique to a particular group of people and that are passed down from generation to generation
• Cultural identity is how people recognize where they belong DIVERSITY • “Diversity” relates to
individuals and groups with different socioeconomic backgrounds and physical capabilities who engage
in a variety of languages • People of all ages, genders, races, ethnicity and sexual orientation
7. DIVERSITY ARE VARY OF: • Human characteristics • Ideas • World-views • Age • Experience •
Disability (mental, learning, physical) • Economic background • Education • Ethnicity • gender identity •
geographic background • language(s) spoken • marital/partnered status • physical appearance •
political affiliation • race • religious beliefs • sexual orientation • veteran's status.

8. CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN TOURISM & HOSPITALITY •Globalization and internationalization is current

trends. •It makes people moving work and live with people with diverse backgrounds. •Cultural diversity
also can create conflict. •In hospitality industry, has great dimension of cultural diversity from staff,
guest and tourist.

9. CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN TOURISM & HOSPITALITY PEOPLE TRAVEL AROUND THE WORLD Advanced of
computer technology Efficient communication system Transportation (budget – high class) Easy to book
accommodation

10. CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN TOURISM & HOSPITALITY •Tourism and hospitality organizations will work
in very complex multicultural tourism environment. •They must understand the perception of culture
and the role of national culture and how impact to tourist behavior. •The organization responsible to
reduce gap of cultural distance in workplace.

11. IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY • CD importance to companies for LONG TERM value. •
Hospitality industry its growing . • Expand ability to speak in different language.. • Able to understand
and more respect others religion and belief • Have mutual respect • Increase creativity and more
exciting • New attitudes and have different sight of view • Conflict resolution- minimize potential
conflict. • Great business reputation- build trust from customer • Job promotion • Increase exposure
and knowledge

12. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF CULTURE: CORPORATE CULTURE

13. CORPORATE CULTURE • The term corporate culture widely used in research professionals and
managers in many organization all over the word especially in Japan and Americans. • “ The systems of
shared beliefs, values and standards of solving problems, which is created in the forming and developing
process of corporation and demonstrated through physical and nonphysical forms and behaviors of it
member”

14. GREAT CORPORATE CULTURE 1. VISION AND MISSION 2. VALUES 3. PRACTICES 4. PEOPLE 5.
NARRATIVE @ TAGLINE 6. PLACE

15. 5 EXAMPLES OF COMPANIES WITH FANTASTIC CULTURES

16. 1. ZAPPOS • Cultural fit interview • Shoes that it sells online • Zappos hires according to cultural fit
first and foremost • New employees are offered $2,000 to quit after the first week of training if they
decide the job isn’t for them. • This promotes the culture and happy employees, which ultimately leads
to happy customers.

17. 2. WARBY PARKER • Has been making and selling prescription glasses online since 2010 • Designs its
own glasses, and sells directly to customers, cutting out the middleman and keeping prices low. •
“Culture crushes,” - means that team have a positive culture is on the forefront, setting up fun lunches,
events and programs • Make sure the entire team works well together by insisting everyone helps keep
break areas clean or sending random employees out to lunch together.
18. 3. TWITTER • Culture- workers rave • Rooftop meetings, friendly coworkers and a team-oriented
environment • Employees of twitter can also expect free meals at the san francisco headquarters, •
Along with yoga classes and unlimited vacations for some

19. • Twitter team decided that san francisco was to remain the place they call home, and moved into
office space at 1355 market street, market square.

20. 4. •Free meals, •Employee trips and parties, •Financial bonuses, • Open presentations by high-level
executives, •Gyms, • A dog-friendly environment and so on.

21. Google office at London headquarters in Victoria

22. Google at Tokyo, Japan

23. 5. AIR ASIA • Air Asia is a huge company with a lot of employees • Tony Fernandes, he wanted a
company where people can pursue their dreams • They advise openness and want people to be creative
and passionate about what they do • Employees can communicate directly with tony and provide
suggestions on how Air Asia can be more productive and efficient.

24. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF CULTURE: REGIONAL CULTURE

25. REGIONAL CULTURE • “ In anthropology and geography a cultural region, cultural sphere and
cultural area” •These are often associated with an ethnolinguistic group and the territory it inhabits

26. REGIONAL CULTURE • Culture region is an area inhabited by people who have one or more cultural
traits in common, such as language, religion, or system of livelihood. • It is an area that is relatively
homogeneous with regard to one or more cultural traits. • The geographer who identifies a formal
culture region must locate cultural borders. Because cultures overlap and mix, such boundaries are
rarely sharp, even if only a single cultural trait is mapped

27. WORLD 7 Continents And 5 Ocean

28. EXPLAIN CULTURE DIFFRERENCES BETWEEN JOHOREAN AND KELANTANESE. - Language - Food -
‘Customs (‘adat’) - Religion - Economic activity - Parenting style

29. DISCUSS CULTURE ACTIVITY FOR ANTARCTICA PEOPLE

30. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF CULTURE: CULTURE OF VARIOUS SOCIO ECONOMIC

31. CULTURE OF VARIOUS SOCIO-ECONOMIC GROUPS •Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and
sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's
economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation
•Socioeconomic diversity has a mix of people/staff/students from different income levels, social
backgrounds, and in some cases, racial and ethnic backgrounds

32. Socio-economic differences

33. CULTURE OF VARIOUS SOCIO- ECONOMIC GROUPS • Socio-economic group refers to a person's
position in society's structural and functional systems. • Its involved an activity, occupation,
occupational status and industry. Can be classified according to socio-economic group: Upper level
Medium level Lower level Poor
34. SOCIAL CLASS refers to a group of people with similar levels of wealth, influence, and status.
Sociologists typically use three methods to determine social class: • The lower class • Poverty,
homelessness, and unemployment • Suffer from lack of medical care, adequate housing and food,
decent clothing, safety • The working class • Those minimally educated people who engage in “manual
labor” with little or no prestige. • Unskilled workers - dishwashers, cashiers, maids, and waitresses •
Skilled workers in this class - carpenters, plumbers, and electrician

35. •The middle class • Lower middle class - less educated people with lower incomes, such as
managers, small business owners, teachers. • Upper middle class is - highly educated business and
professional people with high incomes, such as doctors, lawyers, stockbrokers, and CEO’s •The upper
class • The lower‐upper class - those with “new money,” or money made from investments, business
ventures, and so forth. • The upper‐upper class - those aristocratic and “high‐society” families with “old
money” who have been rich for generations. More prestigious than the lower‐upper class

36. Titanic: true love stories between lower class and upper class.

37. Social Pyramid Of Ancient Egypt

38. EXAMPLE: SOCIO ECONOMIC DIVERSITY AT SCHOOL • Upper-income families - send their children to
private schools because they view the education and security as superior to that of public schools. •
Medium or lower income – send their kids to public school.

39. • Recent study found that an institution with a socioeconomically diverse student body has more
frequent interactions across class, which in turn are associated with higher levels of cross-racial
interactions and engagement in diversity-related activities overall.

40. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF CULTURE: CULTURE OF VARIOUS AGE GROUPS

41. CULTURE OF VARIOUS AGE-GROUPS - Age diversity which is the acceptance of all age groups in the
workforce. • Age diversity offers positive advantages for healthy organisations, just like any other sort of
diversity in work and life. • Treating people fairly, regardless of age, is central to the principles of ethical
business and ethical organisations.

42. HOW ORGANIZATIONS CAN GET BENEFIT BY TEAM THAT HAVE AGE DIFFERENCES IN WORKPLACE i.
Diverse Skill Set- creates an environment where each generation brings different skills and talents to the
table. ii. young professionals grew up in a high-tech world and have greater familiarity with business
technology tools compared to their more mature staff. iii. age diversity gives businesses the advantage
of being able to communicate and deal with customers across all age spectrums. iv. mixed-age
workforce where companies value knowledge, experience and skill above age, seniority or gender,
employees of all ages have the opportunity to teach, share and learn from one another. v. senior
workers can share deeper industry knowledge or offer advice on negotiation and benefits.

43. THE CHALLENGING IN CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN WORKPLACE PLEASE DISCUSS THE CHALLENGING
THAT MAY BE HAPPEN IN WORKPLACE THAT HAVE CULTURAL DIVERSITY..

44. THANK YOU. MDM RUMIZI BT ABD MANAF