Basic Review of Stress and Strain, Mechanics of Beams: MECH 466 Microelectromechanical Systems

MECH 466
Microelectromechanical Systems
University of Victoria
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Lecture 4:
Basic Review of Stress and Strain, Mechanics
of Beams
© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 1
Overview
Compliant Mechanisms
Basics of Mechanics of Materials
Bending of Beams
Stress within Beams
Moment of Inertia
Appendices:
(A) Stress and Strain
(B) Poisson’s Ratio
(C) Stress Tensor
(D) Strain Tensor

Design of Micro-Mechanisms
In order to utilize the ‘mechanical’ aspect of MEMS devices,

most MEMS devices must be capable of ‘motion’.
In other words, most micro-mechanical devices are ‘micro-
mechanisms’, and we can apply the concepts of kinematics and
dynamics when they are designed.
However, there are three fundamental differences between
‘macro-mechanisms’ and ‘micro-mechanisms’.
(a) Component Design Limitations (2D shapes only)
-Cannot make: Ball Bearings, Roller bearings, etc...
(b) Minimum Feature Size and Tolerance
(c) Stiction
-High ratio surface adhesion vs. volumetric forces.
In order to overcome most of these problems, many MEMS

devices are designed as ‘compliant mechanisms’.
Compliant mechanisms are a class of mechanisms that do not use
any traditional joints (i.e. revolute, slider, prismatic, etc...), but
instead use flexible ‘spring like’ joints to allow their constituent
parts to translate and rotate.
The simplest example of a compliant mechanism is a common
spring:

A more complex example of a compliant mechanism is that of a

‘four bar linkage’:
Consider the benefits of compliant mechanisms in general, and

how they apply to micro-devices.
Benefits and Limitation of Compliant Mechanisms
Benefits:
-Single material with no need for joints or lubricants
-Built-in ‘spring back’
-Highly precise, with zero play/’slop’ in the mechanism
-Lower fabrication cost
Limitations
-Built-in ‘spring back’
-Complex to design, often requiring Finite Element Analysis
-Must consider applied loads and fatigue life

Compliant Mechanisms for MEMS
Because compliant mechanisms can be made from a single piece

of material, they are ideally suited for miniaturization.
-Since they have no revolute or sliding joints, there are no
‘internal’ stiction or friction problems.
-Since the hinges are undergoing elastic deflection, they
automatically return to their initial position when applied forces
are removed.
-They can be ‘scaled down’ to any scale (even the nano-scale),
as long as the material exhibits linear-elastic behavior.
Movie of Compliant
‘Active’ Microgripper
Mechanics of Materials,
Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain
Since ‘compliant mechanisms’ are used for MEMS devices, there

is a significant need to understand the ‘mechanics of materials’.
The study of mechanics of materials describes how solid materials
will deform (change shape) and how they will fail (break) when
subjected to applied forces.
Mechanics of materials analysis is based on several basic concepts
such as:
(a) Newton’s Laws of Motion:
- (1st Law): Inertia
- (2nd Law): F=ma
- (3rd Law): Reaction Force
(b) Equilibrium Condition
(c) Stress and Strain
(d) Material Properties

Definition of Stress and Strain
Stress is a measure of: Applied force on a material

Area over which that force is applied
Normal stress is defined as:
Elongation of a material due to an applied force

Strain is a measure of: The original length of the material
Normal strain is defined as: (*Note: the textbook denotes strain as “s”)
Relation Between Stress and Strain
Hooke’s Law defines the relationship between stress and strain,

where:
The above equation is a simple linear model for the 1-D analysis
of materials operating in the elastic region of behavior.
If we require a 3D analysis of materials, we must use a more
advanced matrix relationship between stress and strain, known as
Generalized Hooke’s Law.

Graphical Relation Between Stress and Strain
Ceramics, Crystal Silicon,

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Certain Plastics
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Movie of Tensile Testing of Steel
The relationship of stress and strain for steel can be observed in

the following movie:
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Tensile Testing A36 mild steel, (speed = 4X),
[Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico]

Values for E (modulus of elasticity)
Some typical values for E for common MEMS materials are listed
below:
E Yield Strength Fracture Strength
Material
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
<100> 130
Single Crystal Silicon:
<110> 168 N/A 600 to 7700
<111> 187
Polysilicon 120 to 175 N/A 1000 to 3000

<100> 385
Silicon Nitride (SiN) N/A 6400 to 14000
<110> 254
Silicon Oxide 73 N/A 8400
Silicon Carbide (SiC) 700 N/A 21000
Stainless Steel 200 - 2100
Gold 78 250 -
Aluminum 70 170 -
Note: Appendix A lists numerous material properties for typical

MEMS materials.
Beam Bending
For MEMS applications, we analyze beams for a number of

reasons including:
(a) Internal stress at any point
(b) Maximum stress and it’s location
(c) Beam Stiffness
(d) Beam Deflection
For a majority of MEMS applications, there are essentially “three

general cases” for beam bending.
Note that for macro-scale beam bending, there may be dozens of
‘general cases’.

Beam Bending
We will consider only ‘in-plane’ beam bending (bending about

axis that is normal to the page) for simplicity.
Case A: Cantilever Beams (i.e. diving board configuration)
x Fixed End Free End
Case B: Bridge Beam
x Fixed End Fixed End
Beam Bending
Case C: Guided End Beams
y dy
x
Fixed End Guided End

Analysis of Beams:
(1) Determine all forces and moments using static equilibrium

conditions
(2) Create diagrams for:
-Axial Force
-Shear Force
-Bending Moment
(3) Develop equation for stress at any point in the beam
(4) Develop equations for K (stiffness) and d (deflection) for the
beam.
Example of Beam Axial, Shear and Moment

Diagrams:
See Class Notes

Definition of Beam Parameters
We will consider simple beams that have:

- A straight shape
- A vertical axis of symmetry Neutral Axis
y
t h
x
z
w
l
Examples of vertical symmetry include:
Cross-Sections of Various Beams

[image from Mechanics of Materials, E. P. Popov]
Pure Bending of Beams
These are cases where a beam is subjected to a bending moment

where we assume:
- Deflection as a result of bending is less than 5% of beam
length
- All plane cross-sections of the beam before bending remain as
straight planes after bending
Compression
Neutral Axis
y
+M +M
Plane Tension
Cross-Sections

Pure Bending of Beams
Consider some ‘infinitesimal’ cubes of material in the beam:
Maximum
Compression
Zero Stress
y t
define ‘c’ Point of Interest
Maximum
Tension
Definition of Beam Bending Stress
The beam stress formula is given by:
- where:
Applies to all beams in a state of ‘pure bending’. Derivation is

available in textbooks on solid mechanics.

Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia, I, of a beam depends on the geometrical

properties of the ‘cross-section’ area A of a beam.
I is defined as:
- where: I is relative to the centroid of the cross-section area

More generally moment of inertia is defined as Izz:
This is known as the ‘parallel axis theorem’
Examples of Moment of Inertia
See Class Notes

Beam Deflection
A unique analytical solution exists for beam deflection, given by:

(a) beam geometry
(b) loading conditions
(c) boundary conditions
Generally, beam curvature ρ (rho), can be defined as:
Additionally, we can also define ρ as:
where ‘v’ is the beam deflection from the initial position. This
approximation is valid when v < 5% of beam length.
Beam Deflection
Therefore, we can develop the following differential equation,

which can be solved for any beam, given the specific beam (a)
geometry, (b) loading condition and (c) boundary condition:
It is beyond the scope of this course to solve these equations. For

this course, we can use Appendix B in the textbook, which
provides the deflections associated with this equation, for
common ‘general cases’ found with MEMS beams.
Example of beam deflection for cantilever beam:
"
! !

Beam Stiffness
A useful concept in predicting the forces and deflections within

MEMS beams is the concept of ‘stiffness’.
The stiffness model normally associated with springs can be
expressed as:
Where K is a constant of proportionality that defines the relation

between applied force, F, and the resulting spring deflection, x.
Beam Stiffness
Given the equation for the tip deflection of a beam, we can define
that beam’s stiffness as:
Example of beam stiffness:

Consider the cantilever beam in the previous example:
"
! !
Since:
Therefore:

Calculation of Combined Mechanical Stiffnesses
Computation of Stiffness for Springs in Series.

Computation of Stiffness for Springs in Parallel
See Class Notes
Beam Torsion
For some MEMS applications, the beams that allow the sensor or
actuator to move undergo a twisting/torsional action.
In these cases, it is useful to review the basic formulas governing
the torsion of beams, to determine:
(a) Maximum stress and it’s location
(b) Beam Stiffness
(c) Beam Deflection

Beam Torsion For Circular Beams
The basic assumptions for the torsion of circular beams

(a) All sections initially plane and perpendicular to the
lengthwise axis, remain plane after torsion.
(b) Following twisting, all cross-sections remain ‘undistorted’
and have a linear variation of stress from the center of twist
(where τxy=0) to the outer surface (where τxy= τmax).
(c) Material is homogeneous and obeys Hooke’s law.
Beam Torsion For Circular Beams
The governing equations for circular beam torsion are presented

below, without derivation:
where: τ - shear stress

T - applied torque
r - radius from center to point of interest
J - polar moment of inertia
For circular x-section
For deformation, we have:

where: - angle of twist per unit length
G - Modulus of shear
and since
where: - angle of twist
32
Beam Torsion For Non-Circular Beams
The governing equations

for non-circular beam
torsion depend on the
cross-sectional geometry.
Derivation of these
equations requires
advanced knowledge of
mechanics, and is beyond
the scope of this course.
Table 6.2 on the left
provides equations for
the ‘maximum stress’,
it’s location, and the
‘Angle of twist per unit
length’ for various cross-
sections.
Beam Torsion
Some FEM (finite element analysis) simulations of the ‘distribution of

shear stress’ due to torsion, for beam cross-sections are shown below:
Some FEM simulations of the ‘deformation’ due to torsion, for beam

cross-sections are shown below:

APPENDICIES: Definitions & Reference Materials:
(A) Stress and Strain
(B) Poisson’s Ratio
(C) Stress Tensor
(D) Strain Tensor
Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain
Mechanics of materials describes how solid materials will deform

(change shape) and how they will fail (break) when subjected to
applied forces.
Mechanics of materials analysis is based on several basic concepts
such as:
(a) Newton’s Laws of Motion:
- (1st Law): Inertia
- (2nd Law): F=ma
- (3rd Law): Reaction Force
(b) Equilibrium Condition
(c) Stress and Strain
(d) Material Properties

Static Equilibrium of Bodies
The static equilibrium condition states that all forces and moments
applied to a body are ‘balanced’ such that there is no net
acceleration of the body.
More specifically:
-The vector summation of all forces acting on a body must be

equal to zero, and...
-The sum of all moments acting must be equal to zero.
Therefore, for a 3D body in space:

- these six equations must be satisfied
for the body to be in ‘static equilibrium’
Stress is a measure of: Applied force on a material

Area over which that force is applied
Normal stress is defined as:
Elongation of a material due to an applied force

Strain is a measure of:
The original length of the material
Normal strain is defined as: (*Note: the textbook denotes strain as “s”)

Normal stress:
Normal strain:
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Shear stress: -->
Shear strain:
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Relation Between Stress and Strain
Hooke’s Law defines the relationship between stress and strain,

where:
The above equation is a simple linear model for the 1-D analysis
of materials operating in the elastic region of behavior.
If we require a 3D analysis of materials, we must use a more
advanced matrix relationship between stress and strain, known as
Generalized Hooke’s Law.
Definition of Poisson’s Ratio
When you strain a body along one axis, it will change shape
along the other axes.
For example, consider the rectangular body below:
If it is in tension, its cross-sectional area will become reduced.

We can define Poisson’s ratio as:
Note for Si: (See Appendix A for other materials)

Definition of Stress Tensor
Consider a solid body (as shown below) with an arbitrary shape,

subjected to a set of arbitrary forces.
F2
We wish to analyze the state

of stress that exists within
F1
this solid body, and may also
want to determine the
deformation of the solid body.
F3
The first step is to define a coordinate system that is suitable for

analysis.
F2
F1
z F3

If a cross section of this ‘loaded’ body is taken, we wish to

determine the stress at each and every point within the interior.
F2
y
Because there are various
applied forces with various
F1
directions, in general, the
‘stress distribution’ throughout
the solid body will be
non-uniform.
For the purposes of analysis

we can discretize the solid body
x
into cubes, and will consider
the stress on each cube.
z F3
Consider a single cube of material from the solid body.
Further, assume that y

the cube is infinitesimal
in size. (1)
The external forces F1,

F2 and F3 act on the body,
while each infinitesimal dy
cube may have a set of small
local force(s) (i) acting on it.
x
dz
(2)
dx
z

We can now define the ‘normal stress’ on a single face, as shown

below.
y
Note the notation used
to indicate the stress. It
consists of two indices, or
subscripts. The first refers
to the plane on which
the stress acts, and the τ σ xx = xx
τxx = σxx
second refers to the x
direction of the stress
z
x
y (2)
We can now define ‘shear stress’ on the same face.
Note that since there y

are two possible directions
we will define two shear
stresses.
τxy
τxx = σxx τxz τxx = σxx
τxy z
τxz
x

Similarly, we can define the ‘normal’ and ‘shear’ stresses on the

faces of the cube that are perpendicular to the y-direction:
y
σyy
τyx
τyz
τxy
τxy τxz
τyx τyz x
z σyy
Lastly, we can define the ‘normal’ and ‘shear’ stresses on the faces
of the cube that are perpendicular to the z-direction:
y
σyy
τyx
σzz
τyz
τxy
τzy
τzx τxz
τxy
τyx τyz x
σzz
z σyy

A stress tensor ‘completely’ defines the ‘state of stress’ for such a

cube, with respect to the chosen x, y, and z cartesian coordinates.
Note that there are 18 stresses defined on the cube.
In order for the cube to be in static equilibrium in translation, we
can observe that stresses that are on opposite faces of the cube,
and opposite in direction must be equal.
Therefore, we only need to specify 9 stresses to represent the
stress tensor, as:
In addition, for the cube to be in static equilibrium in rotation, we

can observe that shear stress acting on the sides of the cube, must
all have a net moment of zero acting on the cube:
y
τyx
τxy τxy
x
τyx
Therefore, we can see that:
And as a result, we only need to define six unique stresses to
describe the stress tensor. (Note the stress tensor is symmetric)

Definition of Strain Tensor
In a similar manner, the ‘strain tensor’ can be derived, and is

expressed as:
When we apply the ‘rotational equilibrium’ condition, this will

reduce to (which is expressed in common notation):
y
−αy
αx
x
Tensor Notation as used in Text
Since there are only 6 pieces of unique information contained in

the matrices, an alternative method to describe these tensors, is in
a single column notation:

Definition of Stiffness Matrix
Using the new tensor notation for stress and strain, we can define
the ‘general relationship’ between stress and strain as:
Where C = Stiffness Matrix:
Definition of Stiffness Matrix
Essentially, the stiffness matrix C is analogous to the modulus of

elasticity, E.
However, C encompasses all ‘elasticity’ information for all normal
and shear stresses with respect to all normal and shear strains.

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MECH 466

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 1

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 2

In order to utilize the ‘mechanical’ aspect of MEMS devices,

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 3

In order to overcome most of these problems, many MEMS

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 4

A more complex example of a compliant mechanism is that of a

Consider the benefits of compliant mechanisms in general, and

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 5

Benefits and Limitation of Compliant Mechanisms

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 6

Because compliant mechanisms can be made from a single piece

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 7

Since ‘compliant mechanisms’ are used for MEMS devices, there

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 8

Stress is a measure of: Applied force on a material

Normal stress is defined as:

Elongation of a material due to an applied force

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 9

Relation Between Stress and Strain

Hooke’s Law defines the relationship between stress and strain,

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 10

Ceramics, Crystal Silicon,

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 11

Movie of Tensile Testing of Steel

The relationship of stress and strain for steel can be observed in

$1%!"&, .$#+$," !"#%&' '$,6&'*

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 12

Polysilicon 120 to 175 N/A 1000 to 3000

Silicon Carbide (SiC) 700 N/A 21000

Stainless Steel 200 - 2100

Note: Appendix A lists numerous material properties for typical

For MEMS applications, we analyze beams for a number of

For a majority of MEMS applications, there are essentially “three

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 14

We will consider only ‘in-plane’ beam bending (bending about

x Fixed End Free End

Case B: Bridge Beam

x Fixed End Fixed End

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 15

Case C: Guided End Beams

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 16

(1) Determine all forces and moments using static equilibrium

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 17

Example of Beam Axial, Shear and Moment

See Class Notes

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 18

We will consider simple beams that have:

Examples of vertical symmetry include:

Cross-Sections of Various Beams

Pure Bending of Beams

These are cases where a beam is subjected to a bending moment

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 20

Consider some ‘infinitesimal’ cubes of material in the beam:

define ‘c’ Point of Interest

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 21

Definition of Beam Bending Stress

The beam stress formula is given by:

Applies to all beams in a state of ‘pure bending’. Derivation is

© N. Dechev, University of Victoria 22

The moment of inertia, I, of a beam depends on the geometrical

- where: I is relative to the centroid of the cross-section area