Lecture Mechanicalpropertiesofmetals

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Chapter Two Mechanical Properties of Metals
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Chapter Two
Mechanical Properties of Metals
1
Dr. Edrees Edaan Al Obeidi
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or

deformation in relation to an applied load or force. The important
mechanical properties of materials are : elasticity, plasticity, strength,
ductility, hardness, brittleness, toughness, stiffness, resilience,
malleability, fatigue, creep, etc.
Factors to be considered when study mechanical properties :
1. the nature of the applied load and its duration.

2. the environmental conditions.
3. Application time.
4. Service temperature.
In addition to mechanical properties of materials, the following

properties are also important for an engineer, to enable him in selecting
suitable metals for various jobs:
1. Natural Properties : These properties of materials include shape, size,

color, lusters, specific gravity, porosity, structure, finish, dimensions,
color, shape, specific weight, and Volumetric weight, porosity,
molecular and crystalline structure ... etc.
2. Magnetic Properties : Among the most important magnetic properties
are magnetic penetration of materials, measurement of magnetic
insulation and the influence of the degree surrounding magnetic fields.
3. Optical Properties : These properties depend on the effect of light on
materials. One of these properties is the determination of the degree of
light refraction, absorption, transmission and reflection of light and
the degree of color.
4. Thermal Properties: Specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion, latent heat, thermal stresses, thermal shock, etc. fall under
thermal properties of materials.
5. Electrical Properties: These include conductivity, resistivity, relative
capacity, dielectric strength, etc.
2
6. Chemical Properties: These properties include atomic weight,
equivalent weight molecular weight, atomic number, acidity,
alkalinity, chemical composition, corrosion, etc.
7. Acoustic properties : Acoustic properties of materials such as acoustic
conductivity, acoustic reflection, degree of sound insulation.
8. Mechanical Properties: which include elasticity, plasticity, strength,
ductility, hardness, brittleness, toughness, stiffness, resilience,
malleability, fatigue, Creep.
 The Standards and Specifications for Design in Mechanics or Strength

of Materials :
1. AISI : The American Iron and Steel Institute.
2. ASTM : The American Society for Testing and Materials.
3. SAE : The Society of Automotive Engineers.
4. ISO : The International Standards Organization.
3
Concepts of Stress and Strain :
If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with time and is

applied uniformly over a cross section or surface of a member, the
mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a simple stress–strain test; these
are most commonly conducted for materials at room temperature. There are
three principal ways in which a load may be applied: namely, tension,
compression, and shear, as in Figures below.
In general, we define (stress : as the force acting per unit area over
which the force is applied).
Tensile and compressive stresses are normal stresses. A normal

stress arises when the applied force acts perpendicular to the area of
interest. Tension causes elongation in the direction of the applied force,
whereas compression causes shortening. A shear stress arises when the
applied force acts in a direction parallel to the area of interest. Many load
4
bearing applications involve tensile or compressive stresses. Shear stresses
are often encountered in the processing of materials using such techniques
as polymer extrusion.
Tension Tests
The tension test can be used to ascertain several mechanical
properties of materials that are important in design. A specimen is
deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load that is
applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen. Normally, the cross
section is circular, but rectangular specimens are also used. This “dogbone”
specimen configuration was chosen, as shown in fig.(a), so that, during
testing, deformation is confined to the narrow center region (which has a
uniform cross section along its length), and, also, to reduce the likelihood of
fracture at the ends of the specimen. The tensile testing machine is designed
to elongate the specimen at a constant rate, and to continuously and
simultaneously measure the applied load (with a load cell) and the resulting
elongations (using an extensometer)
A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform

and is destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and
usually fractured. These load–deformation characteristics are dependent on
the specimen size. For example, it will require twice the load to produce the
same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the specimen is doubled. To
minimize these geometrical factors, load and elongation are normalized to
5
the respective parameters of engineering stress and engineering strain.
Engineering stress s is defined by the relationship :
𝐹
𝜎= ………… (1)
𝐴𝑜
In which : F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the

specimen cross section, in units of newtons (N).
Ao is the original cross-sectional area before any load is applied (m2).
The units of engineering stress are mega pascals, MPa (where 1 MPa
10 N/m2).
6
Engineering strain P is defined according to :
𝑙𝑖 −𝑙𝑜 ∆𝑙
∈= = ………… (2)
𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜
In which (l0) is the original length before any

load is applied.
(li) is the instantaneous length.
Sometimes the quantity (li - l0) is denoted as (∆l).
Sometimes strain is also expressed as a percentage, in which the strain value
is multiplied by (100).
Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) is equals to :
𝜎 𝐹 ⁄𝐴𝑜 𝐹𝑙𝑜
𝑌 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = = = ………… (3)
𝜖 ∆𝑙⁄𝑙𝑜 ∆𝑙𝐴𝑜
6
Compression Tests
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test,
except that the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the
direction of the stress, as shown in fig.(b). Eq.(1) and (2) are utilized to
compute compressive stress and strain, respectively. By convention, a
compressive force is taken to be (negative), which yields (a negative) stress.
Furthermore, because (l0) is greater than (li), compressive strains computed
from Equation (2) are necessarily also (negative).
Tensile tests are more common used rather

than compressive, because :
1. they are easier to perform.
2. very little additional information is
obtained from compressive tests.
3. Compressive tests are used when the
material is brittle in tension.
7
Shear and Torsional Tests
The shear stress (τ) is computed according to :
𝐹
𝜏= ………… (4)
𝐴𝑜
where (F) is the load or force imposed parallel to the upper and lower
faces, each of which has an area of (A0).
The shear strain (γ) is defined as the tangent of the strain angle
(θ), as indicated in the Fig.(c).
𝛾 = tan(𝜃) ………… (5)
Shear modulus is equal :

𝜏
𝐺= ………… (6)
𝛾
Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is

twisted in the manner of Fig.(d); torsional forces produce a rotational
motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the
other end.
Examples of torsion are found for machine axles and drive shafts as
well as for twist drills. Torsional tests are normally performed on
cylindrical solid shafts or tubes.
A shear stress (τ) is a function of the applied torque (T)(N.m), whereas shear
strain (γ) is related to the angle of twist (ϕ) in Figure(d).
The shear stress (τ) at the distance (ρ) from the center of the shaft is :
𝑇𝜌
𝜏= ………… (7)
𝐽
8
The maximum shear stress (τmax) is found by replacing (ρ) by the radius (r)
of the shaft :
𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ………… (8)
𝐽
J : is the cross section’s polar moment of

inertia (m4), which is equal to :
1
𝐽 = 𝜋(𝑅 4 − 𝑟 4) ………… (9) For a hollow shaft
2
1
𝐽 = 𝜋(𝑟 4) ………… (10) For a solid shaft
2
The cross section’s polar moment of inertia according of measurement of

diameters :
1 𝑑
𝐽= 𝜋(𝐷 4 − 𝑑 4) ………… (11) For a hollow shaft (𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = )
32 2
1
𝐽= 𝜋(𝑑 4 ) ………… (12) For a solid shaft
32
Substituting of Eqs.(9), (10), (11), (12) into Eq.(8), we can get :
2𝑇𝑅 16𝑇𝐷
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ………… (13) For a hollow shaft
𝜋(𝑅 4 −𝑟 4 ) 𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )
2𝑇 16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ………… (14) For a solid shaft
𝜋𝑟 3 𝜋𝑑3
Torsion strain is :
𝑟
𝛾= ∅ ………… (15)
𝐿
𝜌
𝛾= ∅ ………… (16)
𝐿
ϕ : Angular deflection(rad.).
If the angle of the twist is not known :

𝑇𝐿
∅= ………… (16)
𝐽𝐺
L : Length of the shaft (m)
9
Torsion modulus or Modulus of rigidity is equal :
𝜏 𝑇𝜌⁄𝐽 𝑇𝐿
𝐺= = = ………… (17)
𝛾 𝜌∅⁄𝐿 ∅𝐽
Poisson’s ratio :
When a specimen is stressed by a uniaxial force, it is strained in the

direction of the force in the (z) direction, and also in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the force in the (x and y) direction. The
strain in the direction of force is called longitudinal strain (ϵz) and that
perpendicular to it as lateral strain (ϵx and ϵy). The relationship existing
between the lateral strain andaxial strain is called Poisson’s ratio ():
∈ ∈
 = − ∈𝑥 = − ∈𝑦 ………… (8)
𝑧 𝑧
For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each
other and to Poisson’s ratio according to
𝐸
 = 2𝐺 − 1 ………… (9)
For volumetric stresses and strains, the constant is called bulk

modulus (K). The relation between (K) and (E) is :
𝐸
𝐾= ………… (10)
3(1−2)
10
 For most engineering structural materials its value is usually between
(0    0.5).
 Cork have (0) Poisson’s ratio, which mean that is cork not
deformation when is stressed.
 Another materials (Auxetic Materials) which have a negative
Poisson’s ratio between (-1    0).
11
Stress – Strain Relation :
The stress and strain relation is commonly shown by means of a stress-strain

diagram. These diagrams are obtained by drawing a graph or curve from the data
obtained in a tensile test, in which an increasing tensile stress is applied to a
specimen. There are resulting changes in length which can be observed and
recorded by strain measuring devices (A strain gage or an extensometer). These
curves reveal many of the properties of a material such as the Young's modulus,
the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.
Typically, a tensile test is conducted on metals, alloys, and plastics. Tensile
tests can be used for ceramics; however, these are not very popular because the
sample may fracture while it is being aligned.
Stress-strain for different engineering materials are shown in Figure below.
Metallic and thermoplastic materials show an initial elastic region

followed by a non-linear plastic region. Elastomers (rubber or silicones), a
large portion of the deformation is elastic and nonlinear. On the other hand,
ceramics and glasses show only a linear elastic region and almost no plastic
deformation at room temperature.
12
In the case of ductile materials (metallic and thermoplastic
materials), at the beginning of the test, the material extends elastically. The
strain at first increases proportionally to the stress and the sample or
specimen returns to its original length on removal of the stress. Material in
this region obeys (Hooke’s law) perfectly which the stress and strain are
proportional to each other, and the constant of proportionality (E GPa) is
the (modulus of elasticity), or (Young’s modulus);
𝜎
𝐸= ………… (11)
𝜖
For shear stress in the same region Hooke's Law :

𝜏
𝐺= ………… (12)
𝛾
Where :
τ : is the shear stress.
G : is the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity.
γ : is the shear strain.
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called

(elastic deformation), as shown in Figure below.
13
The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of
elasticity (E). This modulus may be thought of as stiffness,(the ability of
materials to resist elastic deformation. The greater the modulus, the stiffer
the material, or the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application
of a given stress. Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that
when the applied load is released, the piece returns to its original shape.
For brittle materials for which this elastic portion of the stress–strain
curve is not linear as shown in Figure below.
In this case, it is not possible to determine a modulus of elasticity as

described previously. For this nonlinear behavior, either the tangent or
secant modulus is normally used. The tangent modulus is taken as the slope
of the stress–strain curve at some specified level of stress, whereas the
secant modulus represents the slope of a secant drawn from the
origin to some given point of the (σ - ϵ) curve.
14
On further increasing the applied stress, i.e., beyond the elastic limit
(It is the point after which the sample will not return to its original shape
when the load is released). it produces plastic deformation so
that a permanent extension remains even after the removal of the applied
load (stress). The resultant strain, in this stage begins to increase more
quickly than the corresponding stress and continues to increase till the yield
point is reached. We must note that at the yield point the material suddenly
stretches.
yield point (proportional limit)(elastic limit) : (The region of

increased deformation without increased load. The stress at this point is
called the yield strength).
the yielding point represents the onset of plastic deformation on a

microscopic level. The position of this point P is difficult to measure
precisely. As a consequence, a convention has been established by which
a straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–strain
curve at some specified strain offset, usually (0.002).
15
The ratio of applied load to original cross-sectional area is called the
normal stress and this continues to increase with elongation, due to work
hardening or strain hardening, until the tensile stress is maximum. This
stress is called ultimate tensile stress or strength, Figure below.
The phenomenon of slow extension increasing with time, at

constant stress, is termed creep.
A neck begins to develop at this point, along the length of the

specimen and further plastic deformation is localized within the neck. The
cross-sectional area decreases in proportion to the increasing
length during elastic elongation. We must note that the volume of the test
bar (specimen) remains constant.
The above diagram shows : (the limit of proportionality, elastic

limit, yield point, ultimate tensile stress and fracture stress at the breaking
points).
16
A higher yield point reveals greater hardness of the metal. A higher
value of the maximum stress point shows that the metal is a stronger
one.
Similarly, the toughness and brittleness of metal are indicated by the

distance from the ordinates of the breaking stress or load point. The metal is
more brittle when the distance is shorter.
Ductile Materials :
1. Ductile Materials exhibit large strains and yielding (at normal

temperature) before failure.
2. The yielding region for ductile materials often takes up the majority of
the stress-strain curve.
3. Ductile materials often have relatively small Young's moduli and
ultimate stresses.
4. Ductile materials are also capable of absorbing large amounts of
energy prior to failure.
5. An advantage of ductile materials is that visible deformations may
occur if the loads be too large.
6. Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some of its alloys,
Steel, aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, brass, bronze and many
others.
17
Brittle Materials :
1. Brittle materials fracture at much lower strains.

2. brittle materials it is nearly nonexistent.
3. Brittle materials often have relatively large Young's moduli and
ultimate stresses.
4. Brittle materials are not capable absorbing energy which lead to
failure.
5. Materials that exhibit very little inelastic (plastic) deformation which
lead suddenly failure.
6. Brittle materials include Glass, ceramics, plain concrete, cast iron,
concrete, stone, cast iron, glass and plaster.
18
Tensile Strength (ultimate tensile strength) : It is the stress obtained at
the highest applied force, which is the maximum stress on the engineering
stress-strain curve.
Another definition : The tensile strength is the stress at which necking

begins in ductile metals.
After these point a small constriction or neck begins to form at

some point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this neck, and it
finally the specimen breaks at the fracture point.
In compression testing, the materials will bulge; thus necking is

seen only in a tensile test.
Ductility :
It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been

sustained at fracture.
A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon

fracture is termed (brittle).
The tensile stress – strain behaviors for both ductile and brittle
metals are schematically illustrated in Figure below.
19
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent
elongation or percent reduction in area.
Percent elongation (%EL) : is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture.

𝒍𝒇− 𝒍𝒐
𝑬𝑳 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ………… (13)
𝒍𝒐
where (lf) is the fracture length.
(l0) is the original gauge length.
the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen gauge length
Percent reduction in area (%RA) is defined as :

𝑨𝒐− 𝑨𝒇
𝑹𝑨 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ………… (14)
𝑨𝒐
where (A0) is the original cross-sectional area.
(Af) is the cross-sectional area at the point of fracture
Values of percent reduction in area are independent of both (l0) and (A0).
Knowledge of the ductility of materials is important for at least two

reasons;
1. It indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform

plastically before fracture.
2. It specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication
operations.
Yield and tensile strengths and ductility are sensitive to any prior
deformation :
1. the presence of impurities.

2. heat treatment.
20
With increasing temperature, values of elastic modulus and yield
strengths decrease, whereas the ductility increases.
Resilience :
Is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed

elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
modulus of resilience (Ur) : Is the strain energy per unit volume

required to stress a material from an unloaded state up to the point of
yielding.
It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in
the Stress-Strain diagram.
𝑈𝑟=∫𝜖𝑦 𝜎𝑑𝜖 ………… (15)

0
Assuming a linear elastic region, we have ;

1
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑦 𝜖𝑦 ………… (16)
2
which (y) is the strain at yielding.
(σy) is the stress at yielding.
Incorporation of Eq.(11) into Eq.(16) ;

1 𝜎𝑦 1 𝜎𝑦2
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑦 ( ) = ………… (17)
2 𝐸 2 𝐸
resilient materials are those having high yield strengths and low
moduli of elasticity.
Toughness (tensile toughness) :
Is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform

before fracturing. It is measured as the area under the (σ-) curve up to the
point of fracture (also known as the work of fracture)..
It also can be defined as the resistance of a material to crack propagation.
21
A material with high strength and high ductility will have more
toughness than a material with low strength and high ductility.
Q : Why fracture toughness is a major consideration for all structural

materials?
S : Because it is nearly impossible (as well as costly) to manufacture

materials with zero defects (or to prevent damage during service).
Important Note : A measure of resilience is the area under the elastic

portion of the engineering stress–strain curve. whereas, A measure of
toughness is the area under the entire engineering stress–strain curve.
TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN :
The decrease in engineering stress beyond the tensile strength on an

engineering stress–strain curve is related to the definition of engineering
stress. We used the original area (A0) in our calculations, but this is not
precise because the area continually changes.
22
We define true stress and true strain by the following equations :
𝐹
𝜎𝑇 = ………… (18)
𝐴𝑖
∈ 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙
𝜖 𝑇 = ∫0 𝑇 𝑑 ∈ 𝑇 = ∫𝑙 𝑖 = ln ( 𝑖 ) ………… (19)
𝑜 𝑙 𝑙𝑜
where (Ai) instantaneous area over which deformation is occurring (the

neck, past the tensile point).
(li) instantaneous sample length.
(l0) initial length.
When the constant volume assumption holds, we can write
𝐴𝑜 𝑙 𝑜
𝐴𝑖 𝑙𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖 = ………… (20)
𝑙𝑖
Substituting Eq.(20) into Eq’s.(18) and (19), we can get ;
𝐹 𝑙𝑖 𝑙 +∆𝑙
𝜎𝑇 = = 𝜎( 𝑜 ) = 𝜎(1 + 𝜖) ………… (21)
𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜
𝑙𝑜 +∆𝑙
𝜖 𝑇 = ln = ln(1 + 𝜖) ………… (22)
𝑙𝑜
where (𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖) is the engineering stress and strain.
The true stress necessary to sustain increasing strain continues to rise past
the tensile point (M ’).
Coincident with the formation of a neck is the introduction of a complex
stress state within the neck region (i.e., the existence of other stress components
in addition to the axial stress).
As a consequence, the correct stress (axial) within the neck is slightly lower
than the stress computed from the applied load and neck cross-sectional area.
This leads to the “corrected” curve in Figure above.
23
For some metals and alloys the region of the true stress–strain curve from
the onset of plastic deformation to the point at which necking begins may be
approximated by ;
𝜎𝑇 = 𝐾𝜖 𝑇𝑛 ………… (23)
(K) and (n) are constants. The parameter (n) is often termed (the
strain-hardening exponent) and has a value less than unity.
Taking log of both sides of Eq.(23), we have ;
log 𝜎𝑇 = log 𝐾 + 𝑛 log 𝜖 𝑇 ………… (24)
The plot of the above relationship is a straight line on (log 𝜎𝑇 ) vs

(log 𝜖 𝑇 ) graph, as in figure, The slope of the line is n while intercept on
(log 𝜎𝑇 ) axis is log k and thus one can determine k and n.
24
25
HARDNESS
(It is a measures the resistance to penetration of the surface of a

material by a hard object) or (It is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (a small dent or a scratch)).
The commonly used tests for hardness are:
1. Brinell hardness test.

2. Rockwell hardness test.
3. Vickers hardness test.
4. Knoop hardness test.
5. Shore Scleroscope hardness test.
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other

mechanical test for several reasons :
1. They are simple and inexpensive — typically, no special specimen

need be prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructive — the specimen is neither fractured nor
excessively deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness
data, such as tensile strength.
In metals, ceramics and most polymers, the deformation considered

is plastic deformation of the surface. For elastomers and some polymers,
hardness is defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the surface.
There are a few different hardness tests : Brinell, Rockwell,

Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-destructive.
26
1. Brinell hardness test :
The Brinell hardness number (HB or BHN) is calculated from the

following equation:
2𝑃
𝐻𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝐻𝑁 = ………… (25)
𝜋𝐷[𝐷−√𝐷2 −𝑑2 ]
Where
(P) Applied load (kg).
(D) Diameter of ball (indenter) (mm).
(d) Diameter of indentation (mm).
The Brinell hardness has units of (kg/mm2).
The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the

magnitude of the load and the diameter of the resulting indentation.
Advantage and disadvantages of Brinell hardness test
1. Large indentation averages out local heterogeneities of microstructure.

2. Different loads are used to cover a wide range of hardness of
commercial metals.
3. Brinell hardness test is less influenced by surface scratches and
roughness than other hardness tests.
4. The test has limitations on small specimens or in critically stressed
parts where indentation could be a possible site of failure.
Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile Strength:

Both tensile strength and hardness may be regarded as degree of
resistance to plastic deformation.
Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s
resistance to plastic deformation. Consequently, they are roughly
proportional.
27
The HB and the tensile strength are related according to:
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB (For steel alloys, conversion of Brinell hardness

tensile strength) ………… (26)
Vickers hardness :
Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as the
indenter with the included angle between opposite faces of the pyramid of
(136o).
This test can be conducted either as a macro or microhardness test.

Microhardness tests are suitable for materials that
1. may have a surface that has a higher hardness than the bulk.
2. materials in which different areas show different levels of hardness, or
samples that are not macroscopically flat.
3. brittle materials (such as ceramics).
The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load divided

by the surface area of the indentation.
28
2𝑃 sin(𝜃⁄2) 1.854𝑃
𝑉𝐻𝑁 = = ………… (27)
𝑑2 𝑑2
Where
(P) is the applied load (kg).
(d) is the average length of diagonals (d1 or d2)(mm).
(θ) is the angle between opposite faces of diamond = (136o).
The Vickers hardness has units of (VHN, DPH, Hv)
Advantage of Vickers hardness test
1. Vickers hardness test uses the long rang loads (1-120 kg) in a short
time (10 and 15 seconds), which lead to long rang hardness
measurement .
2. It provides a continuous scale of hardness, for a given load.
29
References :
1. The Science and Engineering of Materials; Sixth Edition, Donald R.

Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright, (2010).
2. Materials Science and Engineering; an introduction, WILLIAM D.
CALLISTER, JR. and DAVID G. RETHWISCH, John Wiley & Sons,
2014.
3. Properties of Materials Lecture 3: Instructor : Dr. Tsz Ho Kwok.
4. Mechanical Properties of Materials; Chapter Four, Dr. Ali Abadi.
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Lecture Mechanicalpropertiesofmetals

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Chapter Two Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter · May 2020

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Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or

Factors to be considered when study mechanical properties :

1. the nature of the applied load and its duration.

In addition to mechanical properties of materials, the following

1. Natural Properties : These properties of materials include shape, size,

 The Standards and Specifications for Design in Mechanics or Strength

If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with time and is

Tensile and compressive stresses are normal stresses. A normal

A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform

In which : F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the

Engineering strain P is defined according to :

In which (l0) is the original length before any

Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) is equals to :

Tensile tests are more common used rather

𝛾 = tan(𝜃) ………… (5)

Shear modulus is equal :

Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is

J : is the cross section’s polar moment of

The cross section’s polar moment of inertia according of measurement of

Substituting of Eqs.(9), (10), (11), (12) into Eq.(8), we can get :

If the angle of the twist is not known :

When a specimen is stressed by a uniaxial force, it is strained in the

For volumetric stresses and strains, the constant is called bulk

The stress and strain relation is commonly shown by means of a stress-strain

Stress-strain for different engineering materials are shown in Figure below.

Metallic and thermoplastic materials show an initial elastic region

For shear stress in the same region Hooke's Law :

τ : is the shear stress.

G : is the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity.

γ : is the shear strain.

Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called

In this case, it is not possible to determine a modulus of elasticity as

yield point (proportional limit)(elastic limit) : (The region of

the yielding point represents the onset of plastic deformation on a

The phenomenon of slow extension increasing with time, at

A neck begins to develop at this point, along the length of the

The above diagram shows : (the limit of proportionality, elastic

Similarly, the toughness and brittleness of metal are indicated by the

1. Ductile Materials exhibit large strains and yielding (at normal

1. Brittle materials fracture at much lower strains.

Another definition : The tensile strength is the stress at which necking

After these point a small constriction or neck begins to form at

In compression testing, the materials will bulge; thus necking is

It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been

A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon

Percent elongation (%EL) : is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture.

where (lf) is the fracture length.

(l0) is the original gauge length.

the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen gauge length

Percent reduction in area (%RA) is defined as :

where (A0) is the original cross-sectional area.

(Af) is the cross-sectional area at the point of fracture

Knowledge of the ductility of materials is important for at least two

1. It indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform

1. the presence of impurities.

Is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed