Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132

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Construction and Building Materials

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Absorbent materials in waterproofing barriers, analysis of the role of

diatomaceous earth
A. Tavares a,⇑, A. Costa a, F. Rocha b, A. Velosa a
a
RISCO, University of Aveiro, Civil Engineering Department, Portugal
b
Geobiotec, University of Aveiro, Geosciences Department, Portugal

h i g h l i g h t s

 Calcined diatomite mortars retain and transport water above waterproofing barriers.
 The volumetric dosage changed from 1:3 to 1:2 reduces capillary coefficient levels.
 Non-calcined diatomite mortar showed better results in comparison with NHL3.5.
 Non-calcined diatomite shows better results in opposition to calcined diatomite.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents recent development in experimental assessment of the capillarity involving the effect
Received 22 June 2015 of diatomaceous earth in water proofing barriers (1940s and 1950s solutions). The introduction of diato-
Received in revised form 5 October 2015 mite in hydraulic lime mortars as a waterproofing barrier was firstly reported in licensed architectural
Accepted 28 October 2015
plans after 1945 in the central region of Portugal. This was the period of Modernist buildings, a recent
Available online 2 November 2015
heritage to preserve and widely disseminated worldwide, recognised as the 20th century heritage. A
methodology was presented to test these types of solutions considering the calcined and not calcined dia-
Keywords:
tomite. Experiments reveal that two aspects need to take into account: (1) the presence of not calcined
Diatomaceous earth
Waterproofing barriers
diatomite tends to have a better behaviour in relation to calcined diatomite; (2) the type of diatomite—
Built heritage calcined or not calcined—has influence in the capacity of retaining water in the barrier, as well as the vari-
Hydraulic lime ation of volumetric dosage of the components.
Rising dampness Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Earthen architecture
Modernist buildings

1. Introduction gal. Consequently, some changes were introduced in traditional

The introduction of diatomaceous earth in mortars as a water-
proofing barrier was first reported in licensed architectural plans
after 1945 in the central region of Portugal. This region is charac-
terised by traditional earthen architecture; however, in most situ-
ations, the architectural plans were proposed by civil engineers
from the north of Portugal, namely, from Porto, a region with tra-
ditional stone masonry construction. Further research by the first
author in the archives of Porto concluded that diatomaceous earth
was used in this type of construction in Porto until at least the
1950s. The reason behind this particular use over this short period
of time is not fully understood. It is known that the Second World
War made access to some construction materials difficult, even in
countries that were not directly involved in the war, such as Portu-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tavares.c.alice@gmail.com (A. Tavares).
and engineered construction systems to overcome the temporary
lack of materials [22]. This could be the case for the introduction
of diatomaceous earth in waterproofing barriers during the 1940s
in Portugal rather than a crude oil substitute. The crude oil substi-
tute was applied before 1940 in the base of the construction but
also in the exterior walls up to a level at least 0.50 m above the
ground as an independent layer [23], instead of an addition to
the mix (2%) as described by Goma [12] in relation to the technique
applied in Peru to stabilise adobe construction. In the north of Por-
tugal, it was applied to the entire height of the exterior walls. If
access to the crude oil substitute was restricted during this period,
and the extraction of diatomaceous earth (diatomite) was carrying
out, it would justify the use of this natural material, which was
more readily available in Portugal.
Diatomite has many uses and is a natural material highly appre-
ciated for the improvement of soils because it increases air pene-
tration, water retention capacity, infiltration and other aspects,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.10.169
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
126 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132
due to its small particle size, high surface and high porosity (web-
site: [20]. Accessed 09/06/2015; [2,4]. It is also used as a mecha-
nism for insect and fungus control and to reduce the bulk
density of mortars. Studies about the characterisation of ancient
hydraulic mortars from historical buildings were undertaken to
extend the collection of data about rendering mortars with diato-
mite [24,19,11,6,18], including the possibility for its use in restora-
tion rendering works in more recent buildings. From those studies
the variations can be observed depending on the characteristics of
diatomite, but also in the materials quantities. In some of these
studies the diatomite was activated thermally and chemically
modified to increase its strength [13,18]. In studies about the rele-
vance of change the percentage of diatomite in cement production
showed the interrelation between this and the strength [27], even
in the production of lightweight bricks where the use of diatomite
calcinations (500 °C) already enhance strength [21]. The replace-
ment of natural hydraulic lime by diatomite again shows advan-
tages on strength characteristics of NHL2 mortars [26], and the
strategy was also used for Portland cement with strength advan-
tages [5], involving changes in microstructure characteristics [17].
Although most of the research is focused on the mechanical
characteristics of mixed mortars with diatomite, as involving
material replacement as temperature or chemical changes in the
production of mortars, there is a serious lack of studies that involve
the particular subject of waterproofing barriers at the level of the
foundations using diatomite.
This apparent contradiction—the use of an absorbent material
in the construction of a waterproof barrier—was prescribed by
technicians who understood the need to control humidity in a
region with a high phreatic level.
The present study aims to contribute to the understanding of
the role of diatomaceous earth in waterproofing barrier solutions
for that period and to assess its effectiveness for earthen construc-
tion barriers. To fulfil this goal, several mortar solutions were pre-
pared based on the previously identified data and analysed in a
laboratory using a number of different characterisation techniques,
namely, capillarity measurements, mercury intrusion porosimetry
measurements of the sample materials and other complementary
tests.
One of the most disseminated pathologies in the earthen con-
struction of this coastal region is associated with defects due to ris-
ing dampness in these heritage buildings. This particular problem
is also observed in many other regions and even with other con-
struction systems such as stone or brick masonry [7,15]. For this
reason, this research is important not only as a historical record
of the evolution of the construction system but also to understand
the natural capacity of this material to improve the performance of
building barriers against rising dampness and to potentially pro-
mote its use in new rehabilitation actions for this type of buildings.
The interest in lime mortars research is growing and has been
carried out in order to achieve proper combinations for rehabilita-
tion of heritage buildings [25]. Rising dampness continues to be a
challenge to overcome, involving presently not only the study of
drying and wetting characteristics of building materials or compo-
nents [3], but also methodologies to control degradation of histor-
ical walls [14].
2. Composition of the waterproofing barriers of the 1940s in
earthen construction
In order to fulfil the objective of characterisation of the main
compositions of joint mortars from 1940 to 1956, different periods
were assessed and more than 725 architectural files of the Aveiro
district archives were analysed.
Table 1
Identification of specimens type and volumetric dosage.
Identification Binder Aggregate 5% Description
of specimen diatomite
CH 1 3 – Hydraulic lime/sand
CHDn 1 3 X Hydraulic lime/sand
+ diatomite (not calcined)
CHD 1 3 X Hydraulic lime/sand
+ diatomite (calcined)
CHDt 1 2 X Hydraulic lime/sand
+ diatomite (calcined)
CHDnB 1 3 X Hydraulic lime/sand
+ diatomite (not
calcined) + crude
After 1945, air lime was gradually substituted by hydraulic lime
in mortars, namely, in waterproofing barriers with the addition of
diatomite. In this study, the most common solutions were used to
understand the interaction between these binders with the supple-
mentation of diatomite. The volumetric dosage (ratio) was nor-
mally 1:3 (binder:aggregate), to which 5% diatomite in terms of
the total volume, was added. In other cases, hydraulic lime binder
was used in a specific ratio of 1:2 just for this type of barrier. In the
written architectural plans, it was not possible to confirm whether
the diatomite used was calcined or not calcined; therefore, this
study involves both states of diatomite. The crude oil substitute
used as waterproofing material was also added to one solution of
the study.
The in situ assessments and also the descriptions from the
archive documents showed that the waterproofing barrier was
applied below the floor structure. This occurred independently of
the type of structure—timber beams or concrete slabs. Neverthe-
less, when a substitute of crude oil was added, it was applied below
the waterproofing mortar. For this reason, the test specimens fol-
low the same strategy.
The following solutions were used for the study with specific
ratio, shown in Table 1.
3. Materials and methods
This assay was conducted according to the procedure of AASTHO: T162-04—
ASTM C 305-99—mechanical mixing of hydraulic cement pastes and mortars of
plastic consistency—for the preparation of mortars. The capillarity tests were con-
ducted taking into account the recommendations of EN 15801 and EN 1015-18 [9].
3.1. Characterisation of the specimen materials
3.1.1. Characterisation sand
The sand used was calibrated using a mixture of two types of sand from the
Aveiro region (Portugal), sand from Vale de Ílhavo (75%—AF) and sand from Sal-
gueiro (25%—AG) to achieve a grading curve that allowed for a higher type of grain
(up to a dimension of approximately 2 mm), Table 2.
3.1.2. Hydraulic lime characterisation
The type of hydraulic lime used was NHL3.5 (Natural lime, SECIL, following NP
EN459-1), with the characteristics present in Table 3.
3.1.3. Diatomaceous earth (not calcined)
Diatomite (diatomaceous earth) is a powdery, non-metallic mineral composed
of fossilised skeletal remains of microscopic single-cell aquatic plants called dia-
toms, each with its own distinct shape, ranging in size from under 5 l to over
100 l [16]. The chemical composition and the physical structure of diatomite allow
a wide spectrum of uses, including filter aids, functional fillers and as a component
of aggregates [16,8].
The non-calcined diatomaceous earth (from Portugal) was prepared to remove
impurities, after which it was ground until a medium diameter of 10 l was
achieved.
 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132 127

Table 2
Calibration of sand.

Table 3
Characterisation of NHL3.5.

Density (g/ SO3 Ca(OH)2 Compressive Particle size

cm3) (%) (%) strength (MPa) distribution (%)
2.7 62.0 P25.0 P3.5 and 610 90 lm 615.0;
200 lm 62.0

3.1.4. Diatomaceous earth (calcined)

These products are produced from the natural material by calcination, or sinter-
ing, at higher temperatures usually in excess of 900 °C in a rotary kiln. After calci-
nation, the diatomite is further processed into products with selected particle size
ranges that can include filter aids, multifunctional fillers and aggregates. During cal-
cination, any organics and volatiles are removed and the colour typically changes
from off-white to tan or pink [16], as is the case with the calcined diatomite used
in this research.
The calcined diatomaceous earth was imported from China with a 12.5 lm
median particle diameter.

Fig. 1. Adobe blocks for the specimens.

3.2. Specimens preparation

The specimens are constituted of two parts of an adobe block and a layer of
hydraulic lime mortar. The material used was obtained from an adobe building in
the region that had been assigned to demolition by the town council. This rural
building at Gafanha da Nazaré (Ilhavo town, close to Aveiro) had just one floor,
and the adobes to produce the specimens were removed from an interior adobe
wall (a loadbearing wall in the middle of the construction and with longitudinal ori-
entation). The adobe blocks were taken from a level higher than 1.0 m to avoid the
eventual effects of rising dampness on the adobe blocks.
The preparation of all the specimens took place on the same day and with the
same environmental conditions. After the control on the preparation of each ele-
ment of the specimens, they were set up, applying the mortar in the same way with
a spreader device, controlling the homogeneous height of the mortar in every spec-
imen and with the same pressure of application. Finally, a spatula removed the
excess of mortar around all the specimens to obtain a regular lateral surface of
the specimen.

3.3. Adobe blocks

The adobe blocks from an existent dwelling were cut into cubes with sides of
approximately 8.0 cm. However, due to the dimensions and the characteristics of
the material, it was not possible to have precisely the same dimension along each
side (Fig. 1). Therefore, samples (cubes) were numbered, weighed, and measured
along each side. These blocks were dried for three weeks at the laboratory in natural
environmental conditions before the next step of preparation of the specimens for
the laboratory tests (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Test specimens (2 blocks and a middle barrier).
128 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132

3.4. Mortars (calibration of the materials) Table 4

Mortar composition.
The mortar preparation was executed under the guidelines of the American nor-
mative ASTM C 305-99 [1] (Mechanical mixing of hydraulic cement pastes and mor- Identification Binder Aggregate Bulk Description
tars of plastic consistency). Therefore, the process of progressive mixture and of specimen ratio ratio spread
mixing periods followed this normative. The materials, aggregate, binder and diato- value
mite, were mixed in an electrically driven mechanical mixer of epicyclical type with CH 1 3 155 Hydraulic lime/sand
two speeds (Fig. 3). CHDn 1 3 155 Hydraulic lime/sand
The preparation of all samples (mortars and specimens) was performed on the + diatomite (not calcined)
same day under the same environmental conditions. Potable water was used for the CHD 1 3 150 Hydraulic lime/sand
mixture. + diatomite (calcined)
After the preparation of each mortar type, a bulk spread was performed and the CHDt 1 2 170 Hydraulic lime/sand
results obtained are presented in Table 4. + diatomite (calcined)
CHDnB 1 3 147 Hydraulic lime/sand
+ diatomite (not
3.5. Specimen composition calcined) + crude

For each type of solution, six (combined) specimens were coupled for the labo-
ratory test, and an additional (combined) specimen for future comparisons and
other specimens composed solely by mortar in order to offer initial results about
its mechanical characteristics.
Each specimen was composed of two cubes with a 2.0 cm thick layer of mortar
between them. The specimens were prepared on the same day by the same person.
All of the specimens were identified and numbered with the code given to each
solution (ex: CHD1, CHD2, CHD3, etc.). In relation to the CHDnB specimens, the
crude oil was applied as an independent layer above the first block and below
the mortar.
After this preparation process, the specimens dried in a conditioning chamber
with controlled temperature 20 °C and humidity of 95% RH for 60 days, following
the period recommend by European regulation EN 1015-18 (Methods of test for
mortar for masonry. Part 18: Determination of water absorption coefficient due
to capillary action of hardened mortar).
After this period, they were dried at 60 °C in a climatic chamber until constant
mass was achieved (at a minimum of 72 h prior to the test). They were then mea-
sured and weighed prior to the test. The submerged base area was measured to a
precision of 0.1 mm.
The specimens were placed in a recipient under a layer of sponge; there were
six samples in each recipient. Distilled water was added to submerge the base of
the specimens to a height level of 10 mm, following regulation (EN 1015-18).
At time points representing 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90, 480 and 1440 min, consider-
ing the recommendations of the normative [10] (Conservation of cultural prop-
erty—tests methods, determination of absorption by capillarity) and of the
normative EN1015-18 for 10 and 90 min. Each specimen was weighed and the
respective wet front level was assessed. Each sample had a slightly different time
point zero to allow for proper measurement of the subsequent time points.
Each sample piece was pulled up successively, the submerged part was gently
wiped with a damp cloth to remove water drops, and it was immediately weighed
to an accuracy of 0.01 g. The time span from the start of the test until the weighing
time was recorded. The weighing protocol was held for 24 h. The samples for which
the wetted height did not reach the intermediate area of the test mortar had their
testing time extended until this event took place, which could require an additional
24 h.
The height of the water was kept constant throughout the test, with the correc-
tions performed after the samples were weighed.
Temperature and humidity conditions were recorded throughout the test pro-
cedure, with values ranging from 17.9 °C to 18.5 °C and 81% H to 69% H.
3.6. Mercury invasion porosimetry results
The test mercury invasion porosimetry was conducted by the IPN Led & Mot
Laboratory using AutoPore IV equipment from Micromeritics, allowing for the
intrusion of mercury into pores with diameters ranging between 360 lm for mini-
mal pressure and 5.5 nm for maximum pressure. This procedure was in accordance
with the norm ISO 15901-1:2005. The barrier mortars, CHD, CHDn and CHDt, were
assessed at 28.01.2015 (50 days after their preparation). The results are sum-
marised in the following table, Table 5.
Figs. 4–6 below show the porosimetry of the mortars used in the specimens. It
can be seen that both changes in diatomite addition (non-calcined versus calcined
diatomite) and volumetric dosage have an impact on the dimension/distribution of
the pore size diameter of the mortars.
4. Results of capillary absorption tests
The data collected during the test included a record of colours to
identify the passage of the wet front through the barrier: white, in
the inferior adobe; yellow, close to the barrier; orange, in the bar-
rier; red, surpassing the barrier; brown, at the top of the specimen
(Fig. 7). This procedure was taken for all the samples with a digital
photo record. The collection of data (weighing and photo record)
continued after 24 h of the standard test until 56 h.

4.1. Capillary behaviour

The following figures show results of capillary tests of the spec-

imens (Figs. 8–12). The vertical lines inside the graphic mark the
limits of the wet front level in the barrier during the test. The solu-
tion CHDnB (solution with crude oil substitute) just has one line,
which represents a very slight (1–2 mm) touch of the wet front
to the lower level of the barrier. This was the only solution where
the wet front did not surpass the barrier. The wet front progression

Table 5
Results of mercury invasion porosimetry.

Sample CHD CHDn CHDt

Total intrusion volume (0.5–33,000 psia) 0.1362 0.1470 0.1322
(ml/g)
Median pore diameter (volume) (lm) 1.2420 1.2442 0.5874
Average pore diameter (4.V/A) (lm) 0.2040 0.2582 0.1075
Bulk density (g/ml) 1.8429 1.8214 1.9041
Apparent density (33,000 psia) (g/ml) 2.4605 2.4872 2.5447
Porosity (%) 25.1010 26.7701 25.1736
Fig. 3. Electrically driven mechanical mixer used for the preparation of the mortars.
 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132 129

Fig. 4. Results of porosimetry CHD.

Fig. 5. Results of porosimetry CHDn.

was more homogeneous in the six samples of CHD solution than in
relation to CHDn.
The solutions with barriers with calcined diatomite presented a
wet front that reached the top of the specimens during the test, in
opposition with the solutions with non-calcined diatomite.
The figures represent the mean values, considering the six spec-
imens for each solution used in the test.
5. Discussion of results
The preliminary conclusions are summarised in the table below
(Table 6).
Comparing all the compositions with hydraulic lime, CH pre-
sents a longer medium period of the wet front in the barrier,
although with a lower level of cc. This means that the wet front gen-
130 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132

Fig. 6. Results of porosimetry CHDt.

Fig. 7. Example of the data record of capillarity tests (CH) and a specimen during the test. Legend: White – wet front in the inferior adobe block; Yellow – wet front close to
barrier; orange – wet front in the barrier; red – wet front passed the barrier. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

30,0 30,0

25,0 25,0
water absorption (kg/m2)

water absorption (kg/m2)

y = 0,1143x + 20,162
20,0 20,0 R² = 0,9832
y = 0,097x + 15,034
15,0 R² = 0,992 15,0
y = 0,5443x + 10,482
y = 0,282x + 8,142
R² = 1
10,0 R² = 1,000 10,0

5,0 y = 0,8772x + 2,1318 5,0 y = 1,5852x + 3,1632

R² = 0,9986 R² = 0,9483
0,0 0,0
0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00

time (min1/2) time (min1/2)

Fig. 8. Capillary water absorption CH. Fig. 9. Capillarity water absorption CHDn.

erally surpasses the barrier faster in solutions with diatomite, inde- of this material. Nevertheless, the change of volumetric dosage of
pendently of the type or the volumetric dosage that was used in calcined diatomite for (1:2—diatomite:aggregate) also shows an
these tests. This is in accordance with the absorbent characteristics increase of permanency of the wet front in the barrier in relation
 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132 131

30,0 Comparing the Dn and D solutions, it can be concluded that

there is more variability in results when not calcined diatomaceous
25,0
earth (Dn) is applied. This can be a problem for controlling and pre-
water absorption (kg/m2)

20,0 senting a standardised solution to use in the field.

y = 0,1496x + 13,645 Additionally, CHDn and CHD show an increase almost double of
15,0 R² = 0,9962
the capillarity coefficient in the barrier, in comparison with the
y = 0,572x + 4,9055 solution without diatomite (CH).
10,0 R² = 0,996
Although the solution with non-calcined diatomite (CHDn) pre-
5,0 y = 0,8575x + 2,5195 sents a faster passage through the barrier, it also shows a strong
R² = 0,992 reduction of the cc after the wet front surpasses the barrier. The
0,0
0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 high levels of cc below the barrier are associated with this type
of solution with non-calcined diatomite—as for CHDn as for
time (min1/2) CHDnB. What distinguishes this from other solutions is the higher
Fig. 10. Capillarity water absorption CHD.
percentage of porosity and a larger average pore diameter (see
Table 5 and Figs 4–6).
The addition of crude oil substitute to the CHDn solution is an
effective complement to waterproof barriers, despite its disuse
30,0 nowadays. The lower adobe blocks reached almost total saturation
within the 24-h period. Although there was some slight disaggre-
25,0
gation of these adobes at the end of the test, this solution main-
water absorption (kg/m2)

20,0 tained its integrity and the specimens did not break around the
y = 0,1437x + 15,282
R² = 0,9704 area of the level of the crude substitute. Nevertheless, high levels
15,0 of capillarity coefficient at low levels of the construction can be a
y = 0,4814x + 6,725
R² = 1 problem in terms of resistance of the base of the construction,
10,0
namely when the foundation walls were of adobe masonry, as it
5,0 y = 0,8058x + 3,0714 was the majority of the cases in the region and in other regions
R² = 0,9807
of the world.
0,0
0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00

time (min1/2) 6. Conclusions

Fig. 11. Capillary water absorption CHDt. From the analysis of this research, it is concluded that the addi-
tion of diatomite to waterproofing barriers fulfils its function when
it was used in addition to the crude oil substitute (a solution used
30,0
in stone masonry constructions).
25,0 The solution with higher capacity of retaining water in the bar-
water absorption (kg/m2)

rier and transporting it above the barrier is the CHD (calcined dia-
20,0 tomite). This shows that the type of diatomite—calcined or not
calcined—has an influence on the capacity of retaining water in
15,0
the barrier. However, the volumetric dosage change from CHD to
y = 0,037x + 12,783
10,0
R² = 0,7506
CHDt improves this aspect and reduces both cc levels (in the bar-
rier and above it).
5,0 y = 1,3675x + 1,4409
R² = 0,9787 It should be emphasised that the CHD and CHDt solutions pre-
0,0 sented a diffused wet front above the barrier and a lower weight
0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 gain (6.2–8.3%) and their non-saturation at the end of the test.
The CHDn solution showed that the barrier did not have any
time (min1/2)
effect in blocking the wet front. However, it should be pointed
Fig. 12. Capillary water absorption CHDnB. out that in this solution the cc above the barrier represents just
7% of the cc below the barrier. Comparing it with CH (hydraulic
to CH. It should be said that this volumetric dosage was current in lime mortar without diatomite) where the cc represents 11%, it
the 1940s. For this reason, this data is important to understand, can be concluded that CHDn presents a better result. For this rea-
nowadays, the process of decay associated with waterproof son, the solutions with non-calcined diatomite present better
barriers. results than the calcined diatomite. The higher percentage of

Table 6
Identification of specimens type and volumetric dosage.

Identification of Bellow the barrier In the barrier Above the barrier Time of the wet front in the barrier (min) Time to reach the top of the
specimen (cc) (cc) (cc) specimen (min)
CH 0.877 0.282 0.097 610 NO (the wet front did not achieve
the top)
CHDn 1.585 0.544 0.114 215 NO (the wet front did not achieve
the top)
CHD 0.857 0.572 0.149 250 3360
CHDt 0.805 0.481 0.143 546 3180 (two specimens)
CHDnB 1.367 0.037 0.000 4265 (Just few millimetres at level below of NO (the wet front did not achieve
the barrier) the top)
132 A. Tavares et al. / Construction and Building Materials 102 (2016) 125–132
porosity and a larger average pore diameter of this solution can
justify this.
The addition of diatomite anticipates the wet front rising to the
barrier in all of the solutions, and despite this, the cc values below
the barrier only have higher values in solutions with non-calcined
diatomite.
The interrelation between the type of diatomite (D or Dn) used
in the barriers in terms of velocity of progression of the wet front
(below the barrier) and in terms of its relation with cc values will
be the subject of future studies.
Acknowledgement
Alice Tavares gratefully acknowledges the support of FCT –
Portuguese national funding Agency for Science, Research and
Technology – Grant No SFRH/BPD/113053/2015.
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