Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Brick production with dredged harbour sediments.

An industrial-scale experiment
Kay Hamer*, Volker Karius
Department of Earth Sciences, Section Geochemistry and Hydrology, University of Bremen, 330440 Bremen, Germany

Accepted 7 July 2001

Abstract
A volume of 600.000 m3 harbour sediments is annually dredged out of the harbour basin of Bremen to maintain a certain water
depth. Because of its perpetual availability, homogeneity and mineralogical, petrographic and chemical composition, the sediment
is regarded as a suitable raw material for brick production. A pilot experiment was conducted at a full-scale industrial brickworks.
During production, the environmental standards concerning waste-water treatment and the quality of exhausted gas were suffi-
ciently fulfilled. Bricks specified as ‘‘building bricks’’ were produced according to German industrial standards. The parameters pH-
value and grain size were varied in leaching tests performed on the bricks as both parameters are likely to change in the course of
the brick’s life cycle. The leaching data showed that As was stabilised and heavy metals were immobilised in a way that the bricks
were not (hazardous to soil or groundwater) neither by their use, for example, in masonry, nor afterwards, when they will be
deposited as mineral demolition mass. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction sediment treatment techniques in order to assure the

Harbour authorities have to dredge harbour basins
and waterways in order to maintain an adequate ship-
ping channel depth. The ports of Bremen consist of the
two harbour sections Bremen-City and Bremerhaven.
Annually, each accounts for a volume of approximately
600.000 m3 of partly contaminated sediment. According
to the European Waste Catalogue, dredged harbour
sediments are classified as waste material. The super-
visory authorities of both harbours applied different
concepts to manage the dredged material. In the case of
Bremen-City, sediments were dewatered in drainage
ponds after dredging and then deposited at a landfill for
contaminated harbour sediments. By contrast, the port
of Bremerhaven was used to dump the dredged material
into the North Sea. As the sediments were contaminated
with such chemicals like tributyltin, the responsible
authorities of Bremen and Lower Saxony decided to
avoid marine disposal. At present, a new concept to
treat the dredged sediments is being elaborated. Both
port authorities are attempting to integrate various
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-421-218-7120; fax: +49-421-
218-4321.
E-mail address: khamer@uni-bremen.de (K. Hamer).
0956-053X/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0956-053X(01)00048-4
effectiveness of a long-term solution.
One solution being discussed is to manufacture bricks
out of the harbour sediments [1,2]. This concept gives
priority to waste recovery over its deposit in landfills.
The use of harbour sediments was not the first attempt
to introduce a waste material into brick production. In
the past, a range of different types of waste materials
has been assessed as raw materials for brick production,
for example, fly ashes [3], steel dust [4], papermaking
sludge [5], incinerator ashes of sewage sludge [6], coal
fly-ash and slag [7].
The technology of producing bricks out of harbour
sediments was reviewed as a possible concept for the
sediments in Bremen [1]. Consequently, the government
of Bremen initiated a project to produce bricks made of
Bremen harbour sediments on an industrial scale.
Construction materials like bricks must comply with
construction standards and human health requirements
[8]. Although the constructional standards are well
defined, there still is a need for acknowledged leaching
tests to assess the environmental impact [9]. Therefore,
three main objectives of technical and environmental
importance were pursued in this project: first, to ascer-
tain whether Bremen’s harbour sediments fulfil the
requirements of a raw material in brick production;
522 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530

second, to examine the pathways of the contaminants in
the environment during the whole life cycle of the
bricks. This included the production process, the var-
ious stages of the product’s use as a building material,
and its properties as a waste material; and third, it was
investigated whether the produced bricks complied with
the German industrial standards.
2. Materials and methods
The study was divided into three phases, consisting of
mixing the raw material, the experiment of industrial-
scale brick production using this raw material and, ulti-
mately, testing the product’s physical and chemical
properties.
2.1. Materials
Sediment dredged from Bremen’s harbour was dewa-
tered in drying fields and transported to the Hanseaten-
Stein Brickworks, a factory located near Hamburg, still
having the status of a demonstration plant. In addition
to sediments obtained from the port of Hamburg, the
brickworks accepted sediments from other harbours, in
order to improve their knowledge for a scale-up of the
factory in the future. The brickworks’ annual capacity
of presently five million facade bricks is yet too low for
commercial success.
Two hundred tonnes of dried harbour sediment from
Bremen was mixed with other clays and burnt into
bricks. In a brickworks’ routine production process
nearly 10% of the bricks do not fulfil the industrial
standards which would allow them to be marketed.
These bricks were crushed and sieved and mixed with
the harbour sediment and the clays. A mixture consist-
ing of 50 wt.%. harbour sediments, 10% crushed bricks
and 40% of two clays was used in the industrial-scale
experiment (Table 1).
2.2. Industrial scale experiment: production of bricks
from wet sediments
The use of wet and polluted harbour sediments
required an innovative input compared with the proce-
dures of traditional brickworks. Pollutants in harbour
sediments might be released into the environment in
several ways during the production process: waste water
originating from drying the raw material is likely to
contain volatile contaminants. Volatile contaminants
like mercury, dioxins and furans might escape into the
atmosphere due to the physical conditions inside the
kiln, and the product itself contains heavy metals and
metalloids which might leach out subsequently during
any of the various stages of the brick’s life cycle.
These facts led to several adaptations in operational
practise as compared with conventional brick produc-
tion (Fig. 1) [2].
At the Hanseaten-Stein Brickworks the various input
materials were mixed and dried in a closed system. The
raw mixture was dried in a steam-dryer which utilised
the surplus energy of the kiln, generated steam at a
temperature of 400
C and dried the mixture possessing
an average initial moisture content of 30% to a residual
value below 2%. The water extracted was condensed,
collected in a closed container and then cleaned by
being passed through an active-carbon filter into a sec-
ond container. The waste-water tanks were sampled
over a tap, the samples filtered (pore size: 0.45 mm) and
preserved for further analysis.
The dry raw material was stored in silos for several
days. In contrast to the customary brick manufacturing
process, the bricks were dry-moulded in a press at a
maximum pressure of approximately 200 bar.

Table 1
Chemical composition of the raw material mixture [wt.%]

Wt.% Harbour sedimenta 50% Clay 1b 27% Clay 2b 13% Crushed bricks 10%

SiO2 63 67 70 66
Al2O3 11 22 19 16
Fe2O3 8.3 6.1 6.4 7.7
TiO2 nvc 1.3 1.0 064
CaO 1.8 0.19 0.44 1.2
MgO 0.9 0.40 0.80 0.84
Na2O 1.9 0.20 0.18 1.0
K2O 1.6 2.5 2.0 1.6
S 0.3 ndd nvc nvc
MnO nvc 0.01 nvc nvc
LOI 10 6.3 5.5 ndd
a
Nonpublished data of the port authorities, RFA-analyses, 1998.
b
RFA-analyses of the clays.
c
No value.
d
Not detectable.
 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530 523

Subsequently, the bricks were burnt at a temperature
of 1050
C in an opposing motion kiln with two sepa-
rate channels. During the burning process approxi-
mately 1700 m3 of air were exchanged in the furnace per
each ton of sediment. The exhaust air was to capture
volatile contaminants eventually released under the
physical conditions prevailing inside the furnace.
To control the quality of the stream of exhaust gas,
three steps were included as part of the concept. First,
Ca (OH)2 was injected into the flue-gas stream to neu-
tralise the acidic components HF, HCl and SO2, second,
activated carbon was added into the gas stream to
adsorb volatile metals. At last, a cloth filter was
employed to remove dust from the flue gases. Samples
of cleaned flue gas were withdrawn from the chimney
for analysis. The gas sampling in the chimney was con-
ducted under isokinetic conditions and the analysis
conducted in accordance with either German or Eur-
opean standard procedures (Table 2) [10–17].
The ergo research institute, Hamburg, conducted the
sampling and analysis of the gas stream. This institute is
qualified to conduct monitoring programs in a brick-
works using wastes as raw material according to the
German emission regulations x 26 and x 28 [18]. The
quality control was based on external control during the
sampling and interlaboratory tests to evaluate the qual-
ity of the analytical standard.

2.3. Tests performed on the bricks made from harbour

sediments

The constructional characteristics of the bricks, for

Fig. 1. Producing bricks of Hanseaten-Stein Brickworks GmbH. The
three ‘‘products’’ waste water, exhaust air and bricks can leave the
brickworks. All these pathways can contain pollutants and were con-
trolled during the study.
example, ceramic body density, compressive strength,
shape and dimensional stability, water absorption, frost
resistance and content of hazardous soluble and efflor-
escent salts were investigated according to German
industrial standards [19].
Two sets of leaching tests were performed. The Ger-
man standard leaching test [20] was performed in order
to fulfil official requirements. The bricks were crushed to
a maximum grain size of 10 mm and leached with de-
ionised water for 24 h in an end-over-end shaker. The
liquid/solid ratio was 10:1 [l/kg].

Table 2
Methods of sampling and analysis of the exhaust gas stream

Parameter Sampling Analytical method

Stream Sampling site acc. VDI 2066 [10]
Hydrostatic pressure in the chimney Sampling site acc. VDI 2066 [10]
Temperature in the flue gas Sampling site acc. VDI 2066 [10]
Moisture in the flue gas Adsorption on silica gel
CO VDI 2459 [11]
NO2 VDI 2456 [12]
HCl VDI 3480 [13]
HF VDI 2470 [14]
Dust Isokinetic sampling acc. VDI 2066 [10]
Cd and Ti VDI 3868, Part 1 [15] and Part 2e [16]
Hg VDI 3868, Part 1 [15] and Part 2e [16]
Sb, As, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, Sn VDI 3868, Part 1 [15] and Part 2e [16]
TE-value PCCD/PCDF EN 1948-1 [17]
Condensate: dichlor-methan-extraktion
Cartidge: soxhlet with toluol
Micromanometer Digima premo
Micromanometer
Ni/Cr-Ni-Thermoelement Greisinger Elektronic GTH 1150
Gravimetric method
Maihak, Hamburg Multor 610
Maihak, Hamburg Multor 610
Zeiss photometer PM 7
Orion Research modell 96-09
Quartzfilter Munktell MK 360
HNO3/HCLO-digestion and AAS-graphit-tube-method
HNO3/HCL-digestion and AAS-cold-vapour-method
HNO3/HCLO-digestion and AAS-graphit-tube-method
HRGC/HRMS via SP 2331/DB 5 on VG AutoSpec
524 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530

PH-static experiments constituted the second leaching 3. Results

test performed in this study. The bricks were tested as
cubes (3 cm edge length) and broken down to grain-size 3.1. Raw material
fractions, fine gravel (2–6.3 mm) and coarse sand (0.63–
2 mm). The samples were placed on a nylon net in a After drying the harbour sediment in dewatering
glass beaker, with two stirrers positioned below and fields it became homogeneous [21] and had a moisture
above the nylon net to ensure a constant flow through content of 43 wt.% relative to the original substance.
the sample. The pH was kept at a preset value (pH 4– The grain-size distribution classified the material as
11), using a pH-stat controller and an autoburette. The clayey, slightly sandy silt. Analysis of the harbour sedi-
liquid/solid ratio was 10:1 [l/kg] as in the German stan- ment by powder diffractometry indicated the following
dard leaching experiment (DIN 38 414-4). After 24 h the mineral composition: 28% clay minerals (2.6 smectite,
solution was filtered (pore size: 0.45 mm), acidified and 4.3 chlorite, 17 illite and 3.5 kaolinite), 42% quartz,
stored for subsequent analysis. 8.6% feldspar, 2.7% calcite, 4.9% hematite and 14%
Total acid digestions of the bricks were performed to amorphous components.
determine the total amount of the contaminants. All According to the recommended threshold limits
solutions obtained in the course of the leaching experi- regarding the content of pollutants in mineral recycling
ments and dissolving the bricks were filtered (pore material [22], the harbour sediments of Bremen could be
size:0.45 mm) and analysed by ICP-MS (Finnigan- used as raw material for brick production (Table 3).
MAT-Sola) and ICP-AES (Perkin Elmer optima 3300).
3.2. Emission during the production
Table 3
Recommended limit and pollutants in the sediment (mg/kg dry sub-
Exhaust gas and waste water were analysed in the
stance)
pilot experiment. The concentrations in the exhaust gas
Parameter Recommended Dredged complied with the threshold limits stated in the German
limit (LAGA, 1996) harbour sediment emission regulations [18], with the exception of SO2
EOX 15 0.33 (Table 4). The waste water extracted by drying the raw
Hydrocarbons 1000 340 material complied with the threshold limits specified by
Sum BTEX 5 <0.01 the water regulation standards [23] (Table 5) and could
Sum LHKW 5 <0.015
therefore be discharged into the sewage water system of
Sum PAH acc. EPA 20 3
Sum PCB congenere 1 0.22 Hamburg.
(DIN 51527)
As 150 15 3.3. Characteristics of the bricks
Pb 1000 122
Cd 10 6
All constructional tests showed that the bricks made
Cr (ges.) 600 131
Cu 600 87 of Bremen’s harbour sediments could be used as build-
Ni 600 60 ing bricks according to the German specifications [10].
Hg 10 0.3 The data pertaining to these bricks were compared with
Tl 10 0.6 investigation on bricks made of Hamburg’s harbour
Zn 1500 790
(Table 6).
Cyanide 100 nva
The data obtained by applying the German standard
a
No value. leaching test (Table 7) showed that all parameters were

Table 4
Exhaust gas during the production with harbour sediments of Bremen

Parameter Minimum Maximum Mean Threshold limit acc.

German emission regulations

CO (mg/m3) <12 22 19 100

NO2 (g/m3) 0.09 0.13 0.11 0.4
HCl (mg/m3) 0.5 1.0 0.7 30
HF (mg/m3) <0.3 <0.3 < 0.3 4.0
SO2 (mg/m3) 210 290 260 200
Dust (mg/m3) <0.7 <0.7 < 0.7 20
Cd and Ti (mg/m3) <0.0004 <0.0004 < 0.0004 0.1
Hg (mg/m3) 0.0080 0.0091 0.0085 0.1
Sb, As, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, Sn (mg/m3) 0.10 0.13 0.11 2.0
TE-value PCCD/PCDF (ng/m3) 0.0014 0.0016 0.0015 0.1
 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530 525

Table 5
Compostion of the condensed waste water after cooling and after filtering

Parameter German waste water regulation standard Condensate after cooling Condensate after filtering

T [
C] 35 nva nva
pH-value 6.5–10 6.8 7.0
Particle load [mg/l] 10 <0.1 <0.1
Conductivity (mS/m) nva 8.5 11.6
As [mg/l] 0.1 0.002b nva
Ba [mg/l] 3 0.68 0.017
Pb [mg/l] 1 ndb nva
Cd [mg/l] 0.2 <0.001 <0.001
Cr [mg/l] 1 0.007 <0.002
Cu [mg/l] 1 0.051 0.006
Ni [mg/l] 1 <0.01 <0.01
Hg [mg/l] 0.05 <0.001 <0.001
Zn [mg/l] 2 0.10 <0.05
Sn [mg/l] 2 nva nva
NH+ 4 /NH3 calculated as N [mg/l] 150 <40 nva
F [mg/l] 50 0.14 0.06
NO2 [mg/l] 20 0.6 nva
SO4 [mg/l] 600 <500 nva
S2 [mg/l] 2 ndb nva
Hydrocarbons [mg/l] 20 0.55 0.43
AOX calculated as Cl [mg/l] 1 0.007 <0.002
PAK (EPA) [mg/l] nva 1.98 ndb
TBT [mg/l] nva 0.1 0.02
a
No value.
b
Not detectable.

Table 6
Constructional data about the bricks made from harbour sediments

Parameter Harbour sediment Bremen Harbour sediment Hamburga

Shape and dimensional stability Length, width and height Given within tolerances Given within tolerances
Water absorption [wt.%] 11–15 12–15
Frost resistance Slight damages (microcracks) Fulfilled
Brick bulk density [t/m3] 1.72 1.8
Ceramic body density [t/m3] 1.85 1.9
Compressive strength [N/mm2] 18–24 47–49
Content of harmful soluble and efflorescent salts Fulfilled Not tested
a
Data from [2].

Table 7
Leaching on crushed bricks acc. German standard leaching test (DIN 38414-4)

Parameter Bricks Threshold limit acc.

LAGA Z0 (no restricted use)

pH-value 9.9 7.0–12.5

Conductivity [mS/m] [mS/cm] nva 500
SO4 [mg/kg] 1890 500
As [mg/kg] 105 100
Pb [mg/kg] <1.6 200
Cd [mg/kg] 1.3 20
Cr [mg/kg] 70 150
Cu [mg/kg] 22 500
Ni [mg/kg] 61 400
Tl [mg/kg] ndb 1000
Zn [mg/kg] ndb 1000
a
No value.
526 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530

Table 8
Leaching in pH-static experiments at varying grain sizes and pH-values

Grain size pH 4 pH 5 pH 6 pH 7 pH 11

SO4 [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 360 370 350 340 390

2–6.3 mm 1150 1150 1300 1200 1060
0.63–2 mm 2000 1680 1930 1800 1630
As [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 360 140 88 118 19
2–6.3 mm 2850 1540 890 640 27
0.63–2 mm 2454 1610 974 697 37
Pb [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 5.3 nda nda 1.0 5.8
2–6.3 mm 4.6 1.8 0.67 0.050 0.69
0.63–2 mm 7.4 1.8 1.0 1.1 0.96
Cd [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 1.7 0.76 0.34 0.59 1.4
2–6.3 mm 6.8 2.8 1.3 1.5 0.64
0.63–2 mm 7.4 3.8 2.3 1.6 1.2
Cr [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 21 14 18 20 15
2–6.3 mm 84 77 96 78 50
0.63–2 mm 125 95 106 99 62
Cu [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 640 580 162 84 68
2–6.3 mm 109 33 17 9.0 8.0
0.63–2 mm 162 53 26 20 15
Ni [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm 44 17 11 19 8.0
2–6.3 mm 89 110 77 80 14
0.63–2 mm 232 160 150 125 21
Tl [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm nda nda nda nda 1.0
2–6.3 mm nda nda nda nda nda
0.63–2 mm nda nda nda nda nda
Zn [mg/kg] Cubes 30 mm nda 320 nda nda nda
2–6.3 mm 260 nda nda nda nda
0.63–2 mm 270 nda nda nda nda
ANC24 [meq/kg] Cubes 30 mm 3.1 1.5 0.89 nvb nvb
2–6.3 mm 17 8.8 7.4 5.8 nvb
0.63–2 mm 38 22 20 15 nvb
a
Not detectable.
b
No value.

Table 9
Chemical composition of harbour sediment from Bremen and natural clay used for brick production in Lower Saxony

Clays in Lower Saxony SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O S Loss of
ignition

Mean valuea 59 16 6.2 2.2 2.2 0.80 2.5 0.3 9.8

Maximum valuea 78 22 11 6.3 10 2.9 4.6 1.0 14
Minimum valuea 43 8.0 3.9 0.30 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.01 4.1
Harbour sedimentb 63 11 8.3 1.8 0.9 1.9 1.6 0.3 10
a
Data cited in: [24].
b
Nonpublished data of the port autorities, RFA-analyses, 1998.

below the level restricting the use as building materials. 4. Discussion

The only exceptions were sulphate exceeding the
threshold and As reaching it.
The results of the leaching regime in which the pH-
value and grain size (Table 8) were varied showed that
the mobilised amounts of contaminants generally
increased at low pH values (Fig. 2). Only chromium did
not display any pH dependence in the range examined.
Comparing the leaching from different grain sizes
showed that smaller grain sizes leached higher amounts
than larger ones.
One advantage of continuous maintenance dredging
in Bremen was that the harbour sediment became
homogeneous after dewatering, and that the masses
annually amounted to a nearly constant value of 72 000
t of dry substance [21]. Homogeneity and sufficient
availability are pre-conditions for using harbour sedi-
ments as a raw material in any technological process.
The mineralogical and chemical composition of the
harbour sediment was similar to other raw materials
 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530
used in brickworks in north Germany (Table 9). The
petrography varied within common ranges of grain-size
distribution for raw materials [24]. Accordingly, har-
bour sediments from Bremen-City could be a suitable
raw material for producing bricks.
With the exception of SO2, all emissions complied
with the threshold limits for the exhaust gas stream and
the waste water. Injecting more Ca(OH)2 into the flue
gas stream could reduce the SO2-concentration in the
exhaust gas. The experience gained with harbour sedi-
ments from Hamburg as raw material for making bricks
[2] showed that such optimisation is feasible.
The brick’s physical characteristics also indicated that
harbour sediments could be generally applied as a raw
material in brick production. The German system of
industrial standards distinguishes between building, face
and industrial bricks [10]. The demands for a classifica-
tion as face or industrial bricks are higher as compared
with building bricks. The classification strongly depends
on the compressive strength and the frost resistance.
According to the standards applied here the bricks
could be specified as building bricks.
The objective of a full-scale production based on
sediments of Bremen harbour was to manufacture face
bricks. However, the frost-resistance test revealed some
micro-cracks within the samples. Less microcracks
could improve the frost resistance as well as the com-
pressive strength. Okuno and Takahashi [25] investi-
gated bricks made of sewage-sludge ashes and also
reported having problems with microcracks. The
authors discussed the content of the organic substance
and the grain-size distribution in the raw material as
being responsible for the micro-cracks observed. They
suggested to use ashes as raw material as it has an
amount of organic substance below 1 wt.%, as was
measured by the loss of ignition. They showed that such
impairments can be compensated for by optimising the
burning temperature in the kiln.
The chemical composition of clays available in
northern Germany showed that nearly all clays had a
loss of ignition exceeding 1%. Consequently, the con-
tent of organic substance does not exclusively account
for the occurrence of micro-cracks in the product. It has
to be kept in mind that the data based on the harbour
sediment bricks presented here originated from a pilot
study. In routine production, the quality of the bricks
could be improved to avoid the micro-cracks observed
and to produce face bricks instead of building bricks.
Experience with sediments from the port of Hamburg
demonstrated the possibility of adapting the burning
process to sediments with an ignition loss exceeding
9wt.% [2].
Thermal treatment of contaminated soils has the
advantage that organic contaminants are destroyed and
the remaining heavy metals can be fixed in new minerals
[26,27]. For example, Cr is known to be fixed in Cr-spi-
527
Fig. 2. As-release from bricks made of harbour sediments. Data from
pH-static experiments varying pH-values and grain size.
Table 10
Life cycle periods of bricks and variables in the leaching experiments
Life cycle period pH-value Grain size
Storing or pedestrian walk ways Acidic Stones or cubes
Masonry Neutral/alkaline Stones or cubes
Mineral demolition masses Alkaline Gravel or sand
nells which had been described as resulting from high
temperature treatment [28].
If wastes are recycled into new products it is necessary
to ensure that these new products are sustainable in a
way that the environment is not endangered by new
emissions. The leaching data provided in this study gave
information about different stages of the brick’s life
cycle . Leaching of the sample cubes at acidic pH values
had been done to simulate the leaching process other-
wise induced by acid rain, a process which is likely to
occur when bricks are stored unsheltered at a construc-
tion site or used without the addition of mortar on
pedestrian walkways. In the masonry of a house, the pH
value of the run-off-water is expected to be between
neutral and alkaline. Alkaline pH-values are to be
expected [29] after a building is pulled down and the
bricks become a part of the mineral demolition mass
consisting of concrete and broken bricks. Concerning
the changes of pH-value and grain sizes, the chosen
conditions in the leaching experiment of this study
comprised all the stages of a brick from ‘‘the cradle to
the grave’’ (Table 10). In order to assess the data
describing the different stages in the brick’s life cycle,
the data were compared with officially acknowledged
threshold limits and with reference material.
In Germany, there are recommended threshold limits
values for the content of pollutants and the leaching
behaviour compounds in soil, for example, [13], but not
applying to construction material [9].
The comparison of leaching data obtained by apply-
ing the German standard leaching test [11] with LAGA
528 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530
Table 11
Time period until consumption of the acid neutralizing capacity of a layer of bricks against acid infiltration of pH 4
ANC24 Infiltration to consume
[mmol/kg] ANC24 [l/m2]
Cubes 30 mm 3.1 4960
2–6.3 mm 17 27 200
limit values [13] showed that no value exceeded the
respective threshold limit, with the sole exception of SO4
(Table 7). SO4 is important in brick production, because
its concentration in the range detected could lead to
efflorescence, even if the test determining the content of
harmful soluble and efflorescent salts met with the
requirements [30]. Efflorescence could be controlled by
adding BaCO3 to the mixture of the raw material, with
the effect that the nearly nonsoluble BaSO4 will pre-
cipitate [31]. In order to produce a marketable brick, the
addition of BaCO3 is necessary to optimise the raw
material and would also lead to a decreased leaching of
SO4. In neutral and alkaline pH ranges, leaching
remained at a nearly constant level, which was below
the concentration restricting the use of the material in
any way (Table 8). Alkaline pH values are likely to
come into effect after the use of the bricks, because the
bricks, upon being recycled with other mineral demoli-
tion wastes, are combined with alkaline concrete com-
ponents [22]. Walda [32] discussed producing bricks
from harbour sediments in the Netherlands. He assumes
that an increased emission should be expected after the
demolition of the buildings. According to our data this
assumption must be contradicted.
Leaching in the acidic pH range was found to be
below all threshold values limiting the use of the brick,
with the sole exception of As. Arsenic was leached
above the limit value defined by LAGA [13]. Thermal
treatment of polluted soils could lead to the fixation of
heavy metals but was not applicable to As in this
regard, as leaching of As increased after thermal treat-
ment [21]. Additionally, the leaching of As increased
with decreasing pH values after the thermal treatment
of sludges [33].
Being able to predict the concentrations of As in the
pore water of a such layer of material under the condi-
tion of long-term exposure, it is an important issue to
assess whether the quality of soil or groundwater
underlying the brick layer can be affected. A key para-
meter for such an approach consists in the acidic neu-
tralisation capacity (ANC) of the broken bricks in such
a layer. The ANC can be used to estimate the time at
which the decrease of pH-value might take place [9].
The pH-value will decrease if the buffer capacity of the
layer is consumed because of acid infiltration.
Just by defining the thickness, the compactness and
the ANC of a layer of crushed bricks, the water volume
L/S-ratio Time until pH 4 is reached [a]
[l/kg] for an infiltration rate 200 [mm]
31 24.8
170 136
necessary to consume the ANC at a pH value of four
can be estimated by the equation:
ANC  s
VANCcons ¼
½Hinf:water
with: VANCcons [l m2]: volume of water at a pH-value
of four to consume the ANC; ANC [mmol kg1]: acid
neutralising capacity;  [kg m3]: compactness of the
layer; s [m]: thickness of the layer of crushed bricks; and
[H+]inf. water [mmol l1]: H-activity of the infiltration
water.
Dividing the amount of water necessary to consume
the ANC by a given annual infiltration rate yields the
time required to consume the ANC.
VANCcons
t¼
I
with: t [a]: time required to consume ANC; and I [l
a1m2]: infiltration rate.
Of interest is the liquid/solid ratio resulting from
infiltration
VANCcons:
L=S ¼
 s
with: L/S [l kg1]: liquid/solid ratio; and  [kg m3]:
compactness of the layer.
In order to assess the increased release of As at low
pH values the following scenario is discussed: a 10-cm
thick layer of broken bricks is used to prepare a path
and exposed to acid rain with a pH of four. The layer
has a compactness of 1.6 t/m3 and an ANC of 17.4
mmol/kg. This is the ANC calculated for coarse sand
released from broken bricks (Table 8). The given infil-
tration rate is 200 mm.
The result of these calculations is that it can last dec-
ades to consume the ANC of the brick layer (Table 11),
however, the model used to calculate the ANC con-
sumption presents a simplification of the processes
actually taking place: in addition to the pH value, the
leachate concentrations in the field are influenced by the
biological degradation of organic matter, redox poten-
tial, ionic strength, liquid/solid ratio, complexing agents
and the granular or monolithic structure of the sample
[34]. However, as far as the field conditions during the
 K. Hamer, V. Karius / Waste Management 22 (2002) 521–530
Fig. 3. Comparsion of As-contents in clays [35].
phases of the brick’s life cycle are concerned, the pH-
value and the grain size can be assumed to be the master
variable influencing the release of As from the bricks.
The starting-point of this discussion was that the
release of As at pH four exceeded the threshold limit
value restricting the use of mineral materials as recom-
mended by LAGA [13]. Our calculation showed that it
could take decades before a pH value of four is reached.
The leached concentration measured in the pH-static
experiment will differ from that of drainage water in the
brick layer as is to be expected in the scenario.
Two factors will reduce the As concentration in drai-
nage water: first, it cannot be expected that the As con-
centration measured in the pH-static experiment will be
released spontaneously once pH 4 is reached. The
release of As will occur before the worst case of pH 4
emerges (Table 8). Thus, the As reservoir that can be
mobilised at pH 4 will continuously decrease during
ANC consumption. Second, the layer will be percolated
several times in the course of ANC consumption, as
described by the L/S ratio (Table 11). The calculated L/
S ratio is more than 10 times higher than in the pH-
static experiment. Both factors will lead to the dilution
of the concentrations in drainage water, as compared
with the concentrations measured in the pH-static
experiments. In order to predict the drainage water
concentration, more precise column experiments simu-
lating such a layer should be conducted in the future.
Additionally, a comparison of the As contents in the
harbour sediments with other clays in Germany showed
that the As content of the harbour sediment is in the
same order of magnitude as many other clays in Ger-
many [35] (Fig. 3). Using these clays in brick manu-
facturing could cause As to leach out of the bricks in the
same concentration range.
529
5. Conclusion
The industrial-scale experiment showed how manu-
facturing bricks with harbour sediments could be opti-
mised and that bricks made of sediments from the
harbour of Bremen would have no environmental impact
restricting their application. The brick manufacturing
process has to be improved in order to reduce SO2-con-
centrations in the exhaust gas stream. Injecting more
Ca(OH)2 into the flue gas stream is therefore discussed to
be a suitable method. In the future the raw material must
also be improved. Adding BaCO3 to the raw material
could prevent the bricks from possible efflorescence.
The applied leaching programme provided data on
the leaching behaviour of metals and metalloids. While
running the programme the master variables, grain size
and the pH-value, were varied to get information on the
chemical conditions the bricks might become exposed to
at any specific time in their entire life cycle. No leaching
was observed to an extent that can have exerted any
hazardous impact on the environment. This study con-
centrated on elements mentioned in the German reg-
ulations. In further studies additional parameters like
Mo and V should be investigated because they are likely
to become mobilised by sintering [36].
In summary, it can be stated in terms of geochemical
engineering [37] that using harbour sediments for brick
production leads to the stabilisation of As and the
immobilisation of heavy metals.
The beneficial use of harbour sediments, instead of
depositing them, could prevent depletion of resources in
two ways: natural clay resources would be spared for a
longer period of time and space consumption by con-
structing new landfills equipped with dewatering facil-
ities and compensation areas would also be avoided.
The latter is an important aspect because the munici-
pality of Bremen disposes of only a limited area for
future urban development. In Bremen, producing bricks
from harbour sediments is a promising alternative
within the concept of harbour sediment management.
Acknowledgements
The project was funded by the municipal administra-
tion of the City of Bremen. Waste water, exhaust gas,
and, finally, the industrial standards were monitored by
the Ergo Research Institute, Hamburg, Limnological
Institute, Dr. Nowak, Ottersberg, and Keramisch-
Technologisches Baustofflabor, Hamburg. We thank
these companies for their excellent co-operation.
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