Flexural Test on a Full-Scale 60-kW Wind Turbine–Tower

Telescopic Steel Pipe

G. Campione, Ph.D.1; A. Monaco2; and F. Cannella, Ph.D.3

Abstract: A full-scale static test to failure was conducted on 6-m (236.22 in.)-long steel pipes constituting a segment of a telescopic wind
tower with a 60-kW wind turbine. The diameter of the circular cross section of the steel pipes was 900 mm (35.43 in.), and the nominal thick-
ness was 10 mm (0.39 in.). The steel grade was 355 MPa (51,488 psi). The tests were conducted in a force-controlled mode in a four-point
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bending test with a shear-to-span ratio of 2.05. The flexural limit states developed in the form of ovalization of the cross section and of local
buckling. The buckling occurred in the plastic range because of the diameter-to-thickness ratio of the section. Although local buckling caused
slight strength degradation, the reduction due to the shear-to-moment interaction and ovalization of the cross section was very significant
(58%), while the recorded response revealed a good amount of postbuckling ductility (2.42). A finite-element analysis with ABAQUS code
was also conducted for comparison with the experimental results and for validation of the simplified proposed model. By properly modeling
the imperfection effects due to the roundness of the steel tube, good correlation of the structural response and failure mode, and with the analyt-
ical model, were also achieved. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)SC.1943-5576.0000433. © 2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Author keywords: Shear-to-moment interaction; Buckling; Ovalization; Flexural strength; Full-scale tests; Steel pipes; Metal and compos-
ite structures.

Introduction high shear-to-span ratio during service conditions (pier fully

Wind turbines in the wind industry are spreading rapidly throughout
the world and becoming an important alternative to standard energy
provisions. Steel circular hollow sections (CHS), steel truss struc-
tures, or prestressed concrete piers are generally utilized for wind
towers of different heights, as given in Figs. 1(a, b, and c). In some
cases, the tower remains in a vertical position, fully erected during
all its service life [Figs. 1(a, b, and c)]; in other cases of interest for
environmental impact, the tower can be erected during its operation
for energy production and hidden when not in service. In these
cases, a special rotating joint at the base of the columns allows one
to rest the pier in a horizontal position, partially hidden, when not in
service [Fig. 1(d)] or remaining almost fully hidden in a concrete
well foundation through a telescopic system when not in service
[Fig. 1(e)].
In all the cases mentioned, when the wind tower is fully erected,
it is mainly subjected to bending moment caused by a lateral wind
load or an earthquake load. The presence of shear associated with
the bending moment is generally negligible because of the very
1
Full Professor of Design of Structures, Dipartimento di Ingegneria,
Univ. of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy (correspond-
ing author). Email: giuseppe.campione@unipa.it
2
Assistant Professor at Dipartimento di Architettura e Design,
Politecnico di Torino, Viale Pier Andrea Mattioli, 39, Turin 10125, Italy.
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9301-4169. Email: alessia.monaco@
polito.it
3
Postdoctoral Researcher, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Univ. of
Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy. ORCID: https://
orcid.org/0000-0001-5851-0001. Email: francesco.cannella01@unipa.it
Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 29, 2018;
approved on February 19, 2019; published online on April 25, 2019.
Discussion period open until September 25, 2019; separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Practice
Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, © ASCE, ISSN 1084-
0680.
erected). In this case, the strength of CHS tubular members in either
axial compression or flexural compression is limited by plastic
moment for a compact section or by elastic or plastic local buckling
when the diameter-to-thickness ratio (D/t) is high. The classical
elastic stability theory (Timoshenko and Gere 1961) has widely
been applied to buckling of thin cylindrical shells by many
researchers. However, it is well known that fabricated thin shells
may be expected to have large magnitudes of geometric imperfec-
tions, and the elastic buckling strength is sensitive to geometric
imperfections and residual stresses. Many existing studies and code
recommendations give a clear indication for the design of CHS steel
tubes (AISC 2010; ASCE and AWEA 2011; ASME 2006; CEN
2017; Ziemian 2010; Kiymaz 2005).
When the wind tower is of the telescopic type and is in the rest
condition, when not in service for energy production, it is a short
member in which the shear-to-moment interaction plays a funda-
mental role. In these cases, the presence of shear can reduce the
load-carrying capacity in pure bending of CHS.
To study experimentally the flexural behavior of CHS, three
kinds of loading types are commonly used, i.e., the simply supported
beam test, the cantilever beam test, and the pure bending beam test.
With four-point bending, a pure bending region is generated
between the central loading points. However, to perform bending
tests for specimens with a large diameter, large-scale testing tubes
are required. In this kind of test, shear-to-moment interaction can
occur for a low shear span to diameter ratio (a/D), i.e., one between
2 and 3. For larger diameters (e.g., D = 1,000 mm, corresponding to
39.37 in.) utilized in practical applications for wind turbine towers
of 40,000 mm, corresponding to 1,574.80 in. of length, to avoid
shear-to-moment interaction during four-point bending tests, the
span L of the specimen to be tested in flexure should be at least
30,000 mm (1,181.10 in.) (if a/D = L/3 = 10 is assumed).
An alternative to the bending test is the cantilever beam test in
which high a/D ratios are generally respected. The D/t ratio gener-
ally ranges from 10 to 150. Smaller D/t ratios refer to CHS tubes in

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Fig. 1. Structures of wind towers, generally adopted.

the building or automotive industry subject to axial loads or a com-

bination of axial loads and bending moments, while larger D/t ratios
refer to slender sections utilized in wind turbine towers mainly sub-
jected to flexure.
Several studies are present in the literature for flexural tests on
CHS (Bazeos et al. 2002; Lavassas et al. 2003; Prowell et al. 2009;
Guo et al. 2013; D’Aniello et al. 2015). Bazeos et al. (2002) per-
formed static, buckling, and seismic analyses of a 38-m-high steel
tower supporting a 45-kW wind turbine. Fixed boundary conditions
were used at the lower end of the tower for all static analyses. The
analyses also included the effect of a door opening at the base of the
tower. Lavassas et al. (2003) also numerically investigated flexural
buckling of a 44-m-tall (1,574-in.) steel tower supporting a 1-MW
wind turbine. Prowell et al. (2009) tested a full-scale 65-kW wind
turbine in a shake table. Guo et al. (2013) tested, in four-point bend-
ing tests, CHS tubes having lengths between 3,000 mm (118.11 in.)
and 3,600 mm (141.73 in.) with D/t ratios between 75 and 150. In
their flexural tests, the a/D ratio was between 5 and 6, and flexural
failure with local buckling occurred and reduced shear-to-moment
interaction. D’Aniello et al. (2015) mentioned several experimental Fig. 2. (a) Telescopic tubular tower diagram; and (b) realized prototype.
investigations on the flexural behavior of hollow steel sections.
Flexural tests were mainly four-point bending tests on specimens hav-
ing lengths ranging from 300 (11.81 in.) to 3,000 mm (118.11 in.), Technological Model and Prototype Realized
with D ranging between 31.86 (1.25 in.) and 600 mm (23.62 in.), with
a thickness between 0.94 mm (0.03 in.) to 12.54 mm (0.49 in.). At The technological model proposed in the “Wind production with
present, there are few studies on the flexural behavior of CHS reduced environmental impact” (P.E.R.IM.A.) project, developed
members tested in four-point bending tests with low a/D ratios by the University of Palermo (Italy) with industrial partners and
(Sim et al. 2011, 2014), which is the case of a telescopic wind local research centers, was put in place in the form of a prototype
tower in the resting condition. The aim of the present psaper was in the city of Caltanissetta (Italy). It consists of an extensible and
to investigate this aspect, and experimental research was carried self-erecting wind pole. On it, we chose to install a 60-kW wind
out on full-scale CHS members with a numerical and simplified turbine, supported by a pole about 30 m (1,181.1 in.) in height.
analytical validation. The telescopic structure of the pole [Figs. 2(a and b)] consists of

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 Fig. 3. (a) Telescopic tower during lifting; and (b) resting of prototype
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after lowering.

Fig. 4. Photograph of steel tubes during four-point bending tests.

Fig. 5. (a) Geometry of specimens tested; and (b) photograph of pre-
pared coupons.
three steel segments (CHS tubes) inserted into one another in
order of increasing diameter.
The larger ring was inserted in a special housing dug out in the
ground; the smaller one was closed at the bottom by a plate on
which a steel piston pushes. The difference in diameter between one Table 1. Mechanical characterization of steel
ring and the next was corrected with the interposition of truncated
t fy fu
conical joints.
Specimen (mm) (MPa) (MPa) eu
The 30-m-tall (1,181.1-in.) tower consisted of three CHS of length
10,000 mm (393.70 in.) with a cross section having an outer diameter 1 10.37 370 520 0.132
of 800 mm (31.49 in.), 700 mm (27.56 in.), and 600 mm (23.62 in.) 2 10.62 365 521 0.128
for the three segments, respectively, and constant thickness of the 3 10.71 364 522 0.132
wall of 10 mm (0.39 in.). In the two sections, the three segments were 4 10.55 385 520 0.134
connected by a 1-m-long (39.37 in.) special joint (friction–conical 5 10.47 367 518 0.13
joint). Double steel flanges with pretensioned bolts were utilized to 6 10.56 333 516 0.126
connect the segments. The circular flanges were also reinforced by 7 10.54 322 520 0.125
25-mm-thick (1 in.) vertical stiffener plates. The rings were made of 8 10.63 318 518 0.128
S355J2-type steel with helical welding and subjected to a protective Note: Specimens 1–5: Fabricated coupons; Specimens 6–8: Extracted cou-
process by hot galvanizing. The piston, together with the packer and pons. 1 MPa = 145 psi; and 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
pumps, made up the lifting system (P.E.R.IM.A prototype). The latter

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Fig. 6. Stress–strain curves of steel coupons. 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; and 1 mm = 0.0394 in.

jack
section at support
a
load cell spreader beam

steel tube
D

steel seat

Fig. 7. Test setup.

Fig. 8. Load–deflection curves of steel tubes in flexure. 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; and 1 mm = 0.0394 in.

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 was housed inside the foundation well, where, using a hydraulic
mechanism, it provided the piston with the force necessary to raise it
off the innermost ring. The motion imposed on the latter, with the
help of appropriate constraint elements, allowed extension and lower-
ing of the entire structure [Figs. 3(a and b)]. The pole was coupled to
an aerogenerator with a two-blade propeller. In this way, the aerogen-
erator could be lowered almost to the ground, keeping the propeller in
a horizontal position in the rest condition.
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Fig. 9. Conditions of steel tube at end of test.
Fig. 10. Load–ovalization curves of steel tubes in flexure and shear. 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; and 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
© ASCE
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Objective and Scope
The research aimed to investigate the shear-to-moment interaction
in CHS members to be utilized in a telescopic wind tower such as
that referred to in the previous section. Two large-scale CHS tubes
were designed and fabricated, which included two simply supported
beams with the D/t ratio equal to 90. Numerical and analytical
investigation was carried out on the shear-to-moment interaction
and the ovalization process occurring during the tests.
Experimental Research
Specimen Description
Steel tubes tested in flexure had a length of 6,000 mm (236.22 in.) and
a span of 5,670 mm (223.22 in.). The steel grade, in accordance with
CEN (2017) (see the following sections), was 355J2. The specimens
were manufactured by roll forming steel strips into tubes and then
seam welding them longitudinally and transversally. Fig. 4 presents
the steel tubes during the tests. Special supports and loading sections
were adopted for the four-point bending tests. The supports were con-
stituted by steel plates stiffened by steel profiles, ensuring contact
along the contour of the circular cross section and allowing free rota-
tion. Moreover, because cylinders in bending are sensitive to the so-
called Brazier effect, which pertains to the ovalization of the cross
section under an increasing load, it was decided to restrain the devel-
opment of ovalization at these four points (at the end supports and the
two loading points) by adding steel disks in a vertical position.
Material Characterization
Cold working with rolling stainless steel plates into a cylindrical shape
is known to affect the stress–strain response of the material. Hence, it
is particularly important to measure the stress–strain response from
coupon tests of the finished tube. Five longitudinal coupons of steel
plates were prepared from steel plates utilized for tube fabrication (not
04019012-5 Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
 rolled, not welded). Three additional longitudinal coupons were taken
from the fabricated CHS specimen, the first cut from a position adja-
cent to the seam weld, the second from a diametrically opposite posi-
tion, and the third from a position at 90° to the weld. Coupon dimen-
sions and the testing procedure were in accordance with CEN (2017).
Thus, the specimens were 15 mm (0.59 in.) wide and had a gauge
length equal to 100 mm (3.94 in.). Two strain gauges were fixed
at midlength on either side, and tensile tests were undertaken at a
rate of approximately 0.05 mm/min (0.002 in./min). Fig. 5 gives
the geometry of specimens tested and a photograph of the cou-
pons prepared. The nominal thickness of the CHS sections was
10 mm (0.39 in.). Properties determined from the recorded stress–
strain relationship are given in Table 1 in the form of yielding fy,
ultimate stress fu, and corresponding strain « u. Also, effective
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revealed systematic variation between nominal and actual thickness,
the latter being generally lower than the former. The average mate-
rial properties are listed in Table 1.
The steel grade was S355J2 in accordance with CEN (2017); the
measured thickness of the wall was 10 mm (0.39 in.). The stress–
strain curve of the fabrication material (Fig. 6) indicated yield stress
of 385 MPa (55,839 psi) and tensile strength of 510 MPa (73,969 psi).
The material yielded gradually with a low proportional limit, fol-
lowed by gradual yielding and a yield plateau before strain hard-
ening occurred. The Young’s modulus of the steel was about
205 GPa (2· 107 psi).
Test Setup and Loading Scheme

thickness measurements were taken on each coupon in order to esti- Fig. 7 gives the setup of the simply supported beam test. A hydraulic
mate the stresses as accurately as possible. These measurements jack was used to apply the vertical load at the center of each beam.

Fig. 11. Stress–strain curves for steel. 1 MPa = 145.037 psi.

Fig. 12. Finite-element model.

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 The load was transferred symmetrically to two points on each beam
through a spreader beam. Special steel clamps (see previous section)
were placed at the end supports and the two loading points. The span
of the beam was L = 5,670 mm (223.22 in.), and the a/D ratio was
2.05 (a = L/3). A load cell was used to measure the applied load.
Five linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs) were in-
stalled to measure displacement at different locations. Two
transducers were positioned at each end section. Three LVDTs
were located at the loading points and at the midspan to measure
vertical deflections. Ovalization of the cross section was meas-
ured during the tests for each step load in two control sections
chosen at a distance equal to 1/3 of shear span a. The measure-
ments were made manually with a row reading the variation in
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the internal diameter of the tube in the two orthogonal directions.
In the elastic and plastic range, the vertical load was applied with an
increment load, which was 50 kN (11.24 kip), corresponding to 1/24
of the calculated capacity of the specimen. After the maximum load-
carrying capacity was attained, no information was derived because
of the controlled force test.
Test Results
Two specimens were tested in flexure. The recorded global
response is given in Fig. 8 in terms of the load–deflection curve for
the two tested specimens (Test 1, Test 2).

Fig. 13. Mesh adopted in FEM analyses.

Fig. 14. Numerical response of tested beams. 1 kN = 0.2248 kip; and 1 mm = 0.0394 in.

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 During the test, the following phases were detected: initial
behavior of the linear type up to 40% of the maximum load fol-
lowed by a nonlinear phase corresponding to ovalization of the pipe
along its longitudinal axis. When the maximum load was reached,
buckling phenomena occurred near the loaded sections. The ductil-
ity, measured as the ratio between the load corresponding to the loss
of linearity of the diagram and the loss of bearing capacity, was
about 3.
Fig. 9 gives the conditions of the specimen at the end of the test.
The deformation effects of ovalization of the sections are evident,
as are the local effects of instability due to instability in the loaded
sections, which affect both the upper part of the section and the
wall. During the test, no fractures on the welds were observed.
Fig. 10 gives the measured ovalization with the increase in the
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external load. From the graph, the nonlinearity related to the Brazier
effect is evident.

Numerical Analyses

Inelastic finite-element models were developed using ABAQUS

6.14-1 software. The objectives of the numerical analyses were the
following: to compare the numerical simulation with the experi-
mental results and to study the effects of shear-to-moment interac-
tion, ovalization of the cross sections, and local buckling on the
flexural strength of CHS tubes. The parameters included determina-
tion of initial geometric imperfections in accordance with CEN
(2017), but the residual stress effect was not considered.
For calibration of the test setup, a finite-element numerical model
was developed that made it possible to estimate the flexural response
of the steel tube. Specifically, a three-dimensional model was gener-
ated in which solid elements of the hexahedral type were used with
complete integration. These finite elements were chosen due to the
need to perform numerical analyses, taking into account the geometri-
cal and mechanical nonlinearity of the thin-walled tubular element
and the imperfections due to the buckling phenomenon and due to
cross-sectional ovalization. Therefore, an analysis of buckling meth-
ods was carried out, identifying those involved in the case under ex-
amination, and, subsequently, a numerical model was developed in
which the imperfection in question was applied, following the norma-
tive requirements of CEN (2017). The steel was modeled with an
elastic–plastic model and presented in Fig. 11, which reproduces the
experimental response with a good level of approximation.
The presence of stiffening devices in the cross sections of
extremities and under loading was introduced into the model using
rigid link elements. Fig. 12 presents the scheme of the numerical
model with the condition of external constraint (lateral supports),
internal constraint (rigid links), and the load condition on two
nodes. Fig. 13 presents the mesh of the steel tubular made with hex-
ahedral elements of the second order with complete integration.
The results of the analysis are given in Fig. 14 in terms of the
load–displacement curve. The figure gives three curves: the experi-
mental curve obtained from the laboratory test and two numerical
curves obtained, respectively, from a model that does not take into
account the imperfections and from another model in which the
imperfections derived from the buckling analysis are applied.
The comparison between the numerical result and the experimen-
tal one gives that, in the absence of imperfections, the load curve
grows indefinitely; by contrast, the curve corresponding to the numer- Fig. 15. Numerical and experimental deformed shape of tubes at the
ical analysis in the presence of imperfections due to instability follows end of tests: (a) Deformed shape with FEM analyses: Cross section;
in a fairly accurate manner the curve obtained experimentally from (b) deformed shape with FEM analyses: Longitudinal profile; (c) experi-
the laboratory test, which was stopped when a maximum load of mental deformed shape: Cross section; and (d) experimental deformed
1,200 kN (269.76 kip) was reached. At this load, the test sample pre- shape: Longitudinal profile.
sented the ovalization of the cross section, as given in Fig. 14.

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 Similarly, the numerical analysis made it possible to observe the
deformation of the tubular steel during the whole analysis, allowing a
qualitative comparison with the collected experimental data and dem-
onstrating good agreement with the latter. Specifically, Fig. 15 gives
the numerical deformations obtained from the finite-element model in
the presence of the imperfections deduced from the buckling analysis.
[Figs. 15(a–b)], showing good agreement with real deformed shape
[Figs. 15(c–d)].
Summary and Conclusions
Two flexural tests on CHS tubes with low shear-to-span ratio
equal to 2 and D/t ratio of 92 were carried out. Also, refined nu-
merical analyses were performed to predict the flexural response
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of CHS tubes tested in flexure. From the results of both tests, and
from the associated finite-element study, the following conclu-
sions can be drawn:
• Reduced flexural strength due to shear-to-moment integration
and in the form of local buckling was reached in both tests carried
out.
• Displacement measurements indicated that CHS exhibit suffi-
cient ductility, even when local buckling occurs.
• A nonlinear finite-element analysis, including defects simulating
ovalization of the cross section, allows one to capture accurately
the flexural response of CHS tubes, even when ovalization of
cross sections and shear-to-moment interactions occur.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their gratitude to all the organizations,
corporations, and individuals who contributed to this
investigation and who funded this research, “Wind production
with reduced environmental impact” (P.E.R.IM.A.), 2015–2016.
Linea di intervento 4.1.1.1 del POR FESR Sicilia 2007–2013.
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