Methods in Psychology-2

Empiricism: How to Know Stuff

 Dogmatism; the tendency for people to cling to their assumptions.
 Dogmatist; who thought that the best way to understand illness was to develop theories about
the body’s functions.
 Empiricism; the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired throughout observation.
 Empiricist; who thought that the best way to understand illness was to observe sick people.
 Empirical Method; a set of rules and techniques for observation.

Empiricism is the essential element of the scientific method, which is a procedure for finding truth by
using empirical evidence.

- Theory; a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon. Theory explains how something

in the natural world works.
- Parsimony; the simplest theory that explains all the evidence is the best one.
- Hypothesis; a falsifiable prediction made by a theory.

The scientific method suggest that the best way to learn the truth about the world is to develop
theories, derive hypothesis from them, test those hypotheses by gathering evidence, and then use that
evidence to modify the theories.

- Operational Definition; a description of a property concrete, measurable terms.

- Validity; the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property/the most important
feature of an operational definition.
- Instrument; anything that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers.
A good instrument has;
1. Reliability; the tendency for an instrument to produce the same
measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing.
2. Power; an instrument’s ability to detect small magnitudes of the property.
- Demand Characteristics; aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as
they think someone else wants or expects. (Başkasının istediği gibi davranmaya sebep olan
şeyler.)
- Naturalistic Observation; a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively
observing people in their natural environments. (İnsanların haberi olmadan onları doğal
ortamlarında incelemek.)
- Double Blind Observation; an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the
observer and the person being observed because expectations can influence observation and
reality. (Gözlemin amacı hem denekten hem de deneyi yapan kişilerden saklanır.)
 Psychologists often describe the measurements they make with a graphic representation
called a frequency distribution (sıklık dağılımı), which often has a special shape known as the
normal distribution (normal dağılım). They also describe their measurements with descriptive
statistics; the most common are descriptions of central tendency (such as the mean (ortalama),
median (ortanca), mode (mod)) and descriptions of variability (such as the range (dağılım
aralığı) and standart deviation (standart sapma))
 Patterns of Variation
- Variables; properties whose values can vary across individuals or over time.
- Correlation; variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the
value of the other. (Bir değişime iki farklı şeyin de aynı şekilde yönelim göstermesi durumu;
bağlılık, karşılıklı ilişki.) (Correlations not only describe the world as it is, they also allow us to
predict the world as it will be.)
*A positive correlation; more is more, less is less.
*A negative correlation; more is less, less is more.
*Third-variable correlation; two variables are correlated only because each is
causally related to a third variable.
*Matched samples technique; a technique whereby the participants in two groups
are identical in terms of a third variable.
*Matched pairs technique; a technique whereby each participant is identical to one
other participant in terms of a third variable. (Her bir katılımcı bir diğerine üçüncü bir
değişken yoluyla bağlı.)
*Third variable problem; a causal relationship between two variables cannot be
inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present
possibility of third variable correlation. (Üçüncü bir değişkenin varlığı ihtimalinden dolayı iki
değişkenin arasındaki doğal ilişki, ikisi arasındandaki doğal korelasyondan çıkarılamaz.)
- Experiment; a technique for establishing the casual relationship between variables. Key
features;
1. Manipulation; changing variable in order to determine its casual power.
2. Random assignment
Neuroscience and Behaviour-3
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system: They process information received from the
outside world, communicate with one another, and send messages to the body’s muscles and
organs.

 There are approximately 100 billion nerve cells in your brain that perform a variety of tasks
to allow you to function as human being.
 All visible and experiential signs are coordinated by the activity of your brain cells. The
anticipation you have, the happiness you feel, and the speed of your feet are the results of
information processing in your brain. All of your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors spring
from cells in the brain that take in information and produce some kind of output trillions of
times a day. These cells are neurons, cells in the nervous system that communicate with
one another to perform information-processing tasks.

Components of the Neuron

Neurons are complex structures composed of three basic parts: the cell body, the dendrites, and the
axon. Like cells in all organs of the body, neurons have cell body, the largest component of the
neuron that coordinates the information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive. The cell body
contains a nucleus, which houses chromosomes that contain your DNA, houses the organism’s
genetic code or the genetic blueprint of who you are. (beyin ile omurilikte sinir gözelerinden oluşan
gri kütle, çekirdek)

Unlike other cells in the body, neurons have two types of specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that allow them to communicate: dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive information
from other neurons and relay it to the cell body. (diğer nöronlardan bilgi alan) The axon carries
information to other neurons, muscles, and glands. Axons can be very long, even stretching up to a
meter from the base of the spinal cord down to the big toe. (diğer nöronlara bilgi taşıyan)

In many neurons, the axon is covered by a myelin sheath, an insulating layer of fatty material.
(miyelin kılıf) The myelin sheath is composed of glial cells, which are supported cells found in the
nervous system. (sinir sistemlerinde bulunan gliyal hücreler)

-Some glial cells digest parts of dead neurons, others provide physical and nutritional support for
neurons, and others form myelin to help the axon carry information more efficiently.

The dendrites and axons of neurons do not actually touch each other. There’s a small gap between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another. This gap is part of synapse, the
junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another.

Major Types of Neurons

Neurons are differentiated according to the functions they perform. The three major types of
neurons include sensory (bipolar) neurons, motor neurons, and inter-neurons.

 Sensory neurons; receive information from the external world and convey this information
to the brain via spinal cord. Signals for light, sound, touch, taste and smell.
  Motor neurons; carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement.
 Inter-neurons; connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other inter-neurons. –
Identifying the location of a sensory signal, recognizing a familiar face.

Neurons Specialized by Location

 Purkinje cells; are type of interneuron that carries information from the cerebellum to the
rest of the brain and spinal cord. / Beyincikten beynin geri kalanına ve omuriliğe bilgi taşıyan
aracı nöron türü.
 Pyramidal cells; found in cerebral cortex, have a triangular cell body and a single, long
dendrite among many smaller dendrites. / Omurilikte bulunur, üçgen şeklinde tek ve uzun
dendrit.
 Bipolar cells; a type of sensory neuron found in the retinas of the eyes, have a single axon
and a single dendrite. / Gözdeki retinada bulunan, tek bir dendrit ve axon içeren duyusal
nöron.

The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons: Information Processing

 Conduction; is the movement of an electric signal within neurons from the dendrites to the
cell body, then throughout the axon. (Elektrik sinyallerinin dendritlerden axonlara nöronların
içinde taşınması.)
 Transmission; is movement of electric signals from one neuron to another over the synapse.
(Elektrik sinyallerinin bir nörondan öbürüne sinapsis üzerinden taşınması.)

Electric Signaling: Conducting Information within a Neuron

The neuron’s cell membrane has small pores that act as channels to allow small electrically charged
molecules, called ions, to flow in and out of the cell. It is this flow of ions across the neuron’s cell
membrane that creates the conduction of an electric signal within the neuron.

 Resting Potential; the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a
neuron’s cell membrane. / Eylemsizlik potansiyeli; Nöronun içindeki ve dışındaki elektrik yükü
farkı.
 Ions can carry a positive or a negative charge.
 Action Potential; an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a
synapse. /Eylem potansiyeli; Nöronun axonunun sinapsise olan uzunluğunun yönetildiği,
yürütüldüğü elektrik sinyali. – eylem potansiyeli axonun zar kanallarında bir değişiklik olursa
meydana gelir. Bu sürede nöron yeni bir eylem potansiyeli başlatamamasına tepkisizlik
dönemi denir. (Refractory period; the time following an action potential during which a
new action potential cannot be initiated.) Maksimuma eriştiğinde zar kanalları orijinal
konumuna geri döner.
 Axons usually end in terminal buttons, knoblike structures that branch out from an axon. A
terminal button is filled with tiny vesicles or ‘’bags’’ that contain neurotransmitters,
chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites.
The dendrites of the receiving neuron contain receptors, parts of the cell membrane that
receive neurotransmitters and either initiate or prevent a new electric signal.
Types and Functions of Neurotransmitters

 Acetylcholine (Aseltikolin); found in neurons of the brain and in the synapses where
axons connect to muscles and body organs. – Motor behavior, regulation of
attention, learning, sleeping, dreaming, and memory. *Alzheimer’s disease.
 Dopamine. – Motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal. *Drug
addiction, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease.
 Norepinephrine. – Influence mood and arousal/Uyanıklık, tetikte olma.
 Serotonin. – Influence mood and arousal/ Sleep, wakefulness, eating and aggressive
behavior.
 Endorphins; acı hissini uyuşturan ve modu yükselten kimyasallar.
 Agonist; hücredeki reseptörlerle birleşip sinyal iletimini başlatan madde.
 Antagonist; hücredeki reseptörlerle birleşmeyi ve sinyal iletimini engelleyen madde.
 Amphetamine (Amfetamin); enerjiyi arttıran ve iştahı azaltan merkezi sinir sistemi
uyarıcısı bir ilaç.
 Methampheatine (Metamfetamin). – Perceive and interpret visual images,
sometimes resulting in strange hallucinations.
 Prozac. – treats depression.
 Propranalol; stres hormonlarının aşırı salınımını engelleyerek vücudu gevşetip
rahatlatır. Anksiyete belirtilerini hafifletir.
 Beta blockers; Kalp atım hızını azaltır, sinir sistemini aktive eden reseptörleri bloke
ederek ters etki gösterirler, sahne korkusu için verilir.

Divisions of Nervous System

 Central Nervous System; is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous
system receives sensory information from the external world, processes and coordinates this
information, and sends commands to the skeletal and muscular systems for action.
 Peripheral Nervous System; connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and
muscles. The peripheral nervous system is itself composed of two major subdivisions;
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
 Somatic Nervous System; is a set of nerves that conveys information between voluntary
muscles and the central nervous system.
 Autonomic Nervous System; is a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic
commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands (bezler).
 Sympathetic Nervous System; is a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in
challenging or threatening situations.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System; helps the body return to a normal resting state.
! Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are work together in sexual behavior.

Components of the Central Nervous System

Central nervous system has only two elements; the brain and the spinal cord. Spinal cord does
relatively simple tasks such as keep you breathing, respond to pain, and move your muscles, allowing
you to walk.
Connections between the sensory inputs and motor neurons in the spinal cord mediate spinal
reflects, simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions. – if you
touch a hot stove, the sensory neurons that register pain send inputs directly into the spinal cord.

Structure of the Brain

1. The Hindbrain; an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the
spinal cord. The hindbrain looks like a stalk on which the rest of the brain sits, and it controls
the most basic functions of life: respiration, alertness, reticular formation, the cerebellum,
and the pons.
1.1. Medulla; is an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rates,
circulation, and respiration. (Omurilik)
1.2. Reticular Formation; beginning inside the medulla and extending upward is a small cluster
of neurons called reticular formation, which regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of
arousal.
1.3. Behind the medulla is the cerebellum, a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine
motor skills. *riding a bike, playing piano. (Beyincik)
1.4. Pons; a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. Pons
means ‘’bridge’’ in Latin.
2. The Midbrain; Orta beyin beynin refleks merkezidir. Orta beyin görme ve duyma olaylarında
refleks kontrol merkezi olarak görev yapar. Midbrain is relatively small, but it is a central
location of neurotransmitters involved in arousal, mood, and motivation and the brain
structures that rely on them. Midbrain contains two main structures; the tectum and the
tegmentum.

2.1 The Tectum; orients an organism in the environment. The tectum receives stimulus input
from the eyes, ears, and skin and moves the organism in a coordinated way toward the
stimulus.

2.2 The Tegmentum; is involved in movement and arousal; it also helps to orient an organism
toward sensory stimuli.

3. The Forebrain; the forebrain is the highest level of the brain and controls complex cognitive,
emotional, sensory and motor functions. The forebrain itself divided into two main sections: the
cerebral cortex and the subcortical structures. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the
brain, visible to the naked eye, and divided into two hemispheres. The subcortical structures are
areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the center of the brain.

3.1 Subcortical Structures;

3.1.1 Thalamus; relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to
the cerebral cortex. (Beyindeki sinir ucu)

3.1.2 Hypothalamus; located below the thalamus, regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst,
and sexual behavior. – keeping body temperature, blood sugar levels or metabolism within an
optimal range for human functioning.
 3.1.3 Pituitary Gland; located below the hypothalamus, the ‘’master gland’’ of the body’s
hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other
glands in the body. (Hipofiz bezi)

3.1.4 The Limbic System; the hypothalamus also is part of the limbic system, a group of forebrain
structures including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala, which are involved
in motivation, emotion, learning and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical
structures meet the cerebral cortex.

3.1.5 The Hippocampus; is critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a
network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral
cortex.

3.1.6 The Amygdala; located at the tip of each horn of the hippocampus, plays a central role in
many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories. – fear,
punishment or reward.

3.1.7 The Basal Ganglia; a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements. The
basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus; they receive input from the
cerebral cortex and send outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem.

3.2 The Cerebral Cortex; highest level of the brain, and it is responsible for the most complex
aspects of perception, emotion, movement, and thought.

---Organization across Hemispheres: left & right; each hemisphere controls the functions of the
opposite side of the body.

 Contralateral Control; The cerebral hemispheres are connected to each other by

commissures, bundles of axons that make possible communication between parallel
areas of the cortex in each half.

----Organization between Hemispheres; distinguishes the functions of the different regions within
each hemisphere of the brain.

 The Occipital Lobe; located at the back of the cerebral cortex, processes visual
information. – partial or complete blindness (Artkafa lobu)
 The Parietal Lobe; located in front of the occipital lobe, carries out functions that
include processing information about touch. (Yarı beyin)
 The Temporal Lobe; located on the lower side of each hemisphere, is responsible for
hearing and language. (Yan lob)
 The Frontal Lobe; which sits behind the forehead, has specialized areas for
movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement.