RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Submitted By.
Sapthami M
(JKP19006)
JSS Law College,
Mysuru
Submitted To.
Dr. N Vanishree
Assistant Prfessor
JSS Law College,
Mysuru

JSS LAW COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

DEPARTMENT OF POST- GRADUATION
UNDER KARNATAKA STATE LAW UNIVERSITY, HUBLI
ASSIGNMENT WORK SUBMITTED TO PG DEPARTMENT OF LAW, JSS LC
MYSURU.
AS A PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE I SEMESTER LLM (BUSINESS
LAW)
2019-2020

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 DECLARATION:

I, SAPTHAMI M, do hereby declare that this assignment work on “Methods of Data

Collection” is the assignment undertaken by me in partial fulfilment of requirement for
the master’s degree in law from JSS Law College (Autonomous), Mysuru under the
proficient guidance and erudite supervision of Dr. N Vanishree Assistant Professor, JSS
Law College.

Place; Mysore
Date; 24 -04-2020 (SAPTHAMI M)

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, this assignment titled “Methods of Data Collection” submitted to
JSS Law College (Autonomous), Mysuru is the bonafide work carried out by the student
under my guidance and supervision.

Place; Mysuru
Date; 24 -04-2020 (Asst. Professor)

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INDEX
CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION…………………………………………..……….5
DATA COLLECTION IN LEGAL RESEARCH……………………………..............….6
TYPES OF DATA…………………………………………………………………..…….6
• Qualitative Data………………………………………………………………..….6
• Quantitative Data……………………………………………………………….....7
TECHNIQUES USED IN DATA COLLECTION ……………….....…..............…...…..9
• OBSERVATION……………………………………………………....……........9
• INTERVIEW………………………………………………………….……….....1
2
• QUESTIONAIRE………………………………………………………....…...…1
7
• SAMPLING………………………………………………………….....………..21
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………….....………............28
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………….....………........29

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COLLECTION OF DATA
Concept Of Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The instruments
thus employed as means for collecting data are called tools. The data collection
component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social
sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on
ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data
collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and
allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been
posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative,
qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of
research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing,
modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use
reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Techniques and Tools are the ways and means to conduct research and it could
only be justified through the use of appropriate methods and techniques meant for it, and
Thereby collected evidence is called data and the tools used for this are called data
collecting devices or tools, which is a common phenomenon in the behavioural
researches. These tools help to realise, analyse and interpretation of data related to
research. A researcher needs many data gathering tools and devices which may vary in
their complexity, design, administration and interpretation.
Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You
can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data
you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job
which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to
complete the task successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of

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data required followed by the selection of a sample from a certain population. After
that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data from the selected sample.

Data Collection in Legal Research –

Data collection is the middle compartment between formulation of research
problem and results of research. Supplying data for research purpose works to fuel for
stimulating research process and in majority cases reward or frustration in research
credited for quality of data, method, tools and techniques used for data collection.
Researcher should be equally skilled in all process of research applied at varies stages.
Data collection methods, tools and techniques should be highly standardised so
that the data relevant to undertaken research can be easily visualise, relies and analyse.
Such expectations cannot be simply materialise in applied and normative sciences. Law is
a normative science, its sources of study are found in law books as texts of legal
principles and elements have been searched in complex social variables. Therefore,
research in the field of law maintain its own methodology, which includes basic patterns
applied in other social science research with distinct features and approach inevitable in
legal research. Legal Research process is performed between two common methods i.e.,
doctrinal and empirical methods. Following any one method out of two require distinct
sources of data, nature of data and their collection methods vary from one two another.
Over all approach of research (procedural and technical) changes with individual method
likewise changing in techniques of data collection is also inevitable.
TYPES OF DATA
Data are organised into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative Data:
Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal
in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often
(not always), such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of
something. Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and
tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative
questions are open-ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions
and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects and

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unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and time
consuming to implement. Additionally the findings cannot be generalised to participants
outside of the program and are only indicative of the group involved.
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact
evaluation by providing information useful to understand the processes behind
observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.
Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based
quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the
design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation
findings. These methods are characterised by the following attributes -
they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may
change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or
informants);
they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed
several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the
reliability of data;
they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of
their results);
generally their findings are not generalisable to any specific population, rather each
case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general
patterns among different studies of the same issue.
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a
great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data
thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes,
photographs and other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the
ethical principles of research. The qualitative methods most commonly used in
evaluation can be classified in three broad categories –
In-depth interview
Observation methods
Document review.

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Quantitative Data:
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.
Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data
includes measurements of something. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of
the program. They use a systematic standardised approach and employ methods
such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage that
they are cheaper to implement, are standardised so comparisons can be easily made
and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however
are limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and
unexpected differences. It is important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative
data collection approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as
lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and
frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow up rates are commonly
experienced factors.
The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and
structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined
response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarise, compare, and
generalise. If the intent is to generalise from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include-
Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number
of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than
in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks
a standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews

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 have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport
with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation.
Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and
saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while
responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in
particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous.
TECHNIQUES USED IN DATA COLLECTION
The following are the important techniques used in empirical research-
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Sampling
OBSERVATION
Observation method of data collection deals with the recording of behaviour of
the respondents or sampling units. In this technique researcher has to observe the required
phenomenon by himself. By involving himself, researcher will be able to keep his eye on
the entire activity for the accurate data and certain direct inferences. Observation
provides an opportunity for empirical study that is first hands collection of facts and there
is scientific precision in this method as facts and related information is collected in a
natural situation. From observation, researcher can very well relate cause and effect
relationship.
Observation technique can be further classified as participating and non
participating observation.Observation technique is rarely used in legal researches.
C.A.Moser opines that
“...In the strict sense observation implies the use of the eyes rather then of ear and the
voice.”
Prof. Giri cites Oxford Concise Dictionary where Observation has been explained
as “An accurate watching, noting of phenomenon as they occur in nature with regard to
cause or effect or mutual relations.”

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 Jahoda and Cook in his treatise has explained observation in very simple words
by saying “Observation is not only one of the most pervasive activities of daily life, it is a
primary tool of scientific enquiry,”
P.V. Young in her book Scientific Social Survey and Research defines
observation as – “Observation, a deliberate study through the eyes may be used as one of
the methods for scrutinising collective behaviour and complex social institutions as well
as the separate units composing a totality.”
The purpose of observation technique is to study the existing phenomenon of human
behaviour. Though, to control human behaviour is not easy, yet it is studied simply by
control and uncontrolled observation. In uncontrolled observation, researcher, studies
phenomenon without any interference in natural occurrence of phenomenon. Jahoda calls
this observation as unstructured observation and P.V. Young call it simple observation.
These observations are unguided, informal and independent observation. Uncontrolled
observation is considered beneficial to research for following reasons –
In uncontrolled observation natural and real phenomenon as to human behaviour is
helpful in study.
It consist objectivity.
The dynamic social behaviour can be well understood by uncontrolled observation.
Observation technique is considered vary important from hypothesis point of view.
P.V. Young is of the view that the observed incidents have greater importance on
research rather information received from other techniques. The object of observation is
to study the complex social phenomenon, human nature, culture, pattern of human
conduct.
Use of Observational Method
There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of these reasons
include –
When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on
answering a how- or what-type question.
When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the behaviour of
people in a particular setting.
When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable.

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 When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting.
When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different
from actual behaviour (what people actually do). One example of this seen
in the difference between self-reported versus observed preventive service
delivery in health care settings.
When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in
conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques. Observational
data can help researchers evaluate the fidelity of an intervention across
settings and identify when 'stasis' has been achieved.
Observation technique can be classified on the basis of role of researcher’s
participation in the phenomenon of observation as.
Participant Observation - Here researcher himself being actively remains associated
with other members of the group and observes behaviour and activities of the
group of study. G.A. Lundberg says that “researcher actively keeps close relation
with the observed group.” Prof. M.S. Gopal says that “in participant observation
researcher in close relations of observe group studies the phenomenon more
closely, correctly and comprehensively.”
Quasi participant Observation – In this kind of observation researcher does not
remains all present to study group activities. He has to believe on his fellow
researchers of the phenomenon when he is not present. In quasi participant
observations the researcher takes parts in festivals, sports, in group fooding etc.
Non participant Observation – In this observation though the researcher remains
present with observe persons but he studies their activities and behaviour as a
neutral person. He does not take part himself in the group. He remains limited to
the causes of observation, environment, population or social life of the observed
group.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Method
What and how you observe depends very much on your subject of study.
Researchers who prefer more security from the beginning might consider systematic
observation. This involves using an observation schedule whereby teacher and/or

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pupil behaviour is coded according to certain predetermined categories at regular
intervals. The strengths of systematic observation are –
It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish frequencies, and is strong on
objective measures which involve low inference on the part of the observer.
Reliability can be strong. Where teams of researchers have used this approach, 80%
reliability has been established among them.
Generalisability. Once you have devised your instrument, large samples can be
covered.
It is precise. There is no ‘hanging around’ or ‘muddling through’.
It provides a structure for the research.
The weaknesses are –
There is a measure of unreliability. Qualitative material might be misrepresented
through the use of measurement techniques.
Much of the interaction is missed.
It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in which the data is collected.
It is not good for generating fresh insights.
The pre-specification of categories predetermines what is to be discovered and
allows only partial description.
It ignores process, flux, development, and change.
There has been lively debate about the pros and cons of systematic and unsystematic
observation. In general, systematic observation is a useful technique and can be
particularly strong where used in conjunction with more purely qualitative techniques.
INTERVIEW
Interview is commonly accepted technique of data collection where researcher
enters into face to face interaction with any person or group for the purpose of seeking
certain information as to the facts, idea or observation relevant to his research.
Components of the interview are the researcher, the interviewer, interviewee and the
interview environment. Where Researcher or any other person in his behalf enter in the
role of interviewer and other person whose opinion, behaviour and responses are
observed logically for research objectives is called interview. Expected research data is
synthesised from internal views of other person.

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 The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the
phenomenon of interest. Even terms abstractly related to the search are helpful, in that
they may pull up documents that would otherwise not be found.
Interview is the process to know the opinion, information or observations of other
person through verbal and non-verbal conversation initiated for specific purpose and
focused on certain planned content areas. This method is preferred if such information
cannot be adequately observed by other methods without entering into conversation only.
Information cannot be easily obtained by this method, because the process depends on the
interest and attentiveness and personal qualities of the interviewee. Though, apparently, it
seems verbal communication but it is not mere verbal communication between
interviewer and interviewee. But, more then that, involving even the study of body
language. Mead opines that, gestures, glances, facial expressions, pauses, even a flick of
an eye or mere silence can speak more than verbal exchanges. Behaviour can be judged
and attitude can be estimated based upon blush in
the face, or laugh, visible happiness or anger. The term itself denotes it is inter viewing,
an interpersonal interaction.
Interviews can be –
Structured,
Semi-structure or
Unstructured.
Structured Interviews
Characteristics of the Structured Interview
The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.
The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set
of response categories.
There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended
questions included in the interview guide.
Questioning is standardised and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept
consistent from interview to interview.
The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not insert
his or her opinion in the interview.

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 Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview.
When to Use a Structured Interview:
Development of a structured interview guide or questionnaire requires a clear
topical focus and well-developed understanding of the topic at hand. A well-
developed understanding of a topic allows researchers to create a highly structured
interview guide or questionnaire that provides respondents with relevant, meaningful
and appropriate response categories to choose from for each question. Structured
interviews are, therefore, best used when the literature in a topical area is highly
developed or following the use of observational and other less structured interviewing
approaches that provide the researcher with adequate understanding of a topic to
construct meaningful and relevant close-ended questions.
Recording Interviews:
There are a range of ways to collect and record structured interview data. Data
collections methods include, but are not limited to - paper-based and self-report (mail,
face-to-face); telephone interviews where the interviewer fills in participants’ responses;
web-based and self-report.
Benefits:
Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only to follow
the instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire. Structured interviews do not
require the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they can
produce consistent data that can be compared across a number of respondents.
Semi-structured Interviews
Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews
The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.
The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions and
topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular
order.
The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the
conversation that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate.
When to Use Semi-structured Interviews:

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 Semi-structured interviewing, according to Bernard (1988), is best used when you
won’t get more than one chance to interview someone and when you will be sending
several interviewers out into the field to collect data. The semi-structured interview
guide provides a clear set of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable,
comparable qualitative data. Semi-structured interviews are often preceded by
observation, informal and unstructured interviewing in order to allow the researchers to
develop a keen understanding of the topic of interest necessary for developing relevant
and meaningful semi-structured questions. The inclusion of open-ended questions and
training of interviewers to follow relevant topics that may stray from the interview
guide does, however, still provide the opportunity for identifying new ways of seeing and
understanding the topic at hand.
Recording Semi-Structured Interviews:
Typically, the interviewer has a paper-based interview guide that s/he follows.
Since semi-structured interviews often contain open-ended questions and discussions
may diverge from the interview guide, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and
later transcript these tapes for analysis. While it is possible to try to jot notes to
capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on conducting an interview
and jotting notes. This approach will result in poor notes and also detract for the
development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee. Development of
rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured interviews. If tape-recording an
interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present during the
interview. Benefits: Many researchers like to use semi-structured interviews because
questions can be prepared ahead of time. This allows the interviewer to be prepared and
appear competent during the interview. Semi-structured interviews also allow informants
the freedom to express their views in their own terms. Semi-structure interviews can
provide reliable, comparable qualitative data.
Unstructured Interviews
Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews
The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a
scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to
be an interview.

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 The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of the
interview. This guides the discussion.
There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds
rapport with respondents, getting respondents to open-up and express themselves
in their own way.
Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants’
responses.
Ethnographic, in depth interviews are unstructured. Fontana and Frey (1994)
identify three types of in depth, ethnographic unstructured interviews – oral
history, creative interviews and postmodern interviews.
When to Use Unstructured Interviews:
Unstructured interviewing is recommended when the researcher has
developed enough of an understanding of a setting and his/her topic of interest to have a
clear agenda for the discussion with the informant, but still remains open to having
his/her understanding of the area of inquiry open to revision by respondents. Because
these interviews are not highly structured and because the researcher’s understanding
is still evolving, it is helpful to anticipate the need to speak with informants on multiple
occasions.
Recording Unstructured Interviews:
Since unstructured interviews often contain open-ended questions and
discussions may develop in unanticipated directions, it is generally best to tape-record
interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis. This allows the interviewer
to focus on interacting with the participant and follow the discussion. While it is
possible to try to jot notes to capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on
conducting an interview and jotting notes. This approach will result in poor notes and
also detract from the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee.
Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured interviews. If tape-
recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present
during the interview.
Benefits:

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 Unstructured interviews are an extremely useful method for developing an
understanding of an as-of-yet not fully understood or appreciated culture, experience,
or setting. Unstructured interviews allow researchers to focus the respondents’ talk
on a particular topic of interest, and may allow researchers the opportunity to test
out his/her preliminary understanding, while still allowing for ample opportunity for
new ways of seeing and understanding to develop. Unstructured interviews can be an
important preliminary step toward the development of more structured interview
guides or surveys.
Advantages and disadvantages of interview are following:
Advantages:
In this method information can be gathered from illiterate people too.
There are no chances of non-response as the interviewer personally collects data.
The collected data is very reliable since the interviewer tactfully collects the data by
cross examining the responders.
Disadvantages:
The major disadvantages of interview are:
There is a chance of bias.
The informants may not answer some personal questions.
It is a time-consuming process.
Money and manpower requirements are very high.
Some time the interviewers are involved in pressurising respondents to share their
personal information.
To study the topic of the research out of available instruments for research mainly
questionnaire, interview and telephone/mobile phones have been used because these
instruments were found suitable for data collection purpose.
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they
are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The
questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have
advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as

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much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardised answers that make it simple to compile data. As a type of survey,
questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and
wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.
Types:
A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure
separate variables, and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a
scale or index. Questionnaires within the former category are commonly part of surveys,
whereas questionnaires in the latter category are commonly part of tests. Questionnaires
with questions that measure separate variables, could for instance include questions on –
preferences (e.g. political party)
behaviours (e.g. food consumption)
facts (e.g. gender).
Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index, include for
instance questions that measure -
latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)
attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
an index (e.g. Social Economic Status).
Question Types:
Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to
answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended
questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own answer,
whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number
of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and
mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are
distinguished –
Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options.
Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options.
Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale.

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 A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale
afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where the testee has to
complete a sentence (sentence completion item).
Question Sequence:
In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the best
response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from
the factual and behavioural to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more
specific. There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a
questionnaire in regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows -
Screens
Warm-ups
Transitions
Skips
Difficult
Changing Formula
Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone
should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest
in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are
used to make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to ‘If yes,
then answer question 3. If no, then continue to question 5’. Difficult questions are
towards the end because the respondent is in ‘response mode’. Also, when completing an
online questionnaire, the progress bars lets the respondent know that they are almost done
so they are more willing to answer more difficult questions. Classification or
demographic question should be at the end because typically they can feel like personal
questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction:
Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations of the population of interest.
Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different
answers.
Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.

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 Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational
levels.
Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).
Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.
Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -
Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items
orally.
Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on
paper.
Computerised questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the
computer.
Adaptive computerised questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is
presented on
the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects
following items optimised for the testee’s estimated ability or trait.
Concerns with Questionnaires:
It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented. Sensitive
questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should be put at
the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking questions
that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine
questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Double-
barrelled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An
example of a double barrelled question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree
with the following statement - ‘I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along well
with others at work’. This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked

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to give one response for two questions. Researchers should avoid using emotionally
loaded or biased words and phrases.
Advantages of Questionnaires:
Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a
short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to
its validity and reliability.
The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by
either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
Can be analysed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research
and may be used to measure change.
Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or
test existing hypotheses.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions,
behaviour, feelings etc.
Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by
the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.
There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to
someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research,
because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not
acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting
information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the

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information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where
certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative
methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of
interest.
SAMPLING
Meaning
As the name suggests, ‘sampling’ is the procedure ‘to sample’ something. In
layman terms, a sample is a part of a thing and it has the ability to display the qualities
and features of the thing, of which it is a part. In other words sample is a part of a thing
that acts as a specimen or an example for that thing. For example, before launching a new
soft-drink in market the company wants to test consumer feedback for the product. The
company may set up temporary vendors at an amusement park and let the consumers try
the samples of soft drink to collect their feedback. Each of those soft drinks will be called
as a ‘sample’. Sampling is the most important step in the direction of carrying out
research, once the hypothesis and objectives of research are understood. Sampling is a
vital procedure in quantitative research, wherein the researcher first identifies the
population to be studied. However studying each and every item or member of the entire
population is not only cumbersome and costly, but also wasteful of time. Therefore it is
an accepted method to carve out a body of the items out of that population in such a way
that the results derived from studying those items can be generalized to the whole
population. This collective body of items that can be studied in lieu of studying the entire
population is called a sample. Sampling is the method or technique that is used to draw
out a sample, which reflects the qualities possessed by the population.
Thus ‘sampling’ may be defined as a method of picking out a representative
sample from the population to be studied, by using a definite technique. Technique is an
essential thing while doing sampling because the sample that is taken must be appropriate
in size as well as features, to be suitable for drawing inferences that can be generalized to
the whole population. The first step in sampling is to determine the population to be
studied. Then next step is to ascertain the qualities of the population that the researcher
wants to study. On the basis of the qualities to be studied and the size of the population,
the researcher can decide the appropriate proportional size of the sample. The qualities to

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be studied will also give the parameters for choosing a sample from the population. As
has already been said that the sample must be representative of the whole population, the
researcher must ensure that the qualities of the population to be studied are seen in the
sample also.
Sampling comes into the picture from the point of research design itself. It helps
in streamlining the path of research. Once the samples are fixed using a sampling
technique, the collection of data from respondents becomes easier and cost-effective. The
researcher can collect data from a portion of the population only, i.e. the sample, and at
the same time he/she can generalize the results arrived at. Sampling is a step that has a
bigger role in quantitative research than purely doctrinal research. Such a research in
legal field is often called as ‘socio-legal’ research because the researcher examines the
execution of legal principles in society. For example a socio-legal researcher wants to
study the level of awareness of consumer rights among educated people in a city in
Maharashtra, say Pune. Since Pune is a big city, he divides it into different areas and then
proceeds to determine the number of people he will approach for data collection in each
of those areas. He first finds out the latest census information about population in Pune
and finds out a number that would proportionately represent the population.[1] The
researcher in this example can also randomly choose the respondents for his
questionnaires, like the members of his family or his friends, neighbours, colleagues, etc.
However that will not establish the credibility of his research, because respondents
chosen according to the researcher’s personal wish cannot yield results that can be called
illustrative of the whole population.
It is not possible to identify each and every unit to decide whether or not the unit
should be part of the sample. It is also ineffective to just randomly choose any group of
population units and label them as ‘sample’.[2] There are certain techniques that have
been developed by researchers over time. There are also many practical and technical
considerations to be kept in mind for choosing the sampling technique. These techniques
and the intricacies associated with it will be dealt-with in this module later. First let us
understand the meaning of some important terms that are associated with sampling and
will be used frequently in this Module.
Sampling Design

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 Before embarking upon the process of sampling, it is desirable to first draw a plan to
do the same. The way a research design is framed prior to the research itself, a ‘sample
design’ is framed before beginning to form samples for the research. There are many
methods and techniques of conducting sampling, and a sample design serves to guide the
researcher to choose the most appropriate sampling technique. Sample design is the light
under which the further steps are taken. It is designed by the researcher, and so it is his
discretion to put the guiding steps for the research. Below are given some indicative
points that form part of a sample design.
Objective of Study
The foundational step in forming a sample design is to spell out very clearly the
objectives of the research. The objectives also from part of the research design. This step
assists the researcher to gauge the nature of sample that is required.
Universe
The objectives of the study once clearly defined, the researcher must now clearly
define the universe that is proposed to be studied. The nature and characteristics of the
population must be spelled out. Also the sampling units must be decided by the
researcher in clear terms, including the characteristics that are required in the units.
Sample Size
Once the size of the universe is known, the researcher must delimit the size of the
sample. A further reading into the sampling techniques further in this Module would offer
a clear understanding as to how size can be decided prior to beginning sampling.
Population Parameters
The parameters, i.e. basic information of the population must be noted down by
the researchers. This will also help in choosing the appropriate sampling technique.
Parameters of the population include vital statistics like census figures, gender ratio,
population figures according to region, etc.
Budgetary and Time Constraints
Every research, especially the ones conducted on individual level have time and
budget constraints. It is beneficial for the research to accurately define these constraints,
so that the sampling technique is chosen accordingly.
Sampling Technique

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 The final step is to choose the appropriate sampling technique. Taking into
consideration all the above steps in sampling design and after understanding the various
sampling techniques discussed ahead, the researcher will be able to select the appropriate
sampling technique accordingly.
Purpose of Sampling
A researcher often wonders the need for conducting sampling as opposed to
conducting the study on the whole population. It would be much easier to select any
number of respondents on a arbitrary basis, and call it our sample. Following a sampling
procedure has some purpose. Let us now look at why we need to do sampling.
Accuracy of Results
Studying a smaller portion out of a large number of items offers better accuracy
than conducting study on a huge population. The study not only gets conducted smoothly
but also it is not troublesome to arrive at the results. The lesser the amount of data, the
more are the chances of obtaining accurate results.
Time efficient
Sampling allows the researcher to conduct the research in a time-bound manner.
Imagine the amount of work if a researcher has to map the entire India for his research,
and collect responses from each and every citizen of India. Conducting study on a sample
allows researcher to finish the work in shorter span of time than as compared to the whole
population.
Cost effective
Cost-effectiveness is a primary incentive for researchers, as many researches are
conducted by individuals, like researches conducted as partial fulfilment of course work
in an academic institute. Sampling offers cost effectiveness in that the data to be collected
is to be collected from a smaller portion of population.
Convenience
Most motivating reason for conducting sampling is because of the convenience it
offers. Conducting the research on a sample is anytime convenient than conducting it on
the entire selected universe. Research work is generally related to studying a large
population. It is difficult to cover the entire population with each and every of its unit.
Sampling enables us to conduct the research in a more focussed manner, by concentrating

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on the sample rather than the whole chunk of population. A basic assumption in sampling
is that the sample is representative of the entire population and so the results obtained
from studying the sample can be generalised to the universe. Based on this assumption a
researcher proceeds to study the sample in place of the whole ‘universe’.
The following are the advantages or merits of conducting research on a sample than
conducting it on the universe:
A universe selected for study is generally composed of a large number of people
(sampling units). Sampling reduces the number of people to be studied, while at
the same time preserving the essence of the factors to be studied.
The lesser the number of people to be studied, the more is the convenience of
conducting the study. Imagine conducting a study to gauge response of general
public of India to a newly introduced Bill in the Parliament. If the researcher goes
on to collect responses from every nook and cranny of India it would take a large
number of researchers to compile the data and finally a whole other set of people
to compound the data and analyse. Sampling allows research to be conducted
conveniently. It is easier to supervise lesser number of respondents, to conduct
data collection from them, and also achieves better rate of responses.
Sociological and socio-legal studies that are conducted empirically generally involve
dealing with variables. Results of the study are obtained by drawing inferences
from data analysis, which becomes complicated if the sample size is huge with a
large number of units. Lesser number of subjects to be studied increases prospects
of obtaining accurate results.
Conducting research on a sample saves time and expenditure than conducting the
same study on the whole universe of study. We can say it is cost-cost-effective
and time-efficient.
Large scale researchers require elaborate resources and field researchers that call for
institutional sponsorship. Sampling encourages and incentivises individual
researchers to conduct empirical researchers.
Classification of Sampling
Not all the units of the universe can be included in the sample. Researcher has to take
care to include the units of the universe in the sample in a methodical manner. Sampling

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provides for a chance of including the sampling units in the sample. The appropriate
sampling technique for a study has to be chosen keeping in mind the advantages and
disadvantages of the technique. There are various techniques to do sampling. These
techniques are discussed in detail further in this Module. All sampling techniques may be
classified based on the likelihood of the units to be selected in forming the sample. There
are mainly three kinds of sampling. Let us understand these kinds as follows:
Probability Sampling: Where the sample is chosen in such a manner that all the
elements present in the universe have an equal chance of being represented in the
sample, then it is called as ‘Probability Sampling’. The sampling techniques that
come under ‘probability sampling’ are used in the cases where population is
homogeneous. In probability sampling, all the units of the universe have an equal
chance of being included in the sample; and when the population is homogeneous,
there is no risk of missing out on any aspect of the population. For conducting
probability sampling it is imperative to know the size of the universe and the
complete list of units in it. Also the researcher must decide the size of the desired
sample beforehand.
Non-probability Sampling: In ‘Non-probability sampling’, all the units do not stand a
chance to be included in the sample. Non-probability sampling does not guarantee
representativeness. It is also called as ‘decisive sampling’ or ‘purposive sampling’
as the basis of sampling is the free will of the researcher. Purposive sampling is
used where the size of the universe is unknown or indefinable. It is an oft repeated
and established practice to use purposive sampling where the objective of
research is qualitative analyses and descriptive or exploratory.
Mixed Sampling: There are some sampling techniques which do not fall under the
above two mentioned categories strictly. These techniques display some
characteristics of a ‘probability sampling’ and some characteristics of a ‘non-
probability sampling’. Such sampling techniques may be called as ‘mixed
sampling’.
Principles and Precautions of Sampling
Now that we have learnt the ways and techniques of doing sampling, it is
imperative to also pay attention to some key cautionary points. These are the sampling

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principles. These precautions are to be taken at some specific points during the sampling
procedure.
An essential tenet to be kept in mind is that the basic motive behind sampling is
analysing the units in the sample and deduce results from the study, which can be
generalised to the universe from which the sample was drawn. Sample is representative
of the universe. Research conducted on the sample is for making inferences about the
universe. Sampling technique should be chosen with care and caution, so as to obtain
most appropriate sample for study.
The following things must be borne in mind while choosing samples and sampling
technique:
The universe must be clearly defined.
The sampling units must be distinct and independent of each other.
A clearly chalked out sampling design ensures predetermined steps, and also
encompasses planning for contingencies.
Sampling must be done in an unbiased, objective and systematic manner.
The objective of the research must be kept in mind while sampling.
Arbitrary alterations must be avoided during sampling.
Sample size must be chosen in accordance with the nature of study, i.e. qualitative or
quantitative, and taking into consideration the size of the universe.
The cost and time factor is an important influencing factor in research. It is advisable
to not see these factors as an impediment to research, but to utilise them in the
most efficient way possible.
Ease of contacting the respondents is another important factor that is to be taken into
consideration while sampling. Even with the advent of technology, care must be
taken by the researcher that the selected respondents are source of objective,
unbiased answers. It should also be ensured to maximum possible extent that the
potential respondents are not being forced for participation in the research.
Sampling errors must be avoided as much as possible.
Conclusion

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 Thus , the most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends
on the nature of the particular problem and on the time and resources available along with
the desired degree of accuracy
Other than, more to above all this, much depends upon the aptitude and understanding
of the researcher. As accordance to Dr. A.L. Bowley's comment that "in collection of
statistical data common sense is the chief requisite and experience is the chief teacher.
That is to say ability and experience is the key in collection of data.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Internet references
1. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=20
2. ://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/3704/12/12_chapter%202.pdf
3. https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/
4. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Syed_Muhammad_Kabir/publication/32584
6997_METHODS_OF_DATA_COLLECTION/links/5b3127b3a6fdcc8506cc9d4
8/METHODS-OF-DATA-COLLECTION.pdf?origin=publication_detail

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