Chapter 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS

- Research Design
- Population and Sample
- Research Instrument
- Data Gathering Procedure
- Data Analysis
- Ethical Considerations
- Product Development

RESEARCH DESIGN
 This is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.

- State the research design to be used

- Define and discuss the research design
- Explain why the design is appropriate to your study

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is an objective, systematic, empirical investigation of observable phenomena
through the use of computational techniques.
 It involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be
made and conclusions can be drawn.
 It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables.

According to Burns and Grove (2005), quantitative research is used:

 to describe variables
 to examine relationships among variables
 to determine cause-and-effect interactions between variables

Qualitative Research
Qualitative research focuses on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as
language.
 It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
 It can be used to understand how individuals subjectively perceive and give meaning to their social
reality.
 Its primary aim is to provide a complete, detailed description of the research topic.
 It is more exploratory in nature and subjective in approach as it seeks to understand human behavior
and reasons that govern such behavior.
What are the basic differences?
RESEARCH METHOD (Qualitative vs. Quantitative)
The two differ in the following aspects:
 General framework
 Analytical objectives
 Question format
 Forms of data they produce
 Degree of flexibility
Quantitative Research Designs
 Descriptive
This method describes phenomena as they exist.
It describes and interprets the current status of individuals, settings, conditions, or events (Mertler,
2014).
Descriptive studies (surveys, correlation, etc) determine the relationships of variables (performance,
attitude, etc).

 Experimental
This method is a scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more
variables (independent variable), and controls and measures any change in other variables (dependent
variable).
In this type, the researcher establishes different treatments and then studies their effects on the
participants. These are commonly used in psychology, sciences, medicine etc.

Qualitative Research Designs

 Historical
This is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or conditions that
occurred in the past.
Collection and evaluation of data related to past events are used to describe causes, effects and trends
that may explain present or future events.
 Data are often archival and include interviews. Primary sources of information are original documents,
relics, remains, artifacts, etc.
 Ethnographic
This design involves observing target in their natural, real-world setting.
It gathers insight into how people live; what they do; how they use things; or what they need in their
everyday or professional lives.
It relies on observation, video diaries, photographs, contextual interviews, and analysis of artifacts.

 Case Studies
This method is an in-depth investigation of experiences to identify interactions and influences on
psychological processes.
Through interviews and observations, this method permits the collection of qualitative data.
It may provide information on the unique features of particular individuals, groups or organizations.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

 Population – refers to the total collection of objects, events or individuals that have characteristics that
are of interest to the researchers.
Ex. all public school teachers, cellular phone users

 Sample – a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.

When investigation of the entire population is difficult due to material constraints like money, time,
effort, etc., a sample is drawn to represent the whole population.
Ex. A researcher wants to determine the reading deficiencies of grade school students in a school that
has 3000 students. This would be very hard and expensive so the researcher will just draw representative
samples, say 100 subjects per level. This means the researcher is going to test 600 children only. And yet, the
researcher can report about the results as reflective of the deficiencies of the whole school population.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Probability sampling provides equal chances to every single element of the population to be included
in the sampling.
1. Simple random sampling (lottery or fishbowl sampling, systematic sampling, use of table of random
numbers, etc)
2. Stratified random sampling – the population is divided into subgroups called strata and samples are
selected from each stratum
Non-probability sampling does not give all the members of the population of being selected. The
samples are selected on the basis of convenience, purpose and other reasons.
 1. Purposive – selecting the respondents who best meet the purpose of the study
2. Quota sampling - finding the person with the requisite characteristics until you meet the desired
number
3. Snowball sampling – requires identification of few persons who meet the criteria. These persons then
will act as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the sample
4. Cluster sampling – also called area sampling because it is done on geographical basis. The population is
grouped into small unit (district, municipality, etc.) then samples are selected

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are used to gather or collect data.
The choice of the methods depends upon some factors such as the nature of the problem, the
population under study, the cost of the survey, the time factor, etc.

Instruments or tools for gathering data in research are of two categories or kinds:
I. Mechanical devices include almost tools (such as microscope, camera, telescope, thermometer,
ruler, and monitor) used in the physical sciences.
II. Clerical tools are used when the researcher studies people and gathers data on the feelings,
emotions, attitudes, and judgment of the subjects. Some examples are filed records, case studies,
questionnaires and interview.

Data Gathering Procedure

State all the actions taken and procedures in order for you to the gather the needed data.
Methods of Gathering Data
 Direct or Interview Method
 Indirect Method or Questionnaire
 Registration Method or Documentary Analysis (information on file like laws and ordinances,
documents such as birth, death and marriage certificates, memoranda, newsletters, letters etc.
 Observation

Data Analysis
 It deals with editing, encoding, tabulating and presenting data through tables, charts, etc.
 Statistical treatments used in the study must be specified in this section. For manually computed
statistical treatment, specify the formula used. For data computed using software, include the coding
scheme.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

Ethical Considerations
 Ethical considerations are principles and values that should be followed while conducting the study.
  Research ethics are moral principles that guide researchers in the evaluation and reporting the
findings.
 Ethical issues are considered in the duration of the study.

Ethical considerations include:

 Informed consent. Participants are fully informed about the real purpose of the study.
 Voluntary participation. Participants are free from coercion and free to withdraw their participation at
any time without negatively impacting on their involvement in the future.
 Do no harm. The process does not in any way harm (unintended or otherwise) the participants
physically and/or psychologically.
 Confidentiality. Any identifying information of the participants and their responses are not made
available to, or accessed by anyone.

Product Development
Phase I. Planning Phase
Phase II. Designing Phase
Phase III. Development Phase
Materials/Ingredients
Tools/Equipment
Procedures