Research Methodology Assignment submitted by

Shoeb Ahmed PhD Student

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
“Various Approaches to Research Methods Explaining Major
Strengths and Drawbacks of Each of these Methods”

Shoeb Ahmed / Shoeb Ahmed Ilyas

Email: shoebilyas@gmail.com

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Research Methodology Assignment submitted by
Shoeb Ahmed PhD Student

Introduction
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem. Sociological research is a
systematic, careful, and controlled process of collecting information and answering questions.
The different approaches we follow in Research Methodology are

1. Quantitative approach
2. Qualitative approach.
3. Pragmatic approach (mixed methods)

Quantitative Approach
In the scientific method, quantitative research methods are employed in an attempt to
establish general laws or principles. Such a scientific approach is often termed nomothetic
and assumes social reality is objective and external to the individual. Quantitative research is
empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers. Measures are systematically
created before data collection and are standardized as far as possible. Procedures are standard, and
replication is assumed.

Deductive approach tests the validity of assumptions (or theories/hypotheses) that need to be
confirmed or rejected during the research process.

In the quantitative approach the generation of data is in quantitative form which can be
subjected to meticulous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can
be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research.

It is often assumed that quantitative approaches draw on positivist ontologies. Quantitative

approaches are strongly associated with objectivity. For Example, the interviews may be
structured and analyzed in a quantitative manner. Numeric data is collected or when non-
numeric answers are categorized and coded in numeric form. Numerical data obtained
through quantitative data approach facilitates comparisons between subjects or groups, as
well as allow the determination of the extent of agreement or disagreement between

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Research Methodology Assignment submitted by
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respondentsi. Similarly, surveys may allow for open-ended responses and lead to the in-depth
study of individual cases.

Strengths of Quantitative Research

 The quantitative as survey approach has significant advantages like it can be
administered and evaluated quickly. Responses can be tabulated within a short
timeframe. Quantitative data, which is collected rigorously, using the appropriate
methods and analysed critically shows more reliabilityii.

 Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or

disproving a hypothesis.
 After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the
results can be legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative experiments also
filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained can be seen
as real and unbiased.
 Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of
qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible
directions for follow up research to take.
 Research findings can be well generalized if the sample selection process is well-
designed and sample is representative of study population.
 Relatively easy to analyze and data can be very consistent, precise and reliable
 Collection of large amount of data using structured tools and techniques is relatively
speedy and easier in this approach.
 Study findings can be generalized to the population about which information is
required.
 Clear documentation can be provided regarding the content and application of the
survey instruments so that other researchers can assess the validity of the findings.
 Data analysis is relatively less time consuming through use of statistical software
 Standardized approaches permit the study to be replicated in different areas or over
time with the production of comparable findings.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

 Quantitative research has drawbacks to take account of people's unique ability to
interpret their experiences, construct their own meanings and act on these.
Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and require a lot of time to

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Research Methodology Assignment submitted by
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perform. They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is complete

randomization and correct designation of control groups
 Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis, which can be
difficult, due to most scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a
whole scientific discipline and can be difficult for non-mathematicians.
 In addition, the requirements for the successful statistical confirmation of results are
very stringent, with very few experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis;
there is usually some ambiguity, which requires retesting and refinement to the
design. This means another investment of time and resources must be committed to
fine-tune the results.
 Quantitative research design also tends to generate only proved or unproven results,
with there being very little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social
sciences, education, anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more
complex than just a simple yes or no response.
 The research studying the perceptions and beliefs cannot be meaningfully reduced to
numbers.iii
 Quantitative research is weak in understanding the context or setting in which people
behave, something that qualitative research makes up for.

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative, observational studies refer to traditions that base their research upon qualitative
data (as opposed to quantitative research) and do not actively and purposely manipulate the
phenomenon under investigation. Grounded theory studies and ethnographic methods are
examples of this mode of research.

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research and it has the aim of understanding

experience as nearly as possible as its study subjects feel it. It is used to gain an
understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations of subjects. It provides
insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.

Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used. Data from qualitative studies describes the qualities or characteristics of
something. Qualitative research studies can provide the details about human behavior,
emotion and personality characteristics that quantitative studies cannot match. Qualitative

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data includes information about user behaviors, needs, desires, routines and a variety of other
information that is essential in designing a product that will actually fit into a user’s life.

Qualitative data are usually gathered by observation, interviews or focus groups, projective
techniques, but may also be gathered from written documents and through case studies.  In
qualitative research there is more emphasis on describes the qualities or characteristics of
human behavior, emotion, personality characteristics, user behaviors, needs, desires, and
routines.  Participants in qualitative studies often involve smaller numbers of tools include
and utilizes open-ended questionnaires interview guides.  This type of research is best used to
answer how and why questions and is not well suited to generalisable what, when and who
questions.

Qualitative approach objective is to discover and encapsulate meanings once the researcher
becomes immersed in the data. Concepts tend to be in the form of themes, motifs,
generalizations, and taxonomies. However, the objective is still to generate concepts.
Measures are more specific and may be specific to the individual setting or researcher. Data
are in the form of words from documents, observations, and transcripts. However,
quantification is still used in qualitative research. Theory can be causal or non-causal and is
often inductive. Research procedures are particular, and replication is difficult. Analysis
proceeds by extracting themes or generalizations from evidence and organizing data to
present a coherent, consistent picture. These generalizations can then be used to generate
hypotheses.

Observation

It is the systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people’s

behavior. This method can be loosely structured or tightly structured with precise coding
methods of behavior patterns. Traditional time and method study of worker behavior
involved precise coding and timing of work patterns.

In participant observation, the researcher participates to some degree in the lives and
activities of the people being observed.

Strengths Weaknesses
Good at explaining ‘what is going on’ in Can be very time consuming.

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Research Methodology Assignment submitted by
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particular social situations.

Heightens the researcher’s awareness of Can create difficult ethical dilemmas for the
significant social processes. researcher. E.g. the problems of
confidentiality and ‘openness’ – does the
researcher tell people they are being
observed?

Particularly useful for researchers working Can be high levels of role conflict for the
within their own organizations. researcher (e.g. ‘colleague’ versus
researcher)

Can afford the researcher the opportunity to

experience ‘for real’ the emotions of those
who are being researched.

Virtually all data collected can be useful.

Interviewing
Data can be collected by using unstructured and semi-structured interviews or by using
structured interviews. When using semi-structured interviews, the researcher may encourage
and formal conversation covering certain themes and questions. These questions may vary
from one interview to the next, and the order in which questions are asked may vary also.
Semi-structured interviews are primarily used in explanatory research to understand the
relationships between variables. Semi-structured interviews are used in exploratory studies to
provide further information about the research area. Unstructured interviews, sometimes
called in-depth or non-directive interviews, are designed to explore in depth a general area of
research interest. Interviewees are encouraged to talk freely about events, behavior and
beliefs in relation to the research area. Such interviews are used in exploratory research to
find out more about a particular event and seek new insights.

Focus groups
Focus groups are forms of group ‘interviews’ and a focus group usually consist of 6-15

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people. The researcher acts as a facilitator rather than an interviewer. The facilitator starts
with a clear theme communicated to the participants and a set agenda of items. The group
then works through the items, but the facilitator should also be prepared to pursue novel
issues as they arise. Focus groups should be taped (audio) or videoed. Videoing can be more
difficult and intrusive but is often worthwhile. Permission of the participants should always
be sought for taping/ videoing. It is vital to make sure that everybody talks.

Strengths Weakness
A dynamic focus group will generate many High level of skill of group leader/researcher
ideas, helping to explain or explore concepts. is required to facilitate and manage the
They will help to tell you why the discussion. Otherwise the discussion
organization is as it is. degenerates into ‘waffle’.

Bottom-up generation of concerns and issues, Where focus groups are conducted within an
which can help to establish survey variables. organization, participants may be concerned
about confidentiality.

Can offer credibility to research where issues Some participants may be inhibited because
of bias are associated with interviews. of the group.

Relatively quick and easy to organize. Cheap Dominance by one, or some, participant(s) of
on time compared to participant observation, the discussion.
etc

A snowballing effect can occur as Problem of ‘groupthink’ – tendency to

participants develop ideas triggered by other express view that satisfy others in the group,
participants. but which may not be valid outside the
context.

Case Studies Method

Yin (1984:23) defines the case study research method “as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of

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evidence are used.”

Case study method enables a researcher to closely examine the data within a specific context.
In most cases, a case study method selects a small geographical area or a very limited number
of individuals as the subjects of study. Case studies, in their true essence, explore and
investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a
limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships. Careful design of a case study
is therefore very important. This is because case study method, through interviews or journal
entries, must be able to prove that:

i. it is the only viable method to elicit implicit and explicit data from the subjects.
ii. It is appropriate to the research question.
iii. It follows the set of procedures with proper application.
iv. The scientific conventions used in social sciences are strictly followed.
v. a ‘chain of evidence’, either quantitatively or qualitatively, are systematically recorded and
archived particularly when interviews and direct observation by the researcher are the main
sources of data.
vi. The case study is linked to a theoretical framework.

Strengths Weakness
Holistic depth of analysis realistic attention Researcher Bias observation bias
to context extensive range of variables interpretation bias cannot see everything
going on researcher presence may change
case acceptance by subjects

Longitudinal develop history of case details Historical organizational and economic

of process causation and interactions change may make case out of date and
situation as it happens irrelevant; e.g. a study of a “best practice”
firm that is now bankrupt and closed down.

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High Internal Validity more complete Low External Validity low generality little
understanding direct observation of situation control over phenomenon comparative
multiple sources of data triangulation of data analysis difficult representativeness of case
meaningful to subjects difficult to replicate

Adaptive questions can be changed as case Costly research time volume of data analysis
develops methods can be changed data of data problems of access
sources can be changed

Triangulation involves asking whether the data from the various sources leads to the same
conclusions. If it does, then we will have much more confidence in our argument.

STRENGTHS OF QUALITATIVE APPROACH

 Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex be
answered by a simple yes or no hypothesis. These types of designs are much easier to
plan and carry out cultural assessment i.e., ability to probe for underlying values,
beliefs, and assumptions.
 The broader scope covered by these designs ensures that some useful data is always
generated, whereas an unproved hypothesis in a quantitative experiment can mean
that a lot of time has been wasted. Qualitative research methods are not as dependent
upon sample sizes as quantitative methods; a case study, for example, can generate
meaningful results with a small sample group.
 Qualitative data is particularly useful when it comes to defining feelings and attitudes.
 They are also useful when budgetary decisions have to be taken into account.

WEAKNESS OF QUALITATIVE APPROACH

 Qualitative methods require a lot of careful thought and planning, to ensure that the
results obtained are as accurate as possible.
 Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analyzed in the same comprehensive way
as quantitative results, so can only give a guide to general trends. It is a lot more open
to personal opinion and judgment, and so can only ever give observations rather than
results.

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 Any qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly recreated,
meaning that they do lack the ability to be replicated.
 Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it
is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity.
 As qualitative inquiry is generally open-ended, the participants have more control
over the content of the data collected1.
 Personal experience and knowledge of subjects influence the observations and
conclusions of the study. Particular issue could go unnoticed.
 Issues on confidentiality and anonymity can pose problems during presentation of
findings. Findings can be time consuming and difficult to present in visual ways.
 Qualitative research is seen as deficient because of the potential for biased
interpretations made by the researcher and the difficulty in generalizing findings to a
large group.

Pragmatic approach (Mixed Methods)

The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches provides a more complete understanding of a research problem than
either approach alone. Researcher can use any of the methods, techniques and procedures
typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research but researcher should be aware
that every research method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be
complementary.

Researcher can use different methods at the same time or one after the other. For
example, Researcher can start his research work based on empirical evidence with qualitative
research like focus group discussion and then use the findings to construct a questionnaire to
measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim of carrying out statistical analysis.
Depending on which measures have been used, the data collected is analyzed in the
appropriate manner. Mixing different approaches has the advantages of enabling
triangulation, which is a common feature of mixed research methods studies. Mixed methods
may use different researchers (investigator triangulation), variety of data sources (data
triangulation); use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results (theory triangulation); the
use of multiple methods to study a research problem (methodological triangulation).

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Strengths
 Provides strengths that counterbalance the weaknesses of both quantitative and
qualitative research.  By using both types of research, the strengths of each
approach can make up for the weaknesses of the other.

 Provides a more complete and comprehensive understanding of the research

problem by combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Weakness
 The research design can be very complex.

 Takes much more time and resources to plan and implement this type of research.

 It may be difficult to plan and implement one method by drawing on the findings
of another.

 It may be unclear how to resolve discrepancies that arise in the interpretation of

the findings.

Participatory action research 

It refers to a set of approaches to research on social systems in which the researcher actively
engage in the process under investigation (the actors of the social system being studied can be
considered as co-researchers). The work of van Meel (ibid.) exemplifies this approach to
research: First, an initial case study is performed for identification of problems, followed by
theory development and implementation of a prototype information system. Finally, the
prototype is employed in another full-scale project where the researcher participates and
reflects upon the use of the prototype with the actors that are studied.

Participatory approaches are often rooted not just in an epistemological critique of positivism,
but also in an ethical critique of the relationships generated by traditional scientific practice.
From this perspective, one consequence of striving for an objective and neutral scientific
method, as positivist researchers do, is a consolidation of knowledge within small elite, and
an unhealthy separation of scientists from the wider society. Following on from this,
researchers from participatory traditions see research as ideally a cooperative enterprise,
involving working with communities as co-investigators.

Peter Reason (1998) has identified three strands in participatory inquiry, which he labels

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cooperative inquiry, participatory action research and action inquiry. Cooperative inquiry
assumes first that all actors are self-determining in any research project; all involved are both
researchers and subjects, cooperating by reflexively drawing upon their own experiences.
Participatory action research is explicit about the relationship between knowledge and power,
seeing the role of the researcher as liberating communities through research activities that
shift the balance of knowledge. The aims are thus to produce understanding that is useful for
the group that is being worked with, and to empower those people, rather than to do research
‘on’ them. Action inquiry is primarily orientated towards change, but involves a conscious
approach to action, in which an organization or community develops a collaborative and
reflexive awareness. The three approaches, he argues, share an epistemological focus on
experiential knowledge and an orientation towards change (in both understanding and social
reality). They differ in the relative emphasis they place on psychological or small group
processes relative to macro-structural factors.

PR is considered a new paradigm, which Chambers describes as 'a coherent and mutually
supportive pattern of concepts, values, methods and action amenable to wide application'. PR
is based on the principles of “participation” and “self-development”. It treats people as
“research participants” rather than “research subjects”. It is people-centered in the sense that
the process of critical inquiry is informed by and responds to the experiences and needs of
people involved. The fundamental principle of participatory research is that it is research with
rather than on people. It emphasizes “knowledge for action” and a “bottom up approach” in
contrast to conventional research, which is more “top-down”.

Strengths of Participatory Research

 The participatory research approach has many advantages, which makes it very useful
for any kind of research, but especially, when it is: applied, exploratory and learning,
target-group or action-oriented and when local commitment is needed to make a
process sustainable.
 PR allows understanding social reality from ordinary people’s perspectives
 PR is a type of applied social research, which helps to address problems and find
practical solutions:
 PR is based on flexible methodologies to support communication of the findings for
the desirable change.
 PR allows understanding the complexity of social settings.

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 PR is aimed at people’s empowerment.

 PR enables to influence policy.
 Promoting culture of social dialogue.
 Changing attitudes.
 Establishing new institutional arrangements.
 The quality of information.

Participation Research Weaknesses:

Participatory research can be very effective in some, but not all, situations. It is important
to recognise when participatory approaches are appropriate to avoid participation
becoming the end in itself and devaluate the very meaning of ‘participation’ or
‘participatory’. We should take also into account that there are different modes of
participation, which can produce different outcomes.

Second, participation is not just about involving people. It is complex and long term
process. It is about establishing partnership and collaboration between stakeholders at
different levels of society, because development requires early and substantive
involvement of all stakeholders in the design of activities that will affect them. That is
why it is very important to involve all stakeholders from the very beginning of the PR, so
that everybody has the same understanding of the process. It is crucial also to pay
attention to local power structures.

PR that is trying to change a social situation can’t be very efficient without involvement
of central and local governments, who have power and resources to improve the situation,
but also to thwart the whole participatory process.

Blackburn and Holland point out that ‘participation would not make sense as long as
power-holders do not allow others to participate in processes of setting priorities, making
decisions, managing and controlling resources’. Low level of democracy and
decentralization is a big limitation. Mistrust of the society and participation fatigue.
Raising expectations of local people.

References

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i
Yauch, C. A. and Steudel, H. J. (2003) Complementary use of Qualitative and Quantitative
Cultural Assessment Methods, Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 465-481.

ACAPS (2012) Qualitative and Quantitative Research Techniques for Humanitarian Needs
ii

Assessment
iii
Dudwick, N., Kuehnast, K., Jones, V. N., and Woolcock, M. (2006) Analyzing Social Capital in
Context: A Guide to Using Qualitative Methods and Data, World Bank Institute, Washington.