RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methods of collecting data

Introduction

As our society moves away from factory, jobs, lifelong education is becoming on
increasing necessity. Technology and data have become a part of how we work. That
change has placed more demands on educators than ever before. Whether you are
teaching in classroom or a boardroom, you need to learn how to collect and manage data.

Although data can be valuable, too much information is unfriendly, and the wrong data
is useless. The right data collection method can mean the difference between useful
insights and time-wasting misdirection.

Luckily, there are several tools available for primary data collection. The methods range
from traditional and simple, such as a face to face interview to more sophisticated ways
to collect and analyze data.

Six data collection methods

1. Interviews

2. Questionnaires and surveys

3. Observation

4. Documents and records

5. Focus group

6. Oral histories

Qualitative Vs Quantitative collection methods

Some of the covered are quantitative, dealing with something that can be counted. Others
are qualitative, meaning that they consider factors other than numerical values in general,
questionnaires, surveys and documents and records are quantitative, while interviews

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focus groups, observations and oral histories are qualitative. There can also be crossover
between the two methods.

Qualitative collection methods

Data analysis can take various formats. The methods chosen depends on the subject
matter of the research. Quantitative methods, such as surveys large scale benchmarks,
and prioritization, answer the question "How much?" But these methods can leave the
question "why?" unanswered. This is where qualitative data collection methods come
into play.

Understanding qualitative data collection

Qualitative data collection looks at several factors to provide a depth of understanding to

round data While qualitative methods involve the collection, analysis and management
of data, instead of counting responses or recording numerical data, this methods aims to
assess factors like the thoughts and feelings of research participants. Qualitative data
collection methods go beyond recording events to create context.

With this enhanced view researchers can;

i. Describe the environment

Understanding where observation take place can add meaning to record numbers.

ii. Identify the people involved in the study. If research is limited to a particular
group of people, whether intentionally or as a function of demographics or other
factors, this information can inform the results.

iii. Describe the content of the study

Sometimes the specific activities involved in research and how messages about the study
were delivered and received may illuminate factors about the study.

iv. Interact with study participants

Interactions between respondents and research staff can provide valuable information
about the results.

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 v. Be aware of external factors

Unanticipated events can affect research outcomes. Qualitative data collection methods
allow researchers to identify these events and wear them into their results narrative, which
is nearly impossible to do with just a quantitative approach.

Qualitative Research Methods

There are three commonly used qualitative data collection methods?

Ethnographic, theory grounded and phenomenological.

Ethnography- comes from anthropology, the study of human societies and cultures.

Ethnography seeks to understand how people live their lives. Through this method,
researchers seer away from the specific and practical questions that traditional market
researchers use and instead observe is intended to reveal behaviour from a subject's
perspective rather than from the view of the researchers Ethnography helps fill in the
blanks when a participant may not be able to articulate their desires or the reasons for
their decisions or behaviour. Instead of or in addition to asking why a participant acts a
certain way, researchers use observation to understand the why behind these desires,
decisions, or behavior.

Grounded theory arose when sociological researchers sought to provide a level of

legitimacy to qualitative research-to ground it in reality rather than assumptions. Before
this method, qualitative data analysis was actually done before any quantitative data was
collected from the collection and analysis process.

Grounded theory uses the following methods:

Participant observation

Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of subjects. Another term for this is
“fieldwork"

Interviews

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These can vary in formality from informal chats to structured interviews.

Document and artifact collection.

Grounded theory often is about more than observation and interviews.

Researchers can learn about a group of people from looking at materials the group used.

For example, a local community's law may shed light on opinions and provide a clearer
picture of resident's sentiments.

Sometimes, a person's true colors emerge only when they are genuinely put to the test.
As such, phenomenology describes how people experience certain events or unique
encounters.

This method measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of the norm, so it's
essential to understand the whole picture, not just facts and figures.

An example of phenomenology is studying the experiences of individuals involved in a

natural disaster. To analyze data from such an event, the researcher must become familiar
with the data; focus the analysis on the subject matter, time period, or other factors, and
categorize the data.

Completing these tasks gives the researcher a framework for understanding how the
natural disaster impacts people. Together, the understanding, focus, and organization help
researchers identify pattern, make connections, interpret data, and explain findings. Each
of this qualitative data collection methods sheds light on factors that can be hidden in
simple data analysis.

Qualitative data is one way to add context and reality to raw numbers. Often,
researchers find value in a hybrid approach, where qualitative data collection methods
are used alongside quantitative ones.

Quantitative data collection methods

Marketers. scientists, academics, and others may start a study with a predetermined
hypothesis. but their research often begins with the collection of data Initially, the
collected data is unstructured. Various facts and figures may or may not have context. A
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researcher's job is to make sense of this data, and the choice of data collection method
often helps.

Using data to determine values

One of the most widely used methods of collecting information for research purposes is
quantitative data collection. Quantitative analysis relates to evaluating a numerical.
Result. A classic example is a survey, which asks questions to collect responses that
shed light on trends, preferences, actions, opinions. and any other element that can be
counted. Quantitative data collection methods are popular because they are relatively
straightforward. Using these methods, researchers ask questions to collect sets of facts
and figures. Quantitative data is measurable and expressed in numerical form.

While this seems like a fairly simple concept, like many aspects of research, there are
various approaches to quantitative data collection that depend on the particular research
being conducted

Different quantitative research approaches

Researchers use four different primary quantitative research designs: descriptive,

correctional, experimental. and quasi-experimental.

Descriptive research explains the current status of variable using observational data
collection. Often, the researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data steer the
direction of the study.

A simple example of quantitative descriptive research is a study that collects and tabulates
test scores. Descriptive research frequently uses charts and tables to illustrate results.
While a descriptive approach is often quantitative, it can be qualitative. Descriptive
data collection asks Questions such as "What is X?"

Correlative research seeks to collect data that shows relationships between different
occurrences. A positive correlation is one in which two variables either increase or
decrease at the same time. A negative correlation is when an increase in one variable
means a decrease in another.

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There is also a zero correlation result, in which the relationship between two variables is
insignificant. Correlation helps make predictions based on historical relationships and in
determining the validity and reliability of a study.

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION

An example of correlational data would be how a person's height often correlates to their
weight-the taller one gets, usually the heavier they are. This is positive correlation.

Experimental research

Also known as 'true experimentation', uses the scientific method to determine the cause-
and- effect-relationship between variables. This method uses controls for all of the crucial
factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the experimental
method, researchers randomly assign participants in an experiment to either the control or
treatment groups.

Quasi-experimental research

Also known as 'causal-comparative' is similar to experimental research. Since its often

impossible or impractical to control for all factors involved, quasi-experimental methods
don't control for some factors but otherwise follow the scientific method to establish a
cause-and- effect relationship.

In both of these types of studies independent variables are manipulated. But

experimental data collection methods use random assignment and sampling, whereas
quasi-experimental methods don't randomize assignment or sampling or both.

Experimental method are known for producing results that are both internally and
extremely valid, meaning that the study is conducted, or structured, well (internal
validity) and the findings are applicable to the real world(extremely validity. Quasi-
experirnental methods, on the other band, produce results of questionable internal validity.

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Application of quantitative methods in practice

There are a number of ways researchers can put different types of quantitative data
collection into action without using experiment

Quantitative surveys enable researchers to ask closed-ended questions with a provided

list of possible answers. This method is easier for respondents, as they just pick from a
list of responses. It's an ideal solution for larger-scale studies that should become
unwieldy with the type of open-ended questions often associated with qualitative
surveys because the questions and answers are standardized, researchers can use the
results to make generalizations. Closed ended questions, however, can be limiting.

A respondent may not see their answer in the given choices. Quantitative interviews are
typically conducted face to face, over the phone, or via the internet. They enable
researchers to not only collect information but also tailor the questions to the audience
on the spot. This can help add some 'why" to the "how much" collected through
quantifiable means.

What are secondary data collection methods?

Since most research involves the collection of data, there are several methods for direct,
or primary, data collection, including surveys, questionnaires, direct observation, and
focus group. While primary data is considered the most authoritative and authentic data
collection method, there are several instances where secondary data collection methods
can provide value.

Understanding secondary data correction

What is secondary collection, and why would a researcher employ it in addition to

primary data? Think of secondary data as second-band-data. It's someone else's research,
another person's original bank of knowledge.

Second-hand data can add insight to a research project, and using secondary data is more
efficient and less expensive than collecting primary data. So how can someone else's
research be valuable to your independent study? Answering this question involves
understanding how a lot of research is initiated today.

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The role of the government in statistical research

For a variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and agencies collect demographic
and other information on people. Governments collect data through various means,
sometimes as part of other activities .The census is a primary example of valuable
governmental primary data collection that can be used as a secondary data collection
method in other research studies. Several non-profit and governmental entities specialize
in collecting data to feed the efforts of other researchers. Research from public sources in
usually free.

Other sources of secondary data

While government are sources of useful information, they aren't the only suppliers of
secondary data Commercial sources include research and trade associations such as banks,
publicly traded corporations and others.

Educational institutions are also reliable sources of secondary data. Many colleges and
universities have dedicated research arms that leverage data for educational
purposes .This data can often assist others in unrelated studies.

The value of secondary data

There is more to secondary data than the fact that is cheaper than primary data however,
cost is a major reason why this data is used. If the information you need is already
available, it simply makes sense to use it rather than to replicate it.

Sometimes primary is unnecessary for a particular research goal. You should first
determine whether or not your research questions have already been asked and
answered .If so, you can devote you data collection budget to expand on what has
already been determined through other unrelated projects.

The cost of collecting primary data can be considerable. While using secondary data is
cheaper, it also saves time .Time has a value of its own in research, allowing for greater
emphasis on studying results.

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Ultimately, using secondary data saves time and money, which facilitates a move in-
depth study of the subject. Combined with primary research, secondary data can help
researchers better understand their subjects and more efficiently prepare and organize
results.

Data collection tools

1. Interview

If you asked someone completely unaware of data analysis how to best collect
information from people, the most common answer would likely be interviews.

Almost anyone can come up with a list of questions but, the key-to efficient interview is
knowing what to ask.

Efficiency in interviewing is crucial because, of all the primary data collection methods,
in- person interviewing can be most expensive. There are ways to limit the cost of
interviews, such as conducting them over the phone or through a web chat interface but
sometimes an in-person interviews can be worth. the cost, as the interview can tailor
follow-up questions based on responses in a real time exchange.

Interviews also allow for open-ended questions. Compared to other primary data
collection methods, such as surveys, interviews are more customizable and responsive.

2. Observation

Observation involves collecting information without asking questions. This method is

more subjective, as it requires the researcher observer, to add their judgment to the data.
But in some circumstances, the risk of bias is minimal

For example, if a study involves the number of people in a restaurant at a given time,
unless the observer counts incorrectly. the data should be reasonably reliable. Variables
that require the observer to make distinctions, such as how many millennial visit a
restaurant in a given period, can introduce potential problems.

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In general, observation and determine the dynamic of a situation, which generally cannot
be measured through other data collection techniques. Observation also can be combined
with additional information, such as video.

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3. Documents and records

Sometimes you can collect a considerable amount of data without asking anyone
anything. Document and records-based research uses existing data for a study. Attendance
records, meeting minutes, and financial records are just a few examples of this type of
research.

Using documents and records can be efficient and inexpensive because you're
predominantly using research that has already been completed.

However, since the researcher has less control over the results, documents and records
can be an incomplete data source.

FOCUS GROUPS

A combination of interviewing, surveying, and observing, a focus group is a data

collection method that involves several individuals who have something in common. The
purpose of a focus group is to add a collective element to individual data collection.

A focus group study can ask participants to watch a presentation, for example, then discuss
the content before answering surveyor interview style questions.

Focus groups often use open-ended questions such as, «How did you feel about the
presentation?" or "What did you like best about the product?" The focus group moderator
can ask the group to think back to the shared experience, rather than forward to the future.

Open ended questions ground the research in a particular state of mind, eliminating
external interference.

5. Oral histories

At first glance, an oral history might sound like an interview. Both data collection methods
involve asking questions. But an oral history is more precisely defined as the
recording .preservation, and interpretation of historical information based on the opinions
and personal experience of people who were involved in the event.

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Unlike interviews and surveys, oral histories are linked to a single phenomenon .For
example, a researcher may be interested in studying the effect of a flood on community. An
oral history casted light on exactly what transpired phenomenon. For example, a researcher
may be interested in studying the effect of a flood on a community. An oral history can
shed light on exactly what transpired. It's a holistic approach to evaluation hat uses a
variety of techniques.

As in interviewing, the researcher can become a confounding variable. A confounding

variables is an extra, unintended variable that can skew your results by introducing bias
and suggesting a correlation where there isn't one.

The classic example is the correlation between murder rates an ice cream sales .Both
figures have, at one time or another, risen together. An unscientific conclusion may be that
the more people buy ice cream, the higher the occurrence of murder.

However, there is a third possibility that an additional variable affects both of these
occurrences. In the case of ice cream and murder, the other variable is the weather. Warmer
is a confounding variable to both murder rates and ice cream sales.

6. Questionnaires and survey

Questionnaires and survey can be used to ask questions that have closed ended answers.

Data gathered from questionnaires and survey can be analyzed in many different ways.
You can assign numerical values to the data to speed up the analysis. This can be useful
if you're collecting a large amount of data from a large population.

To be meaningful, surveys and questionnaires need to be carefully planned. Unlike an

interview, where a researcher can react to the direction of a respondent's answers, a poorly
designed questionnaire will lead the respondent's answers, a poorly designed
questionnaire will lead the study nowhere quickly. While surveys are often less expensive
than interviews, they won't be valuable if they aren't handled correctly.

Surveys can be conducted as interviews, but in most cases, it makes sense to conduct
surveys using forms. Online forms are a modern and effective way to conduct surveys.

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Unlike written surveys, which are static, the questions presented in online forms can
change according to how someone response thanks to the conditional legit form feature.
For instances, if you use jot form to create your forms, when someone answers no to a
question about allergies, they your forms .when someone answers no to a question about
allergies, they won't have to scroll past all of the related follow-up question about
specific allergies .Instead, they will go immediately to a question on a different topic.

Modem form building also emphasizes mobile data collection, so the forms can easily
be viewed and filled out on mobile devices.

One concern when gathering data electronically in the EU is the European Union's
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).This newly enacted regulation provides
privacy protection to EU residents and citizens and can result in costly fines for
noncompliance if you want to learn more about how to make sure your forms are GDPR
compliant, Jot form has all the information you need.

Sampling methods in data collection

Imagine that your business serves a substantial population. Maybe you have a massive
customer list(which most businesses would love).or you're trying to gain some insights
on a large group, such as the residents of a large city. In most cases, it's impractical to try
to reach each member of this population. Sampling is the process of identifying a subset
of a population that provides an accurate reflection on the whole. It can be a tricky
process, as populations are often diverse.

However, there are some statistical methods that can make sure a small subset of the
community accurately represents the whole group.

There are five generally accepted sampling methods. Below is an overview of these
methods, the pros and cons of each ,and how they can be put to work in your research.

Random Sampling

Just as its name indicates, random sampling involves picking respondents with no design
or order, like picking names out of a hat While randomness may seem unscientific, this
method can be valuable in research, and in fact, is the preferred way of sampling, as a
truly random sample eliminates elements that can affect the validity of a study.
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Randomness requires some planning .For example, randomly picking pedestrians in
Manhattan's Times Squire on a Saturday afternoon will give the researcher a reasonably
diverse cross-section of tourists. This would not, however, be an excellent way to test
native New Yorkers who often shun the area, especially on weekends. Computer-generated
lists can aid in achieving randomness.

Systematic Sampling

Easier that random sampling, systematic sampling follows a set of rules to create
regularity in sampling. An example is interviewing every tenth customer. As long as you
follow the counting system, you will know that there's some order to the process.

Systematic sampling retains some of the benefits of randomness, but it can be too rigid
in cases where, for example, the researcher knows that the counting system is going to
result in data that skews one way or another-for instances, if someone is interviewing
every tenth customer on do every tenth person winds up being a female in the same age
range.

Convenience sampling

This is the easiest method but also the lease reliable. Convenience sampling involves
gathering information from whoever is closest and easiest to Teach. An example would be
asking coworkers in the same office a question, rather than questioning every employee at
the company, since going to other offices might take more time and effort.

Convenience sampling can also involve using whatever data is readily available.

Sometimes, convenience sampling can be effective, such as to gain initial primary data on
brand impressions or product redesigns, where participant's diversity or inclusion criteria
may be less important.

Clustered sampling

With clustered sampling, a researcher uses the subgroups ofa population instead of
individuals. Cluster are often predefined, such as municipalities in a study about the
effect of a particular phenomenon across the country.

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Clustered sampling is further broken down into different types-single-stage cluster
sampling, where all individuals in a cluster sampling ,where all individuals in a cluster are
included in the sample, or two-stage cluster sampling, were only random are included in
the sample, are two- stage cluster sampling, where only random individuals within the
cluster are chosen.

The main benefit of clustered sampling is that some of the work is already done. A group
is already clearly defined. Therefore, it can be more efficient than other methods.
However, there can be bias in the study if the clusters do not accurately represent the
population as a whole.

Stratified sampling

Another method that uses subgroups is stratified samp1ing. This data collection method
involves dividing a population into subgroups that share similar characteristics.

For example, a study can break respondents down by gender or age. When the
components are easy to determine, like gender or age, the risk of bias is low, especially if
the data comes from the respondents. Stratified sampling reduces bias, but sometimes
characteristics are difficult to ascertain, which can either frustrate the sampling process or
invite bias.

Stratified and cluster sampling may sound similar. Here's the critical difference: In
stratified sampling, individuals are randomly, individuals are randomly selected from
each group (or strata in cluster sampling, only certain clusters are used.

DATA COLLECTION AND LEAD GENERATION

There are many methods businesses can used to collect and analyze customer
information.

The key to gaining more customers through market research is to tum data collection
into lead generation. The ideal result is not only generating more leads but recognizing
the opportunities that are likely to turn into increased sales.

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Understanding lead generation

Leads are the fuel of a company's sales engine. In the case of business- to-business
activity, a sales lead is a person or entity that has the potential to convert to a customer or
client. For businesses that have a large footprint and enjoy wide brand recognition, leads
can be broadly defined as most members of a community.

This is the case with B2C companies such as Walmart and McDonald's, which often
spend much less time and effort reaching their audience as a result.

Lead are identified through a variety of methods, data collection included. With more and
more individuals and business using the internet to shop for virtually every possible
product and service, online using the internet to shop for virtually every possible product
and service, online sources of lead generation are quite popular and effective. Almost 90
percent of all Americans use the internet, and the small percentage of those who don't use
it in their daily lives are typically older adults.

Leveraging online interactions to power lead generation

How do businesses successfully tap into the large percentage of people online? One of
the most effective ways to turn engagement with the public into valuable leads is by
using forms .Forms allow businesses to collect critical data from potential customers,
such as name, email address.industry.job title, and more.

While it's easy to understand how a form can collect this sort of information, the key step
is engaging potential customers and getting them to provide the information you need
One particularly effective method is to give potential customers something of value in
exchange for their information.

Such an incentive can be a discount code for becoming a member, a free downloadable
checklist, an e-book, or a white paper. This gives your potential customers a positive
interaction and association with your brand and provides you with the tools needed to
target them at a later date.

Gated content to capture potential

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Using a content gate can help you collect the information you want. A content gate
requires your potential customers to provide you with valuable contact information in
order to access material, discount codes, or other things of value you're offering. You can
also track the content for later use. Without a content gate, someone can view the content,
then move on without a content gate, someone can view the content, then move on
without ever being reminded about the benefits of your products or solutions.

Controlling the lead generation process

Using forms for downloadable content is an effective method for gathering high quality
leads, however, there is a risk of getting inaccurate information.

For example, a potential customer in the early stages of shopping for products and
services may be less likely to sue their email address because of spam fears. This can lead to
people creating separate email accounts for signing up for these sorts of downloads or
entering false email addresses to bypass a system.

More lead-generation tools.

In addition to use gated forms to collect lead data, businesses can used social media and
Search Engine Optimization (SEO).

Social media helps you to establish your brand as an authority and to connect with and
engage current and productive customers. Optimizing your website can help put your
brand in front 0 more internet searchers. Whether you employ forms, social media SEO,
or a combination of methods, it all starts with a lead-generation strategy that's tailored to
your business and your potential customers.

Collecting data with the Likert scale

Even those unfamiliar with data collection and research have probably had a brush
with the Likert scale. It's a series of questions or items that call for respondents to
provide an answer on a scale-for example, a range of one through six, with one meaning
strongly disagree and six meaning strongly agree with a given statement. If you're
conducting surveys, you need to know how to analyze Likert scale data.

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The Likert scale measures attitude, which can be a helpful indicator for businesses
looking to gauge customer opinions on products, services, and more. These slices usually
contain five to seven points and follow a linear pattern. Jot form makes incorporating
Likert scales into surveys and questionnaires easy.

What is informed consent?

Obtaining consent is an important component of online data collection. Jot form's consent
form templates allow users to create custom consent forms for variety of situations. These
include photo releases, parental consent, authorization to release, and other forms.
Healthcare providers in particular need to obtain informed consent before collecting data.
In order for informed consent to be valid, four elements generally need to be present.

a. The competency to make the decision

Competency is a legal term that is decided by a court. A person's capacity to make a

person's capacity to make decision I sort black and white.

Some decisions may be within a person's ability to make, while others may fall outside of
their ability .Adults are presumed t have the capacity to make informed consent decisions.

b. Disclosure by the medical provider of expected benefits and risks.

This is the informed part of the informed consent concept, and it places the burden on the
provider to fully inform someone before asking for the consent.

How much information do you have to disclose? The answer is adequate information to
make an informed decision. This likely means disclosing al of the potential risks and
benefits of a procedure, medication etc. and the likelihood of side effects or other adverse
reactions.

c. The person providing consent must understand the information

This elements is similar to capacity but can involve breaking down language barriers or
other factors that might impede understanding beyond capacity.

d. Consent must be given voluntarily

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This means that the permission is given of one's tree will, by choice and not through force
or compulsion. Facts that affect whether consent is voluntarily can include subtitle
elements such as whether socioeconomic status or obvious ones such s threats or coercion.

Why is informed consent important?

Without informed consent, you data will be invalid. Result from unknowing participants
have Jess value and are often unusable. With Jot form, you can ensure that you properly
document consent, making your job as a researcher, business owner or heath care provider
easier.

Survey feedback forms

Another area of interest for researchers is feedback on a surveyor research method.

Follow-up-question through a feedback form cancellation a study. For example, if
respondents don't understand the questions in a survey, their feedback can help a
researcher understand the reason for poor results or identify potential inaccurate findings.
Feedback can also help fuel process improvements in business.

Feedback can also incorporate some of the other elements of data collection, such as
Likert scale, to gauge satisfaction.

With these tools and forms, businesses can turn qualitative data into quantitative data
and draw meaningful conclusions from it. For example, feedback provides qualitative
data, such as how a participant felt after a study's conclusion. This emotional data can
be scored and assigned a value, which then can be used to gauge the effectiveness of a
particular components of a study.

Importance of data collection

1. Integrity of Research

A key reason for collecting data, be it through quantitative or qualitative methods is to

ensure that the integrity of the research questions is indeed maintained.

2. Reduce the likelihood of errors.

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The correct use of appreciate data collection of methods reduces the likelihood of errors
consistent with the results.

3. Decision making

To minimize the risk of errors in decision-making, it is important that accurate data 1S

collected so that the researcher doesn't make uniformed decision.

4. Save cost and time

Data collection saves the researcher time and funds that would otherwise be misspelt
without a deeper understanding of the topic or subject matter.

5. To support a need for a new, change, and or innovation

To prove the need for a change in the norm or the introduction of new information that
will be widely accepted, it is important to collect data as evidence to support these claims.

CONCLUSION

The underlying need for data collection is to capture quality evidence that seeks to
answer all the questions that have been posed. Through data collection businesses or
management can deduce quality information that is a prerequisite for making informed
decisions.

To improve the quality of information, it is expedient that data is collected so that you
can draw inferences and make informed decisions on what is considered factual.

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References

Kabir ,S.MS.(2013) Positive attitude can change life. Journal of Clittagong University
Teachers Association.

Kabir,S.M.S and Rashid UK,S.F(2017) .interpersonal values, inferiority Complex and

Psychology Welt Being of Teenage students.

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