KIBABII UNIVERSITY

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HISTORY

IMPERIALISM AND DECOLONIZATION AND NEOCOLONZATION FACTORS

THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
 INTRODUCTION

European interest in Africa began as early as the 1st century A.D. The Greeks, Romans,
Portuguese, British, French and the Dutch traded with communities along the eastern,
western and southern coast of Africa. This led to the development of trade routes and
trading centers, which opened of the African continent to exploration and missionary
work.

Explorers such as David Livingstone, John Speke, Johhan, Rebmann.James Grant,

Samuel Baker, Henry Morton Stanley, among others, revealed Africa's magnificent
features, organized kingdoms as well as her vast resources to the world.

European experienced the age of religious revival from the 16th century to the 19th
century. Many missionary societies and groups were formed with the aim of spreading
Christianity within and outside Europe. They included the London Missionary Society
(LMS), the Universities Mission to Control Africa (UMCA), the United Methodist Mission
(UMM), the White Fathers (WF) and the Holy Ghost Fathers (HGF). The missionaries
were eager to spread Christianity, western education and «civilization". They wanted to
stamp out the slave trade and replace it with legitimate trade.

For centuries, foreigners from Portugal, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Holland
and Italy interacted with Africans through trade, exploration and missionary work.
However, between 1884 and 1914, these Europeans, who were now a familiar sight in the
continent, threatened to destroy African political structures by invading and colonizing
the continent in what came to be the scramble for and partition of Africa.
 THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed an increase in European interest in Africa,
which was ignited by political, economic and social events in Europe. Britain, Germany,
France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies. This they did
to boost their social, economic and political standing. They partitioned Africa amongst
themselves after convening the Berlin Conference 1884-85.

The Berlin Conference was convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany chancellor,
to avoid involving his country in quarrels with other states over African colonies. He was
therefore, anxious for a peaceful division of Africa. The brutal invasion that preceded the
conference was portly reported as the scramble for Africa by the London Times.

During the scramble for and partition of the continent, the Europeans adopted carrot-and-
stick methods to acquire as many colonies as possible for themselves. This involved
persuading Africans to collaborate by offering them a reward, or a punishment if they did
not cooperate.

The European invasion elicited different reactions from Africans. Most communities
resisted, while only a few collaborated with the Europeans who were scheming to exploit
the economic resources that lay untapped in the continent Despite the resistance, most
African societies, except Liberia and Ethiopia, had been colonized by 1914.

Within a period of thirty years after the Berlin conference, many traditional kingdoms
and chiefdoms in Africa had changed beyond recognition, while others vanished almost
without a trace. An upheaval of unmatched proportions altered the lives of Africans and
Europeans forever.

DEFINING 'SCRAMBLE' AND PARTITION

The term scramble means to rush for, compete or struggle with others in order to get or
do something. The scramble for Africa refers to the rush and struggle for different parts
of Africa by European powers.

To partition is to divide something among people or to apportion something among

contenders or competitors. The partition of Africa refers to the dividing up or the sharing
of Africa by European nations
METHODS USED BY EUROPEANS TO ACQUIRE COLONIES IN AFRICA

Europeans employed various techniques to acquire colonies in Africa. They either used
a single method or a combination of methods in different regions.

1. SIGNING TREATIES

Europeans signed treaties with local1eaders and among themselves. The treaties between
Europeans and Africans include the ones between the Maasai and the British in 1904
and 1911, and that of Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and the British in 1900.The Anglo-
German Agreements of 1886 and 1890 are examples of treaties between European
powers.

By 1884, George Goldie of the United Africa Company, later renamed the Royal Niger
Company, bad signed 37 treaties with African leaders, bringing the Niger Delta, Yoruba
land and the Gambia under British control. Zambia was also acquired through a treaty
between the British and the King Lewanika of the Lori, who was acquainted with
missionaries.

Eastern Africa had two major players, the British and the Germans, although the
Portuguese, Italians and the French had a small share of the region. Harry John stones
treaties with chiefs in the Kilimanjaro and Witu areas in September 1884 facilitated
British trade. Two months later, Karl Peters signed treaties with the chiefs of
Uzigua,Ukmi,Usagara and Ungula in the Kilimanjaro region, placing them under German
protection.

Britain signed agreements with Portugal and France in 1890,while the Anglo-Italian
agreement was signed in 1891.By these treaties, Holy took over Eritrea and the Somali
coast, France took Madagascar while Portugal claimed Mozambique and Anglo. The
treaties favored the Europeans since they were written in their languages, which Africans
hardly understood .Some African leaders signed treaties under duress .For example, Karl
Peters is reported to have used a gun to compel Mwanga to sign a treaty.
2. MILITARY CONQUEST

Military force was the main method used to conquer the communities which registered
European domination. For example, the Asante, Nandi, Ndebele and Mandinka were
subdued through military expedition, with devastating consequences.

Armies swept through western Sudan from Senegal to Chad. By1898, the French had
overpowered the area around lake Chad, the Tukolar empire.Segu and Masina

The British used horse to suppress Malawi and Shona and Ndebele of Zimbabwe. The
Portuguese used force to establish their rule in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique

North Africa was also acquired forcefully with Britain getting Egypt and the Sudan. The
France acquired Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia through military attacks. The Italians used
force to occupy Eritrea, but their attack on Ethiopia failed as Menelik defeated them in
1896 at the Battle of Adowo.

3. A BLEND OF DIPLOMACY AND FORCE

On some occasions, European would use a combination of treaties and force. For
instance, the British initially signed treaties with the Ndebele (Moffat and Rudd
treaties),but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897 and the Chimurenga War
of] 896-1897.

4. TREACHERY

This method involved the policy of divide and rule. Under this method. Africans were
tricked and lured with gifts. The Europeans tricked Africans about their intentions by
using explorer .missionaries and traders who were on friendly terms with the Africans.

A good example of treachery is the Italians who signed a treaty of friendship with
Menelik II but published an Italian session that stated that Menelik had agreed that
Ethiopia should become an Italian protectorate.

5 COMPANY RULE

The British and the Germany used chartered companies to govern on behalf of the mother
country. In East Africa, the ,Imperial British East Africa company of Sir William
Mackinnon ruled on behalf of Britain, while Korl Peters thought the German East Africa
Company rule on behalf of Germany

The British also had the Royal Niger Company of George Goldie's operating in West
Africa and British South Africa Company of South Africa .The companies worked on
behalf of government setting up administrative posts in African territories which were
later recognized as spheres of influences by parent countries

The colonial power used company rule because they themselves lacked adequate
manpower and funds. In addition, the companies were already working in, making them
suitable to unitize However, company rule was short tied since the companies were
faced by a number of problems, among inadequate fund, poor transport inadequate
personnel and resistance from the locals. Most of these companies became bankrupt,
causing their home government to take over the administration of the colonies.

This meant that had to pay more attention to public opinion if they were to remain in
power. The majority of people favored the acquisition of colonies. Governments were
often persuaded to take action in order to appease public opinion. 1882,the French
Assembly agreed to ratify De Brazza's treaty with Chief' Makoko due to public
opinion .thus creating a French colony in the Congo. The French Prime Minister, Jules
Ferry stated: 'We must make an agreement that flatters the self-esteem of the French
public.'

Britain's Fredrick Lugard, commenting on public opinion, said: 'The popular demand that
Britain as the foremost colonizing power should not be backward in claiming her share
(of Africa) was irresistible. 'Bismarck remarked: 'At present, public opinion emphasizes
colony policy so strongly in Germany that the position of the government within Germany
largely depends on its (colony policy's) success. 'Consequently, Germany took over
South-West Africa (Namibia), Togo and Cameroon.

The press also influenced public opinion. Newspapers, for example the Daily Mail of
England, Kolonial Zeitang of Germany, Journal des Debates of France and Giomale dell
colonies of Italy, strongly favoured the acquisition of colonies.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONlES IN AFRICA

The Europeans initially considered colonies as worthless, burdensome and expensive.

However, 1914, save for Ethiopia and Liberia, they had partitioned the entire continent.

1. ECONOMIC REASONS

The industrial revolution in Europe in the 19th century precipitated the scramble .Britain
was the first European nation to industrialize, But when other nations such as Belgium,
France and Germany embraced the revolution, It dawned on Britain that she no longer
enjoyed a monopoly of European markets.

The British were also kicked out of America in 1776 after a bruising independence war
that saw Britain lose more markets and cheap sources of raw materials for their
industries. Other nations joined race, prompting European traders in various parts of
Africa to call upon their home governments for protection

Apart from the need for markets and cheaper sources of raw materials such as palm oil,
cotton, copper and iron core, Europe needed cheap labour in the production of the
required raw materials. This was readily available following the abolition of the slave
trade in Africa.

Another economic factor was the common speculation about the availability of deep
pockets of minerals in Africa .For centuries, gold and bronze were items of trade in
Africa, which was a clear sign that there could be more. The discovery of diamond of
Kimberly in the 1860s and gold in the 18705 raised the hopes of speculators of finding
vast minerals in the interior of Africa

The industrial revolution led to increased capital. Europe traders needed fresh areas to
invest it. They believed that investment in Africa was more profitable that in Europe>
since competition there was stiff. King Leopold, for instance got the support of Belgian
and British businessmen for This ventures in the Congo, as an investment of 40 million
francs brought a profit of 28miJlion francs between] 878 and 1908.The French Prime
Minister, Jules Ferry, is quoted to have said ,"Colonies are for rich countries one of the
most lucrative methods of investing capital
2. POLITICAL REASONS

a) The unification of Germany

By 1870, Britain and France were the most powerful nations in Europe. After the Franco-
Russian war of 1870-1871, Germany emerged as a mighty nation (more powerful than
France) following her unification under Kaiser William and Otto Von Bismarck.

Humiliated by this defeat, France had to do something to regain her lost glory. She also
lost, to Germany, her mineral-rich provinces of Alsace and Loraine. The competition in
Europe was getting too stiff for her losses, she turned her attention to Africa, acquiring
eight colonies in West Africa

b) Nationalism

A spirit natural pride spread throughout Europe in the late 19lh century. Nations felt they
had to acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. Citizens urged their government to
join the colonial race. Germany and Italy could only assert their newly-found power and
superiority by acquiring colonies in Africa. Besides German merchants pressed the
government to join the quest for colonies.

c) Militarism

In the 19th century, there were few major or prolonged wars in Europe. This translated
into fewer opportunities for glory or promotion for European Officers in the army.
Consequently, army officers favored colonial expansion and colonial wars, which gave
them such opportunities. British soldiers such as Wolseley Kirchner supported the
expansion of the British Empire in Africa. Similarly, in Western Sudan, It was the military
officers and extent of French colonization

In Europe, too, the press depicted the generals in the colonial wars as heroes, making them
popular among the reading public. In many cases these officers were given honours such
as knight hoods and peerages for their effort. For example, General Kitchener was knitted
and became Lord Kitchener.
d) Public Opinion

European states became more democratic in the last quarter of the 19th century. They
meant that they had to pay more attention to public opinion if they were to remain in
power. The majority of people favoured the acquisition of colonies. Governments were
often persuaded to take action in order to appease public opinion.

In 1882,the French Assembly agreed to ratify De Brazza's Treaty with Chief Makoko
due to public opinion, thus creating as French colony in Congo. The French prime
Minister, Jules Ferry, stated:' We must make an agreement that flitters the self-esteem of
the French public.

Britain's Fredrick Lugard, commenting on public opinion, said" The popular demand that
Britain as the foremost colonizing power should not be backward in claiming her share
(of Africa) was irresistible. 'Bismarck remarked: "At present, public opinion emphasizes
colony so strongly in Germany that the position of the Government within Germany
largely depends on its (colony policy's) success. 'Consequently Germany took over
South -West Africa (Namibia), Togo and Cameroon. The press also influenced public
opinion. Newspapers, for example the Daily Mail of England, Kolonia Zeitang of
Germany, Journal des Debats of France and Giomale delle colony of Italy, strongly
favoured the acquisition of colonies,

3. Strategies considerations

a) The Egyptian question

In their book, Africa and the Victorians, Robinson and Gallagher state that 'without the
occupation of Egypt, there is no reason to suppose that any international scrambles for
Africa, either east or west, would have begun when they did. 'This was the so-called
'Egyptian question.

'The Egyptian question referred to the ownership of the Suez Canal in Egypt. The
institution France had link with Egypt as early as 1798, when Napoleon Bonaparte
invaded it on the pretext of restoring its prosperity and saving it from the tyranny of the
Mamluk Beys from Turkey. However, his goal was to get Egypt's wealth and use it as a
base to invade Britain. This triggered the construction of the Suez Canal.
The canal was opened in 1869, having been constructed at a cost of 4 million sterling
pounds by the British and the French. The Suez was a shorter route to British investments
in India and the Far East colonies. It also provided a source of revenue for Egypt, as its
users paid taxes to the government.

Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879), the Egyptian ruler who was keen to developing his
country, got foreign loans for this purpose. Unfortunately, he was very extravagant It is
stated that during the opening of the Suez Canal, he spent 1 million sterling pounds on
entertainment only, This rendered bankrupt, and Khedive Ishmael was unable to repay the
loans. He offered to sell Egypt's shares in the Canal. Britain bought off the shares and
became the Jargest shareholder in the AnJo-Suez Company that owned the Canal.

Egypt's financial woes worsened in the 1870s .She remained indebted to Britain. Britain
and France set up a commission to regulate the finances of Egypt to enable Khedive
Ishmael to repay his debts. The King was in conflict with two commissioners, whom he
dismissed. The European powers urged the Sultan of Turkey to dethrone Khedive Ishmael.
This was achieved in 1879, leading to the installation of Sultan's son, Tawfig, as a puppet
viceroy.

The European control Egypt ignited a nationalist uprising led by Colonel Ahmed Urabi
Pasha. The army mutiny was protesting against foreign interference in the affairs of
Egypt. This revolt was crushed by the British forces alone at the Battle of Tel-el-Kebir, as
France was busy suppressing a rebellion in Tunisia.

In 1882, the British fully occupied Egypt, to the dismay of the French. The French in
tum planned the occupation of territories to the south of Egypt in order to divert the
waters of the Nile and make Egypt a desert. This move worried British, since Egypt
depend on the Nile. They would never let control of the Nile fall in the enemy's hands.
Britain went ahead and claimed Uganda in 1894 as it was believed to be the source of the
Nile, Kenya in 1895 as it was believed to be the gateway to Uganda and Sudan in 1898 as
the Nile passes through it.
b) French activities in the Congo and West Africa.

The loss of Egypt made France intensify her activities in West Africa and the Congo.
By the end of 1882, the French had occupied Porto Novo. Not to be left behind,
Germany joined the colonial race, claiming Togo, Cameroon, South-West Africa and
Tanganyika.

In 1880, an Italian adventurer in the service of France. Savorgnan de Brazza, signed

treaties with Congolese Chief Makoko. The French government accepted these treaties
in 1882.As a result, the scramble for colonies in the region went on unabated. This
threatened the British and Portuguese former claims in the Congo region.

c) The activities of King Leopold of Belgium

King Leopold II was the ruler of Belgium, a tiny European national. He travelled
worldwide and had an ambition to establish a personal empire.

He realized that powerful nations in Europe, such as Britain, derived their wealth and
prestige from their territories. This led him to observe that 'the world Lies before us.....
All the non- appropriated lands on the surface of the globe (mostly Africa) can become
the fields of our operations and success.

In 1876, Leopold called a meeting in Brussels (the Brussels Geographical Conference)

which resulted in the formation of the International Africa Association. Its members
were drawn from many European countries and it aimed at abolishing the slave trade,
supporting free trade and opening a number of stations from Zanzibar to the Atlantic, as
'centers of civilization'. He sent unsuccessful expeditions into the interior.

In 1879, be sent Hillary Morton Stanley to explore the River Congo. Stanley reported that
'the River is and will be the grand highway of commerce in West and Central Africa. 'By
1883,Stanley had established communication links between the cost and Stanley Falls.
As a result of these activities, Stanley created the Congo Free State, which had become
Leopold's personal empire by l884.Leopold was keen on obtaining rubber from the
Congo.
The activities of King Leopold distressed the Portuguese, who claimed to be the initial
explores of the River Congo. The Portuguese claim over the Congo was recognized by
Britain but was rejected by France and Belgium. The French who had lost their control
over Egypt to Britain, also turned their attention to West Africa This explains why France
sent De Brazza to sign treaties with Chief Makoko of the Congo.

As Portugal, Belgium and France made claims over the Congo, Germany and Britain
voiced their desire for colonies in the region. The mounting rivalries threatened to spark
off war among European nations in Africa. To avoid this, an international conference was
convened from November 1884 by the German Chancellor, Otto Von Bismarck.

4. Social reasons

a. Missionaries demand for protection

European missionaries came to Africa with the aim of spreading Christianity,

introducing western education, abolishing the slave trade and promoting legitimate trade.
The missionaries encountered a number of problems in different regions in Africa,
notably resistance from the local people. To overcome this, the missionaries asked their
home government to protect them. This was evident in the Lagos protectorate, Malawi
and Uganda where the British occupied the areas to protect their missionaries. The
missionaries held the view that European rule would definitely bring 'civilization' to
Africa. This gave rise to the popular saying that 'the flag follows the crosses.

b. The role of influential individuals in Europe

Influential men also fanned imperialism. In Britain, for instance, writer W.T. stead
encouraged the building of empires and overseas settlements. He further stated that the
British government needed 'to follow the adventurers with its authority and then restrain
the violent impulses of its settlers. Other personalities whose activities promoted
colonialism included Karl Peters, Harry Johnston, William Mackinnon and David
Livingstone.
c. The rise of racism and paternalism

In the first half of the 19th century, Europeans boasted superiority over other races.
They invoked Charles Darwin's theory of evolution based on the survival of the fittest,
adapting it to a new theory known as 'Social Darwinism'. They maintained the notion of
superiority of the White race to all other races.

Some people in Europe argued that the fittest and strongest among men should rule the
earth. This implied the whites ruling the blacks, as the former had gone through
industrialization and were greatly developed They felt that they were a superior race,
which had cultivated a better culture and had the duty to 'civilize' the blacks in the 'Dark
Continent' .

Cecil Rhodes in his remark about Englishmen claimed: 'We are the first race in the world
and the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race. 'The Europeans
argued that the rule and civilization were in the interests of the colonized people, who
would again little if left to rule themselves. Thus European paternalism stemmed from
European racism. Paternalism is the policy of governments controlling people b
providing them with what they need, but giving them no responsibility or freedom of
choice.

d) The growth of European population

In the 19th century, Europe's population grew steadily from about 190 million to about
420 million. This led to the quest for new outlets to resettle the surplus population.
Britain had earlier responded to this situation by settling some of her people in Australia,
New Zealand, the USA, Canada and South Africa

The Germans too encouraged their citizens to migrate to other races. This was supported
by a German nationalist, Fredrick Fabri, who recommended that Germany make more
colonies of her own to settle poor Germans. Others such as the Portuguese and the Dutch
also resettle their surplus population in Africa.

e ) Humanitarian factor
In the 19th century, groups emerged in Europe referring to themselves as humanitarians.
They campaigned against the slave trade, arguing that it undermined human dignity since
all men are equal. Such sentiments spread fast as more and more people embraced the
ideals of liberty, equality and brotherhood after the French Revolution.

Humanitarian like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp are remembered for their
remarkable role in the abolition of the slave trade. The set up centers from freed slaves in
Liberia, Sierra Leone and East Africa (Freetown and Bagamoyo ).Anti-slavery
movements could only succeed through effective occupation of the core areas of this
trade.it has been argued that the abolition of the slave trade was motivated by economic
reasons. Due to the industrial revolution, the Europeans depended on machines more
than human labour. This increased the need for raw materials and markets for the
manufactured goods. Africa stood out as a fertile hunting ground for both. This entailed
the replacement of the slave rode with legitimate trade.

5. The 'pull' factors in Africa

Having discussed the causes of the scramble for Africa in relation to Europe, let us now
focus on the situation in Africa.

The vast resources such as minerals, ivory, game products, palm oil, copra. spices, and
kola nuts, as well as good harbors for ships, were enticing to the foreigners. In the interior,
the existence of well-developed trade with trade routes and centers and navigable rivers
attracted Europeans, who competed with one another to exploit these rich resources.

Africa communities at the time were highly decentralized. They were made up of small
political nits which were weak and vulnerable .The communities were also frequently at
war with their neighbors, especially during slave raids. Africa societies were also
weakened by diseases and natural calamities such as drought and famine. These rendered
them easy to conquer.
 THE PROCESS OF PARTITION

Following the loaming crisis in the Congo region, which various countries including
Britain, France and Portugal were seeking to occupy, the Europeans came up with a
strategy to peacefully divide Africa among themselves. They convened the Berlin
Conference -whose main objectives was to set up rules for the diplomatic process of
portioning the African .cake ,.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884-1885)

The Berlin Conference was convened by the German Chancellor, Otto Von Bismarck, to
amicably settle the territorial disputes arising from the Congo Region and other parts of
Africa.

The conference took place from 15th November 1884 up to 26th February 1885 with
participants from Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal and Italy. It is
interesting to note that Africans were although it was their content which was being
subdivided.

Bismarck's objectives was to Jay down the rules for the partition and in doing so
eliminate conflicts among European nations. The conference was concerned was with the
Congo and Niger basins and was to define any area effectively occupied by each nation
to avoid interference. it was also aimed at sorting out different European views on the
slave trade and its abolition.

After much deliberation, King Leopold II of Belgium was given the Congo Free State
while Germany got Togo, Cameroon and South-West Africa. Britain gained control over
Niger. Article 35 of the Berlin Act stated: 'The signatory powers of the present Act
recognize the obligation to ensure the establishment of authority in regions occupied by
them on the coast of the Africa continent

Slave trading had to be abolished as stated in Article 6 of the Berlin Act: 'All the powers
bind themselves to watch over the preservation of native tribes, and to care for the
improvement of the conditions of their moral and material well-being and to help in
suppressing slavery, and especially the slave trade. 'The article went on to say that to
'help in bringing home to them the blessing of civilization ... ". Christian missionaries ....
scientists and explorers ... shall ... be the objects of special protection ..... Religious
toleration(is) expressly guaranteed to the natives no less than to subjects and to foreigners.

TERMS OF THE BERLIN ACT.

The main terms of the Berlin Act were:

1. That any state laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties.

These claims must be discussed and ratified if they are justifiable. (This was to help avoid
future rivalry and conflicts).

2. That all signatories must declare their 'sphere of influence' -an area under each
nation's occupation. (This led to the drawing of borders on a map in Berlin.)

3. That once an area is declared a 'sphere of influence', effective occupation must be

established in the area (.This would ensure that the area be protected and free trade
guaranteed. )

4. That any power acquiring territory Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade and
'safeguard African interests'. (They also agreed to protect Christian missionaries, traders,
scientists and explorer from local attacks.)

5. That the River Congo and River Niger basins are to left free for any interested power
to navigate.(The powers also recognized Leopold's claims over the Congo Free State)

6. That if a European power claims a certain part of the Africa Coast, the land in the
interior or behind that coastal possession becomes a sphere of influence of the claimant.

7. That any country that wishes to declare a protectorate in Africa has a show that its
authority in the region is firm enough to protect existing European rights and guarantee
free trade.
Impact of partition

The partition affected the Europeans and Africans in various ways.

1. The Europeans gained fame, prestige, and recognition by having colonial possessions.

For instance, the acquit ion of colonies in Africa boosted France's self-esteem, which
she had lost owing to her defeat in Europe in 1870.She acquired a new position in the
political map of Europe.

2. The partition speeded up the economic growth of the European countries, labour
and markets, which enhanced the growth. of their industries. This promoted trade,
assuring the Europeans of huge profits. For Example, King Leopold II soon gained a
virtual monopoly of the Congo trade which favoured the Belgian economy. However,
Africans suffered as their economies were disrupted by the Europeans.

3. The present-day boundaries in Africa were drawn as Europeans set up their sphere of
influence, regardless of the existing boundaries and ethnic groups. This led to border
conflict in Africa.

4. The partition led to the introduction of European administrative systems throughout

the continent. The French applied assimilation whereas the British used both direct and
indirect rule.

5. European nations introduced their languages in the content. Today in Africa, there
are French-speaking or francophone countries (Senegal, Cote' Ivoire, English -speaking
or Anglophone countries (Kenya, Zimbabwe) and Portuguese-speaking or Isophone countries
(Angola, Mozambique)-thanks to the partition.

6. The setting up of boundaries split some communities. For example, the Somali are
found in both Kenya and Somali, the Maasai in Tanzania and Kenya and Ewe in Ghana
and Togo.

7. The European invasion led to the fall of some African kingdoms. Most people lost
their independence as Europeans established their rue over them.ln West Africa, the
kingdoms of Asante and Dohoney fell under Europeans occupation.
8. As the Europeans brought Africa under effective rule, the next step was to develop
their colonies. They put in place exploitative economic measures such as land alienation,
forced labour and taxation. They introduced the monetary economy in Africa as they
developed agriculture, transport and communication, trade and industry for the benefit of
the colonial masters.

9. Their activities too led to the erosion of African cultures. Through missionary work,
western forms of education, medicine and language were introduced, thus undermining
the indigenous cultures. Africa traditional societies were therefore eroded.

10. The partition influenced state formation in Africa in the pot-colonial period. During
the struggle for independent, Africans created new states which were based on the new
colonial territories that were set up after the partition.

11. Because of the partition, Africa has continued to maintain closer ties with European
countries through trade, education and diplomatic relations. In many instances, this has
created overdependence on Europe for financial and technical support. If this situation
continues unchecked, Africa is bound to remain permanently under neo-colonialism.

Without the level of technology in Europe, the scramble for and the partition of Africa
would have been possible.

The invention of steamships and development of rail transport made the Europeans'
access to Africa possible. The discovery of quinine to cure Malaria, a major killer diseases,
made it possible for the Europeans to penetrate the interior of Africa. Military
advancement gave them an upper band over the Africans.

The manufactures sophisticated weapons especially the Maxim gun invented by Hiram,
which could fire 250 rounds per minute. This scenario s captured by a European poet who
stated that 'whatever happens, we have got the Maxim gun, and they have no.' Africa
military weakness favoured Europe's quest for colonies. Each power rushed to exerts its
influence on the continent. For example, France furrier to occupy Dahomey, fearing that
the Germans or the British would annex it. Post-independent Africa in the 21st century
is now the focus of a new scramble with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of
the Cold War, the United States of America and Europe powers have been trying to asset
their own economic and political interests in Africa. The search for alternative sources of
energy such as oil and gas, due to the volatile situation in the Middle East, has led to the
oil rush in sub-Saharan Africa.

The new scramble may lead to conflict, corruption and environmental degradation of the
continent. African leaders should adopt policies that will end the syndrome of dependency
on foreigner, layout strategies to save Africa from the new scramble by European
national, and ultimately stamp out neo-colonialism

African reaction to European colonization

African communities reacted differently to European colonization. Their reaction to

foreign invasion could be classified into resistance and collaboration.

There were two forms of resistance: active and passive resistance. Active resistance
refers to the use of weapons by Africans to fight the foreigners and prevent them from
establishing colonial rule over them, for example the Nandi of Kenya, the Ndebele of
Zimbabwe and the Mandinka of West Africa.

Passive resistance refers to the deliberate adoption of a non-cooperative approach with

the colonizer, but devoid violence. Some communities refused to work on European.
 CONCLUSION

European nations such as Britain, Germany .France .Portugal, Italy and Belgium needed
colonies to serve as sources of raw materials, provide ready markets for their goods,
provide new areas for investment .trade and the settlement of surplus population, and to
boost their prestige.

In addition, the missionaries desired to spread Christian, stamp out the slave and replace it
with legitimate trade. These factors Jed to the scramble for and partition of Africa.
European countries, using various methods e.g. treaty-making, trickery, the policy of
divide-and-rule and military force, eventually occupied most of Africa.

The local communities responded to the invasion by either resisting or

collaborating .Communities such as Ndebele, Mandinka and people of southern
Tanganyika reacted violently to oppressive European policies such as land alienation,
forced labour, low pay, heavy taxation, lack of political representation and other
discriminatory measures.

On the other hand, collaborators such as the Lozi, and the Baganda hoped to benefit
through the acquisition of wealth, guns and ammunition, missionary education and
protection from neighboring communities.

European occupation was boosted by African disunity, collaboration, signing of treaties

and weakness attributed to increased warfare and natural calamities during the period.
On the other hand, the Europeans had the advantage of superior weapons and the cure
for malaria (quinine).

Finally. the Europeans laid down rules for occupation by adopting the resolutions of the
Berlin Conference (1884-1885).By 1914, the entire African continent, save for Ethiopia
and Liberia, was colonized.
 References

Carr,E.H "What is History? Renguin (2008)

Thompson,D.(1969).Aims of History London. MacMillan Press.