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Handout No. 6
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
Second Semester/ SY 2020-2021

Topic/Reference/s. Learning
Day Instructions
Page Nos. Competencies

Baraceros, E. Practical
Research 1 1st Edition. c.
2016. Rex Publishing. Read the discussion
chooses appropriate
Unit V: Understanding about “Appropriate
qualitative research
1 Data and Ways to Qualitative Research
design
Systematically Collect Design”
Data pp.2-5
Unit VI : Finding Answers
through Data Collection

Baraceros, E. Practical
Research 1 1st Edition. Read the discussion
c. 2016. Rex Publishing. about “Describing
describes sampling
Unit V: Understanding Sampling Procedure and
procedure and
2 Data and Ways to Sample ”
sample
Systematically Collect pp. 5-7
Data
Unit VI : Finding Answers
through Data Collection

Baraceros, E. Practical
Read the discussion
Research 1 1st Edition. c.
about “Data Collection
2016. Rex Publishing. plans data collection
and Analysis Procedure ”
Unit V: Understanding and analysis
pp. 7-10
3 Data and Ways to procedures
Systematically Collect Answer SA3
Data p.11
Unit VI : Finding Answers
through Data Collection

Understanding Data and Ways to

Systematically Collect Data - Research
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 Methodology
Objectives: At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 chooses appropriate qualitative research design
 describes sampling procedure and sample
 plans data collection and analysis procedures

Lesson 1 Appropriate Qualitative Research Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the
research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
Phenomenology

Purpose, goal - to describe experiences as they are lived

 examines uniqueness of individual's lived situations

 each person has own reality; reality is subjective

Research question development

 What does existence of feeling or experience indicate concerning the

phenomenon to be explored
 What are necessary & sufficient constituents of feeling or experience?
 What is the nature of the human being?

Method

 No clearly defined steps to avoid limiting creativity of researcher

 Sampling & data collection

 Seek persons who understand study & are willing to express inner
feelings & experiences
 Describe experiences of phenomenon
 Write experiences of phenomenon
 Direct observation
 Audio or videotape

Data analysis

 Classify & rank data

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 potential future effects

Method

 Formulate idea - select topic after reading related literature

 Develop research questions
 Develop an inventory of sources - archives, private libraries, papers
 Clarify validity & reliability of data - primary sources, authenticity, biases
 Develop research outline to organize investigative process
 Collect data

Analysis - synthesis of all data; accept & reject data; reconcile conflicting evidence

Outcomes - select means of presentation - biography, chronology, issue paper

Case study

Purpose - describe in-depth the experience of one person, family, group, community, or
institution

Method

 Direct observation and interaction with subject

Analysis - synthesis of experience

Outcomes - in-depth description of the experience

Data collection

 Interview with audiotape & videotape

 Direct, non-participant observation
 Participant observation
 Field notes, journals, logs

Reliability & validity - rigor

Use of researcher's personality

 Involvement with subject's experience

 Live with data collection until no new information appears

Bracketing

 Researcher suspends what is known about the phenomenon

 Keeping an open context
 Set aside own preconceptions

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Intuiting

 Process of actually looking at phenomenon

 Focus all awareness & energy on topic
 Absolute concentration & complete absorption in phenomenon

Can use > 1 researcher & compare interpretation and analysis of data

Data analysis

 Living with data

 Cluster & categorize data
 Examine concepts & themes
 Define relationships between/among concepts

Lesson 2 Describing Sampling Procedure and

Sample
A. Stage 1: Clearly Define Target Population
The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target population. Population is commonly
related to the number of people living in a particular country.
B. Stage2: Select Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample will be drawn. The sampling frame must
be representative of the population.
C. Stage 3: Choose Sampling Technique
Prior to examining the various types of sampling method, it is worth noting what is meant by sampling,
along with reasons why researchers are likely to select a sample. Taking a subset from chosen sampling
frame or entire population is called sampling. Sampling can be used to make inference about a
population or to make generalization in relation to existing theory. In essence, this depends on choice of
sampling technique.
In general, sampling techniques can be divided into two types:
 Probability or random sampling
 Non- probability or non- random sampling
Before choosing specific type of sampling technique, it is needed to decide broad sampling technique.

1. Probability Sampling
Probability sampling means that every item in the population has an equal chance of being included in
sample. One way to undertake random sampling would be if researcher was to construct a sampling
frame first and then used a random number generation computer program to pick a sample from the
sampling frame (Zikmund, 2002). Probability or random sampling has the greatest freedom from bias but
may represent the most costly sample in terms of time and Sampling Techniques
1.1. Simple random sampling
The simple random sample means that every case of the population has an equal probability of inclusion
in sample. Disadvantages associated with simple random sampling include (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005):
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A complete frame ( a list of all units in the whole population) is needed;  In some studies, such as
surveys by personal interviews, the costs of obtaining the sample can be high if the units are
geographically widely scattered;  The standard errors of estimators can be high.
1.2. Systematic sampling Systematic sampling is where every nth case after a random start is selected. For
example, if surveying a sample of consumers, every fifth consumer may be selected from your sample.
The advantage of this sampling technique is its simplicity.
1.3. Stratified random sampling Stratified sampling is where the population is divided into strata (or
subgroups) and a random sample is taken from each subgroup. A subgroup is a natural set of items.
Subgroups might be based on company size, gender or occupation (to name but a few). Stratified
sampling is often used where there is a great deal of variation within a population. Its purpose is to
ensure that every stratum is adequately represented (Ackoff, 1953).
1.4. Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is where the whole population is divided into clusters or groups.
Subsequently, a random sample is taken from these clusters, all of which are used in the final sample
(Wilson, 2010). Cluster sampling is advantageous for those researchers whose subjects are fragmented
over large geographical areas as it saves time and money (Davis, 2005). The stages to cluster sampling can
be summarized as follows:  Choose cluster grouping for sampling frame, such as type of company or
geographical region  Number each of the clusters  Select sample using random sampling
1.5. Multi-stage sampling Multi-stage sampling is a process of moving from a broad to a narrow sample,
using a step by step process (Ackoff, 1953). If, for example, a Malaysian publisher of an automobile
magazine were to conduct a survey, it could simply take a random sample of automobile owners within
the entire Malaysian population. Obviously, this is both expensive and time consuming. A cheaper
alternative would be to use multi-stage sampling. In essence, this would involve dividing Malaysia into a
number of geographical regions. Subsequently, some of these regions are chosen at random, and then
subdivisions are made, perhaps based on local authority areas. Next, some of these are again chosen at
random and then divided into smaller areas, such as towns or cities. The main purpose of multi-stage
sampling is to select samples which are concentrated in a few geographical regions. Once again, this
saves time and money.

2. Non probability
Sampling Non probability sampling is often associated with case study research design and qualitative
research. With regards to the latter, case studies tend to focus on small samples and are intended to
examine a real life phenomenon, not to make statistical inferences in relation to the wider population
(Yin, 2003). A sample of participants or cases does not need to be representative, or random, but a clear
rationale is needed for the inclusion of some cases or individuals rather than others.
2.1. Quota sampling
Quota sampling is a non random sampling technique in which participants are chosen on the basis of
predetermined characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics
as the wider population (Davis, 2005).
2.2. Snowball sampling Snowball sampling is a non random sampling method that uses a few cases to
help encourage other cases to take part in the study, thereby increasing sample size.
This approach is most applicable in small populations that are difficult to access due to their closed
nature, e.g. secret societies and inaccessible professions (Breweton and Millward, 2001). 2.3.
Convenience sampling Convenience sampling is selecting participants because they are often readily and
easily available. Typically, convenience sampling tends to be a favored sampling technique among
students as it is inexpensive and an easy option compared to other sampling techniques (Ackoff, 1953).

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Convenience sampling often helps to overcome many of the limitations associated with research. For
example, using friends or family as part of sample is easier than targeting unknown individuals.
2.4. Purposive or judgmental sampling Purposive or judgmental sampling is a strategy in which particular
settings persons or events are selected deliberately in order to provide important information that
cannot be obtained from other choices (Maxwell, 1996). It is where the researcher includes cases or
participants in the sample because they believe that they warrant inclusion. Table 1 illustrates strengths
and weaknesses associated with each respective sampling technique.

Lesson 3 Data collection and Analysis procedures

Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
1. Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis
2. Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting
Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore data is usually collected from
a smaller sample than would be the case for quantitative approaches - therefore this makes qualitative
research more expensive.
The benefits of the qualitative approach is that the information is richer and has a deeper insight into the
phenomenon under study.The main methods for collecting qualitative data are: Individual interviews
1. Unstructured
a. Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews
b. They have very little structure at all
c. The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics,
sometimes as few as just one or two
d. The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the interviewee and his/her
previous response
e. This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail
f. They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a specific topic
without there being a structure or a preconceived plan or expectation as to how they will
deal with the topic
2. Semi structured
a. Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews
b. A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover
c. A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the interviewee
d. 'The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but
provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in
more detail'
e. Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to promt or encourage the interviewee if
they are looking for more information or find what they are saying interesting
f. This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to elaborate or
to follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the interviewee is saying
g. Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be sure to be
addressing
2. Structured

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 a. The interviewed asks the respondent the same questions in the same way
b. A tightly structured schedule is used
c. The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of responses may be given -
i.e. 'Do you rate our services as very good, good or poor'
d. A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured interview is more
appropriate
e. 'If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the phenomena
under investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or depth.' Qualitative
interviews should be fairly informal and participants feel they are taking part in a
conversation or discussion rather than in a formal question and answer situation. There is
skill required and involved in successful qualitative research approaches - which requires
careful consideration and planning Good quality qualitative research involves:
1. Thought
2. Preparation
3. The development of the interview schedule
4. Conducting and analysing the interview data with care and consideration
Focus groups
The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain information from a group rather
than individuals.
Group interviews can be used when:
1. Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)
2. The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to understand the
circumstances, behaviour or opinions
3. Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic - or cause and consequence
Characteristics of a focus group:
1. Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the potential
on the amount of information collected, and more may make it difficult for all participants to
participate and interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the information given
2. Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the
investigation. i.e. focussing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of several
groups will add to the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus groups is
recommended for best practice approaches
3. Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the
investigation
4. Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the
group dynamics of both situations
The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions This
method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:
1. group skills 2.
facilitating
3. moderating
4. listening/observing
5. analysis

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Observations
Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and
descriptive notes of what is happening.
It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural' settings and that
the presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.
Limitations with observation include:
1. Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed 2. A
'snap shot' view of a whole situation
3. Think Big Brother...
4. The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes
5. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what
has been observed Strengths of observation
1. Can offer a flavour for what is happening
2. Can give an insight into the bigger picture
3. Can demonstrate sub-groups
4. Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research
Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant observer, where they are taking
part in the situation in order to be accepted and further understand the workings of the social
phenomenon.
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how
people actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular
way).
Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying information provided in face to face
encounters.'
People or environment can be observed.
When environment is researched, it can provide valuable background information that may inform other
aspects of the research.
Techniques for collecting data through observation
1. Written descriptions
a. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or environment
b. Limitations include
i. Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes
ii. The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation
iii. There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening
2. Video recording
a. Allows the researcher to also record notes
b. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others avoiding
the camera
c. The camera may not always see everything
2. Photographs and artefacts
a. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena such as
buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance
b. Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments, tools etc
Documentation

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 1. Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a local paper,
information on a notice board, administrative policies and procedures...etc previous research, even
Action Research
Action Research is a framework that is:
1. Collaborative
2. There is a practical intervention made - i.e. you do something to make a change or intervention in
a situation that you research (i.e. the work that we do in vcs...project monitoring and
evaluation...use for bids)
3. The researcher will be actively involved in the planned intervention
4. Checklands FMA model
a. F - framework of ideas
b. M - methodology being applied
c. A - area of concern

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