6.

THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE True Experiment (Includes the ff

properties:)
Research Design  Manipulation
 Plan of how the study will be  Control
conducted.  Randomization
 Type of data will be collected  Validity
 Techniques to obtain data. Quasi Experimental
 Reasons for the choice of the  Includes 2-3properties of true
subjects experiment
 Manner of determining sample size Experimental Research
 Instruments to be used and their Threats to Internal Validity
validation  Selection bias
 Statistical tool and Data analysis  History
 Maturation
Quantitative Research  Testing
 Hard science  Instrumentation change
 Inquiry of cause and effect  Mortality
relationships. Threats to External Validity
 Survey  Hawthorne effect
 Methodological  Experimenter effect
 Evaluative  Reactive effects of the pretest
 Content
 Analysis NON-EXPERIMENTAL
Qualitative Research Basic Research
 Soft science • Done for development of theories and
 In-depth description of people or principles.
events and data collected • Conducted for the intellectual pleasure or
 Phenomenological learning
 Ethnography Applied Research
 Grounded - Historical Research
 Theory - Descriptive Research
 Historical • Concerned with using knowledge to
 Case Studies solve immediate problems
 Biographies Historical Research
• Type of research that examines past
events.
• Identify the relationship that the past has
to the present.
Descriptive Research
- Descriptive Survey
- Correlational
- Comparative
• Is used to obtain information concerning
the current status of the phenomena to
describe "what exists“.
Descriptive Survey
• Used to gather data concerned with
EXPERIMENTAL characteristics of a certain phenomena
-An attempt by the researcher to maintain Comparative
control over all factors that may affect the • Compares the likeness and difference
result of an experiment. In doing this, the among groups, populations and
researcher attempts to determine or Correlation
predict what may occur. • Determine the extent of the relationship
between two or more variables.
7. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION
Guidelines for Developing Research
Instruments
1. Instrument must suit the purpose of the
study.
2. Gather needed data for testing
hypotheses and answering questions in
the study.
3. Indicators must be valid, arranged
logically and relate to the problems and
hypotheses
4. Indicators should be stated that
responses will not be biased.
5. Reliable and can produce comparable
data when used on different subjects
6. Constructed in such a way that cheating
is
minimized
7. Instrument should be easy to
administer. Directions are specific and
simply stated
8. Scale of measurement must be
appropriate and reliable
Types of Research Instrument
 Questionnaire
 Interview
 Anectodal Records and other
Documentary Materials
 Mechanical Instruments
Methods of Interviewing
1. Personal Interview
2. Telephone Surveys
3. Mall Surveys
4. Computer Direct Interviews
5. E-mail Surveys
6. Internet/Intranet Surveys
Preparation of the Questionnaire and
the Interview Schedule
1. Decide whether data will be collected
through
interview or questionnaire
 How instrument should be
structured
 What information will be gathered
2. Determine which information is sought
3. Prepare brief introduction and cover
letter
4. Determine the general content of the
question.
 Choose exact word
 Arrange in proper sequence
5. Prepare draft
6. Subject the draft to critical review and
pre-
testing
7. Administer the revised draft
Types of Questions
1. Open-ended
Examples:
- What is it like to survive cancer?
- How was your stay in this hospital?
- Why did you choose to be treated here?
PROS
 Provide rich in depth data
 Do not restricts participants’
answers
 Detailed information
 Gain good insight regarding
participants’ opinions
 Let respondents raise issues
CONS
 Difficult to capture all answer
 Difficult for participants to answer
 May produce answers not relevant
to the question
 May allow people not to brother to
answer questions fully
Types of Questions
2. Closed Ended
- Answerable by short factual answer
PROS
 Quick to answer
 Easy to understand
 Engage people, including those
with limited literacy skills
 Easy to quantify responses
 Avoid overly lengthy answers
CONS
 Can be leading
 Respondents can only answer in
ways the question allows
 Respondents cannot raise new
issues
Scaling Question Responses
Agreement Scale
• Allow respondents to match their level of
agreement with the statement.
• Closely fits what they think or feel.
(STRONGLY AGREE, AGREE,
UNDECIDED, DISAGREE, STRONGLY
DISAGREE)
Evaluation Scale
• Measures how good or bad they rated an
experience, process or product.
(EXCELLENT, VERY GOOD,
UNDECIDED, POOR, VERY POOR)
Frequency Scale
• Measures response represents
experience
on all, some or only a very few occasions.
(ALWAYS, USUALLY, SOMETIMES,
RARELY, NEVER)
Visual Analogue Scale
Excellent --- Very Poor
 Engages people even with limited
literacy skills, the use of pictures
can enhance the ability of the
researcher to collect data
Types of Closed-ended Questions
1. Dichotomous Items
2. Multichotomous Items
3. Cafeteria Questions
4. Rank Order Questions
5. Checklist
Types of Error
1. Telescoping Error
2. Recall Loss
Characteristics of Good Questions
1. Specifically answer the research
problem
2. Clearly and briefly stated
3. Objective and detached from the
researcher’s own judgment
4. Responses are easy to interpret and
tabulate
5. Use of language appropriate to
respondents’ level of understanding
6. Neatly printed
7. Bear the researcher’s signature
Ways of Stating Research Questions
1. State in the affirmative rather than
negative manner
2. Questions should be neutrally worded
to avoid biased responses
3. Ambiguous questions must be avoided.
4. Avoid double negative questions.
5. Avoid double barreled questions or two
questions stated as one.
Advantages of Questionnaire
 Facilitates data gathering
 Easy to test data for reliability and
validity
 Less time consuming
 Preserves the anonymity and
Confidentiality
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
 Printing and mailing is costly
 Response rate may be low
 Respondents may provide only
socially acceptable answers
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
 Less chanceto clarifyambiguous
answers
 Respondents must be literate and
with no physical handicaps
 Rate of retrieval can be low
Advantages of Interview
 Responses are broad and varied
 Respondents can give complete
 answers if questions are well
structured
 Verbal and non-verbal behavior
can be observed
 There is flexibility in questions
Disadvantages of Interview
 Time consuming and expensive
 Schedule for interview may be
difficult to make
 Respondents’ answers may be
 Influenced by behavior
 Interviewers need training
What is Field Test or Dry Run?
 Assess for validity and reliability by
means of pre-test or dry run before
the actual study
 Pre-test respondents are part of
the population but will not
participate in the actual study
Purposes for Conducting a Field Test
1. To determine feasibility of the study
2. To validate the instruments for
measuring the variables
3. Check the reliability of the instrument
Purposes for Conducting a Field Test
4. Provide a dry run to ensure efficiency
and
effectiveness
5. Ensure the use of correct language
6. Assess and evaluate study procedures
7. Revisions are made on both the content
and structure

Criteria for Evaluating the Instrument
Efficiency – refers to the capability to
measure items within a given time frame.
Sensitivity – ability to distinguish
characteristics of individuals or
phenomena.
Reliability – degree of consistency or
accuracy
Validity - degree to which an instrument
measures what it intends to measure
8. POPULATION AND SAPLING
PROCEDURES
SAMPLING
 Selecting a given number of
persons, objects or events called
subset from a given population by
a specified selection process
(Cooper,2003).
Advantages of Sampling
 Makes possible the study of a
 large, heterogenous group
 For economy
 For speed Accuracy
 Saves the sources of data
Disadvantages of Sampling
 If sampling is biased, or too small
the conclusion may not be valid
and reliable
 The respondents must have a
common characteristics which is
the basis of the study.
 If the population is very large and
there are many sections and
subsections, sampling procedure
becomes very complicated.
 If the researcher lacks necessary
skills and know how in sampling
procedure, sampling may become
biased
Sloven Formula
n= N
1+ Ne2
where: n=number of samples
N=population
e=sampling error (1%-10%)
GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING
PROBABILITY
 The sample is a proportion of the
population and such sample is
selected from the population by
means of some way in which every
element of the population has a
chance of being included in the
sample.
NON-PROBABILITY
 The sample is not a proportion of
the population and there is no
system in selecting the sample.
The selection depends upon the
situation.
NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Accidental or Convenient Sampling
• Respondents are selected because of
their convenient accessibility.
Qouta Sampling
• Sampling in which the researcher selects
Quota Sampling respondents according to
some fixed quota.
Purposive or Judgment Sampling
• Subjects are chosen because of their
specific characteristics
Snowball Sampling
• Respondents are chosen based on
referral
Non-Probability Sampling
Advantages
- Convenient - Economical
Disadvantages
- Biased samples
- Some elements may have no chance to
be included in the study
Simple Random Sampling
• Randomly or by chance selecting sample
from the population.
Stratified Random Sampling
• Dividing the population into strata based
from important categories relevant to the
research interest.
Cluster Sampling
• Used in natural grouping
• The entire population is divided into
groups, or clusters, and a random sample
of these clusters are selected. All
observations in the selected clusters are
included in the sample.
Sequential or Systematic Sampling
- Researcher chooses every nth
Probability
Advantages
- Less bias
- Every element has equal chance to be
selected
Disadvantages
- Time consuming
- Expensive
– Inconvenient
- Impossible to obtain
9. METHODS TO MEASURE
VARIABLES
Key Features of Quantitative Research
Consistency (Reliability)
• Refers to whether a method or
measurement will repeatedly
give the same result if used by
the same person more than
once
Accuracy (Validity)
• Refers to the ability of
methodology to measure what it
is supposed to measure
Quantitative Design
 General Observations to Specific
Outcomes
Qualitative Design
 Specific Observations to General
Outcomes
 The specific and well – defined
nature of the outcome measures
(the research findings) means that
the results of quantitative research
are often capable of being
generalized.
 Generalisability is an important
feature of quantitative research
because it allows the researcher to
have a fair degree of certainty that
the findings of the research apply
to people that have the same, or
broadly similar, characteristics as
the people involved in the study.
Choosing what Questions to Ask
 Nature of the study
 Topic being explored
 Aims and Objectives of the study
Existing Quantitative Data Tools
FOCUS
 Individuals’ Perceptions of their
own physical and psychological
well - being
 Perceived state of health (Chronic
Disease)
 Quality of Life of People with Heart
Disease
 Physical Well - being
 Psychological Well - Being
 Social Well - Being
TOOL
 Short Form 36 (SF 36) www.sf-
36.org
 Kidney Disease Quality of Life
Short Form (KDQOL –SD)
 The MacNew Heart Disease
Health – related Quality of Life
Instrument
 Karnofsky Performance Scale
Index
 Psychological General Well –
Being Index
 Social Activities Satisfaction
Instrument
STATISTICAL DATA
Descriptive Statistics
• Used to describe data
• 1st step in any statistical treatment
• Uses measures of central tendency
and variability (standard
deviation)
Inferential Statistics
• Provide an objective way of
quantifying the strength of
evidence for the hypothesis
• To demonstrate that the findings
extend beyond the sample
Measures of Central Tendency
 Arithmetic Mean: also known as
average
 Mean is calculated by adding all of
the values
Example:
All the ages of people involved in the
study
Number of people involved in the study
Measures of Central Tendency
 Median: middle value in an
ordered set of values
Example:
Find the median: 7, 5, 4, 6, 7, 14, 11, 5, 9,
10 ,12
Put the data in order: 4, 5, 5,6, 7, 7, 9, 10,
11, 12, 14
Select the middle value: 4, 5, 5,6, 7, 7, 9,
10, 11, 12, 14
Measures of Central Tendency
 Mode: most frequently occurring
number in a setof observations.
Example
Find the mode: 7, 5, 4, 6, 7, 14, 11, 5, 9,
10, 12
If there two modes: Bimodal
If there are more than two modes:
Multimodal

Measures of Central Tendency
 Range: is the difference between
the largest observation of a data
set and the smallest observation.
Example:
7, 5, 4, 6, 7, 14, 11, 5, 9, 10, 12
Range: 4-14
Answer: 10
Standard Deviation
 Mean of the difference from the
mean of each of the observations
being reported.
Example:
1. Find the arithmetic mean
7,5,4,6,7,14,11,5,9,10,12=8.2
2. Find the difference between each
observation and the
mean (7-8.2=-1.2)
-1.2, -3.2, -4.2, -2.2, -1.2, 5.8, 2.8, -3.2,
0.8, 1.8, 3.8
3. Square these differences for example
(-1.2 x – 1.2) = 1.44
1.44(+)10.24(+)17.64(+)1.44(+)33.64(+)7.
84(+)10.24(+)0.64(+)3.24(+)14.44
4. Add together these squared
differences=105.64
5. Divide this number by the number of
observations minus one = 9.6
6. Find the square root of this number =
3.1
Inferential Statistics
 Is a word used to indicate that the
statistical findings are subject to
some presumption on the part of
the person doing the statistics.
Presented as:
 Probabilities (p values)
 Remain open to proved or
disproved
Inferential Statistics
 A p value of 0.1 (usually written as
p=0.1) would mean that there is a
10% chance that the findings of the
study occurred by chance.
 The lower the number the better
P =0.02 vs. P=0.08
 A p value of 0.1 (usually written as
p=0.1) would mean that there is a
10% chance that the findings of the
study occurred by chance.
 The lower the number the better
Data Types
Nominal
• Basically refers to categorically discrete
data such as name of your school, type of
car you drive or name of a book
Ordinal
• Order
• Ranking of favorite sports, the order of
people's place in a line, the order of
runners
finishing a race or more often the choice
on a
rating scale from 1 to 5
Interval
• The difference between 29 and 30
degrees
Fahrenheit is the same magnitude as the
difference between 78 and 79
Ratio
•Interval data with natural zero point.
Examples are time and temperature
10. COLLECTING AND MANAGING
DATA IN RESEARCH
Planning Data Collection
- A data collection plan details how
you will implement your study.
 Specific to the study
 Map out procedures to collect data
 Anticipate time and cost
 Devise a codebook to identify data
to
 be entered in the database
Planning Data Collection
 Extensive Planning
 Accurate Data
Time Element
Prior
• Identify subjects
• Explain the study
• Obtain consent
During
• Completing the questionnaires
• How many respondents per day During
• Obtaining physiologic measures
After
• Retrieval of questionnaires After
• Statistical Treatment/Transcription
“Never underestimate time
required in doing a research”
Decision Points
 Decision points that occur during
data collection must be identified
and options must be considered.
Consistency
 Consistency in data collection
across subjects is critical.
 If more than one person is
collecting data, consistency among
data collectors is necessary
(interrater reliability)
 Develop a plan that will maximize
consistency
Examples:
FACTORS
Energy level
Tie
Day
Schedule/Routine
COST FACTORS
Direct cost
Indirect cost
Using Electronic Devices for Data
Collection
 Electronic devices can be utilized
for data collection.
 Fee for the use of the system
Scantron Sheets
 Allows respondents to use a pencil
in shading responses. These
responses canentered directly into
the computer by optic scanner and
stored into a database for analysis.
Scantron Machine
Teleform
 A computer software package
developed by Cardiff
(www.cardiff.com) that enables
researchers to design a form
specific to a scale or questionnaire.
 Allows users to point and click
automated forms.
 Additional features: data accuracy
verification, auditing and tracking,
print merge applications and
flexible export interfaces.
Data Collection
 Process of selecting subjects and
gathering data from these subjects.
 The actual steps depend on the
research design and measurement
methods.
Data Collection Tasks
Tasks
Maintaining Control
-Maintaining control and consistency
protects
the integrity or validity of the study.
- Identify extraneous variable and should
be
considered during data analysis
Problem Solving  Write the subject code for the
- Problems can be perceived as a respondents
frustration or a challenge  Allot space
Data Collection Problems  Purchase file folders
Murphy’s Law-  Label/color code
- Anticipate and explore solutions- Storage and Retrieval
People Problems  Backup files
-When research involves people, nothing  For secondary analyses
is - completely predictable
 Data are available to document the
Examples:
validity of the analyses
Problem selecting a sample-
 For publication purposes
Subject attrition and mortality-
External Influences on subject responses-  Decide how long you wish to store
Passive resistance- the data
Subject as an object-
Researcher Problems THANKS TO SHEREE HAHAHHAHAHA
 Researcher Interactions
 Lack of skill in data collection
techniques
 Researcher role conflict
 Maintaining perspective
Institutional Problems
 Communication
 Network
Event Problems
 Machine breakdown, computer
breakdown
 Mortality
 Weather
Serendipity
 Is the accidental discovery of
something useful or valuable.
 Serendipitous findings are
important to the development of
new insights in nursing theory.
 These events must be carefully
recorded.
Support System
 Physical assistance
 Money and Equipment
 Emotional Support

After collecting data…..?

Managing Data
 Good research data management
practice allows reliable verification
of results and permits new and
innovative research built on
existing information.
 During data collection, you will
have to handle large quantities of
data.