Digital Predistortion for Spectrum

Compliance in the Internet of Things

Siyuan Yan, Xiao Li, Changhong Jiang,

Hui Li, Lingmei Wang & Fu Li

Journal of Electronic Testing

Theory and Applications

ISSN 0923-8174

J Electron Test
DOI 10.1007/s10836-018-5729-6

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 Author's personal copy
Journal of Electronic Testing
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10836-018-5729-6

Digital Predistortion for Spectrum Compliance in the Internet of Things

Siyuan Yan 1 & Xiao Li 1 & Changhong Jiang 2 & Hui Li 2 & Lingmei Wang 3 & Fu Li 1

Received: 19 September 2017 / Accepted: 12 April 2018

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Many different wireless personal communication technologies including Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, even LTE-M, can connect
Internet of Things (IoT) products, such as personal electronics or industrial machine sensors. However, the nonlinearity and linear
distortion produced by RF power amplifiers (PAs) will degrade the quality of transmitted signals. In this article, based on an
inverse autoregressive moving-average (IM-ARMA) model, we applied a method of digital predistortion (DPD) to linearize the
RF PAs for several typical protocols in the IoT.

Keywords IoT . Wireless communication . DPD . Envelope modulation . LTE-M

1 Introduction
The Internet of Things is defined as ‘a world-wide network of
interconnected objects uniquely addressable, based on standard
communication protocols’ [4], which is a kind of milestone
technologies for wireless personal communication. With the
connectivity of various wireless communication technologies,
the Internet of Things will revolutionize the connection of peo-
ple to machines, machines to people, and machines to machines,
which will drastically change the world. Due to the increasing
connections, different wireless communication standards, such
as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi or LTE-M [17] etc., will be applied
to the devices and wireless sensor network (WSN) [1].
Power consumption and RF interference control are the
keys of the IoT devices. The nonlinearity produced by the
RF PAs implemented in IoT devices cannot be ignored be-
cause it not only increases the interference among channels,
but also decreases the transmission quality [19]. This issue is
Responsible Editors: M. Barragan and K. Huang
even more critical in the already very crowded ISM (industri-
al, scientific and medical) bands which are occupied by most
of IoT devices. Furthermore, wider bandwidth systems, such
as the 20 MHz bandwidth IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n, 160 MHz
IEEE802.11 ac, etc., will face the new challenge of memory
effects which needs to be considered as well [3].
In this article, the common IoTstandards are classified into two
types: constant envelope modulation and non-constant envelope
modulation. A DPD algorithm then is applied to three typical non-
constant envelop modulated IoT signals: WLAN, Bluetooth
Enhanced data rate (EDR) and LTE-M. In this algorithm, the
Hammerstein model is used to describe the PAs, and subsequent-
ly, the inverse polynomial model and the inverse autoregressive
moving-average (ARMA) model are used to decrease the nonlin-
earity and memory effect of the RF PAs. With this digital pre-
distorter, not only can the coefficients of PAs be easily obtained
from several mature algorithms [18], but also the memory effects
can be easily decreased. The performance of the DPD algorithm
applied to the IoT signals of non-constant envelope modulation
was verified by three experimental measurements.

* Fu Li
lif@pdx.edu 2 A Classification of IoT Standards Based
1
on Envelope Modulation
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Portland State
University, Portland, OR 97207-0751, USA
2
Constant envelope modulation and non-constant envelope
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Changchun
University of Technology, 2055, Yan’an St,
modulation are two significant types of RF systems. This ar-
Changchun 130012, Jilin, China ticle will introduce the difference between the two types of
3
Institute of Green Energy and Electrical Power Intelligent Control,
modulation, and then explain why the nonlinearity and mem-
Shanxi University, 36, Honggou South St, Taiyuan 030013, Shanxi, ory effects are significant for the signals generated by non-
China constant envelop modulation.
 Author's personal copy
2.1 Constant Envelope and Non-constant Envelope
Modulation
Constant envelope means that no information signals are mod-
ulated on the amplitude of the carrier signal. Even if the mul-
tipath fading or the amplification of nonlinearity distorts the
amplitude of carrier signal, the amplitude of the information
signal modulated by the carrier phase or frequency will not be
impacted [20]. Figure 1 describes how the constant envelop
modulation works.
On the contrary, the non-constant envelope modulation is
that the information signal is modulated on the amplitude of
the carrier signal [20]. Although this type of modulation has
higher spectrum efficiency, the spectrum of the information
signals will be distorted by PAs. Therefore, the memory and
memoryless effects generated by RF PAs will distort the sig-
nals with non-constant envelope modulation, which will de-
crease the quality of transmitted signals. As a result, the DPD
algorithm is need for linearize the amplified non-constant en-
velop modulation signals.
2.2 IoT Wireless Signals
2.2.1 Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology, a widely used short-range wireless
communication technology enabling IoT, can be operated in
the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4GHz. In Bluetooth Classic,
there are 79 channels, each with a channel bandwidth of
1 MHz and a raw symbol rate of 1 Million symbol per second
[8].
There are several different versions of Bluetooth: Bluetooth
Core Specification Version 2.1 referred to as Bluetooth Basic
Rate (BR)/ Enhanced Data Rate (EDR), allows for high qual-
ity streaming; Bluetooth Core Specification Version 4.0+ re-
ferred to as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), which is commonly
designed for high power efficiency. The modulation of
Bluetooth BR and BLE is the Gaussian frequency shift keying
(GFSK), one of the constant envelope modulations; the mod-
ulation of Bluetooth EDR is the π/4 offset quadrature phase-
shift keying (OQPSK) or the eight-differential phase shift
keying (8DPSK), the non-constant envelope modulation.
Furthermore, the Bluetooth 5 with quadruple range, double
speed and larger broadcasting capacity was released at the
end of 2016 [7]. In this paper, Bluetooth EDR standard is
chosen to test.
2.2.2 Wi-Fi
Based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, Wi-Fi networks, one of
the non-constant envelop modulations, have become a domi-
nant part in our lives, providing users with both flexibility and
mobility in accessing internet. A new low power and low
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Theoretical
response
1 dB
Power output (dBm)
Compression
region
Actual
response
Linear
region
Information signal
P1 dB
Power input (dBm)
Fig. 1 Even if the power input is increasing, the amplitude of the
information signal will not be affected. This is the constant envelope
modulation
range Wi-Fi Halow standard based on the pending IEEE
802.11ah specification proposed by the Wi-Fi Alliance will
be more suitable for the IoT. HaLow now will deploy
900 MHz band instead of 2.4 GHz standard to provide a
greater range and an easier connection to devices [5].
2.2.3 LTE-M
LTE-Advanced network is one of the most widely used and
reliable wireless communication technologies in the world
now, one of the non-constant envelop modulations as well.
Also, LTE-M which is one target of Rel.13 will provide a
solution for data rates by sharing spectrum with general
LTE, or deploying a reframed GSM carrier with a 1.4 MHz
narrow bandwidth [13].
Table 1 classifies the IoT wireless signals into constant
envelop.
From Table 1, we know there are lots of popular IoT signals
are types of non-constant envelop modulated signals. Thus,
the DPD algorithms are necessary to be used for linearizing
the distortion generated by RF PAs.
3 DPD Algorithms
Nonlinearity is the most critical issue for RF PAs, which can be
modelled by using a very simple polynomial structure.
Besides, memory effects generated by broader bandwidth sys-
tems will increase the complexity of PA model for analysis.
Usually, the Look-Up Table (LUT) [16] based algorithms and
the inverse polynomial algorithms [14] are two significant al-
gorithms for memoryless models. For the LUT methods, the
inverse characteristic function of the PAs is described by the
memory contents of a LUT. However, to get an acceptable
accuracy, the memory size of the LUT must be larger which
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Table 1 Constant envelop

modulation signals vs. non- Protocols Modulation Filter Channel access
constant envelope modulation
signals Constant Envelop Modulation
Bluetooth Basic Rate BFSK Gaussian Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Bluetooth Low Energy BFSK Gaussian Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee, O-QPSK/ Half Sine Direct Sequence Spread
Thread, Z-Wave, 6LowPAN) BPSK/ Raised Cosine / Spectrum (DSSS)
FSK Gaussian
LORA [15] N/A N/A Chirp Spread Spectrum
Modulation (CSS)
Non-Constant Envelop Modulation
IEEE 802.11 a/g/n/ac BPSK/QPSK/16QAM/ Square-root DSSS/OFDM
64QAM/256QAM rasied
Cosine
LTE QPSK/16QAM/64QAM Root Raised- OFDM/SC-FDMA
Cosine
Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate 8PSK/π/4 OQPSK Roor Raised- Frequency Hoping
(Bluetooth BER) Cosine Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Near Field Communication ASK- Manchester N/A N/A
(NFC) [6] Coding

requires a great deal of expensive silicon area. Additionally, the
corresponding time is another major drawback [2]. Inverse
polynomial algorithms approximate the inverse polynomial
coefficients of pre-distorter from polynomial model of PAs.
The theory of p − th order inverse of nonlinear systems [18]
was originally used for compensating the nonlinearities of
power amplifiers with memory by a Volterra series model,
but this method is unrealistically complicated when high
order of nonlinearity is considered and is unnecessary if
memory effect of a PA is not strong. Sunmin Lim and
Changsoo Eun [19] proposed a pre-distorter for
memoryless using p − th order inverse method. However,
due to the mathematical complexity, only up to 9 − th order
coefficients of pre-distorter are given.
In this article, the algorithm used for IoT signals develops a
general formula to calculate the coefficients of pre-distorters
up to a true p − th order. Thus, any arbitrarily high order co-
efficients of inverse polynomial could be obtained directly
from coefficients of the simple polynomial PA model, which
makes the process of compensation simpler and more
complete.
In this article, PA model contains two parts: the nonlinear-
ity of PAs described by block A and the linear effects present-
ed by block C. And the digital pre-distorter is illustrated by
two inverse functions based on the PA model: the inverse
nonlinear block B and the inverse linear block D. In this
DPD algorithm, the inverse nonlinear model (block B) com-
pensates for the memoryless distortion of the PAs (block A),
and the inverse linear model (block D) decreases the memory
effect (block C) [10].
3.2 PA Model
3.2.1 Block A: the Nonlinear Model for PAs
The nonlinear effects of PAs can be described by the well-
known Taylor series model in [18] as
vðnÞ ¼ a1 wðnÞ þ a2 w2 ðnÞ þ a3 w3 ðnÞ þ L þ am wm ðnÞ ð1Þ

where m is order of the nonlinearity, am is the nonlinearity

3.1 DPD Algorithms Structure polynomial coefficients of PAs, w(n) is the input signals, and
v(n) is the output amplified signals. Since the even-order terms
The general scheme of DPD algorithms is shown in Fig. 2 are far away from the centre of the passband, they can be
[10]. easily filtered out [12].
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Fig. 2 DPD algorithms structure consists of inverse linear block and inverse nonlinear block, which used to decrease the distortion caused by PAs

The coefficient am which is directly relate to the intermod- Substituting (1) into (3), the PA model containing nonlinear
ulation products of PAs can be expressed as [11]. and linear effects can be derived as
m−1
K
22
! 10ðIMPm −mPt þ 20 Þ
mG
am ¼ − ð2Þ ∑ pðk Þyðn−k Þ
m k¼0
mþ1
L  
2 ¼ ∑ qðl Þ a1 wðn−l Þ þ a3 w3 ðn−l Þ þ L þ aM wM ðn−l Þ ð5Þ
l¼0
where, G is the linear gain of PAs in dB scale, IMPm is the
mth− order intermodulation product that can be easily mea- The complexity of PA model is dependent on the maxi-
sured from two-tone test without loss of generality. Besides, mum polynomial order and ARMA model size.
mþ1
and ð m Þ gives the number of different combinations of
2 3.3 DPD Model
mþ1
2 elements.
The proposed DPD algorithm has the similar structure as PA
3.2.2 Block C: the Linear Model for PAs model containing the inverse polynomial nonlinear model and
the inverse linear model. In addition, based on the Fig. 2, this
From the Fig. 2, v(n) in (1) is considered as the input signal for algorithm will be set in front of PA model for pre-compensate
the linear model. Since the current input and past inputs both for the nonlinearity and memory effects.
contribute to the output y(n), the time delays of both input and
output variables must be considered for the linearity of PAs. 3.3.1 Block B: the Inverse Polynomial Nonlinear Model
Due to the linear delay property of the memory effect, the K × for DPD
L ARMA model can be described as [9]:
The inverse polynomial model is designed to compensate
K L
∑ pðk Þyðn−k Þ ¼ ∑ qðl Þvðn−l Þ ð3Þ for the nonlinearity of RF PAs, and a general formula is
k¼0 l¼0 developed to obtain the coefficients up to pth order math-
ematically. In Fig. 2, the output w(n), the input of Block
where l is the order of memory depth of v(n), k is the order of
A as well, in the inverse polynomial model (Block B) can
memory depth of y(n), q(l) is the coefficient of moving-
be described as [9].
average parts of ARMA model, and p(k) is the coefficient of
autoregressive model [9]. Based on (3), the transfer function wðnÞ ¼ b1 uðnÞ þ b3 u3 ðnÞ þ L þ bp up ðnÞ ð6Þ
of ARMA model is obtained as
where bp is the coefficient of the inverse polynomial mod-
K
−k
∑ pðk Þz el. Substituting (6) into (1), the memoryless nonlinear
k¼0
H ðzÞ ¼ L
ð4Þ model in Fig. 2 can be derived as
∑ qðl Þz−l
l¼0 vðnÞ ¼ h1 uðnÞ þ h3 u3 ðnÞ þ L hm⋅p um⋅p ðnÞ ð7Þ
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Fig. 3 Experimental setup of

spectrum measurement contains a
laptop, a signal generator, a PA, a
spectrum analyzer, and a DC
power supply. MATLAB and
signal generator are utilized to
generate real signals passing
through the PA supported by DC
power supply. Spectrum analyzer
is then used to capture the data of
distortion, and to send the data
back to DPD algorithm operated
by a desktop

where hm ⋅ p is the coefficient of the memoryless nonlinear mod-  a 

M ∑m ik ¼p m
el. The ideal output of a compensated amplifier should have bp ¼ −N ∑ ∑∑k¼1
m b b
i1 i2 L b im ð9Þ
k¼1 ik ¼m a
only linear term. Orders of predistortion polynomials and PA m¼3 1

polynomials determine maximum order of intermodulation

where m and ik is odd integer except for b1 = 1 when h1 = a1,
product which can be compensated for. To linearization up to
and M is the maximum order used for PA model.
the pth− order nonlinearity requires at least pth− order polyno-
mial pre-distorter [19]. From the definition of the pth− order
3.3.2 Block D: the Inverse Linear Model for DPD
inverse method [12], the coefficients have to be
Block D is used to remove the linear effects in Fig. 2 [9].
h1 ¼ a1 ; h3 ¼ 0; L ; hm;p ¼ 0 ð8Þ The memory effects (block C) is modeled using ARMA in
(5), thus, the block D (inverse block C) is modeled by the
same ARMA structure with inverse autoregressive and in-
If all the conditions in (8) are met, the output of PAs has no
verse moving-average coefficients. This is obtained by ex-
nonlinearity up to the pth−order pre-distorter polynomial order,
changing the positions of poles and zeros in (6). As a
regardless of the PA’s polynomial order. Certain nonlinear terms
result, the output u(n) from the inverse ARMA model
of orders higher than p may still exist in the compensated output.
can be described as:
To meet h1 = a1, b1 has to be 1. Then starting from b3, the
coefficient of higher order pre-distorter can be calculated from
K L
coefficient of the lower order pre-distorter and the coefficients ∑ qðk Þuðn−k Þ ¼ ∑ pðl Þxðn−l Þ ð10Þ
of PAs as [9]. k¼0 l¼0

Fig. 4 The experimental result of

DPD-PA output of Bluetooth
EDR signal
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Fig. 5 The experimental result of

DPD-PA output of Wi-Fi signal

with a transfer function signal generator; the Tektronix RSA6210A real-time spectrum
analyser was used to observe original signals, amplified sig-
L
∑ pðl Þz−1 nals without DPD and amplified signals with DPD. Figure 3
l¼0 shows the experimental setup of spectral measurement.
H ðzÞ ¼ K
ð11Þ
∑ qðk Þz−k
k¼0

5 Measurement Results

5.1 Bluetooth Enhanced Rate

4 Simulation and Measurement Setup
In the experiment, three non-constant envelope modulated
technologies widely deployed in IoT system, Bluetooth
EDR, Wi-Fi, and LTE-M, were discussed. The experiment is
set up as: Tektronix PS2520G provides DC power supply;
Mini-Circuit ZX60-8008E-S+ and ZFL-1000LN+ power am-
plifiers are used to amplify the signals; the Bluetooth EDR,
WIFI and LTE-M signals are programmed by MATLAB
2016a and generated by an Angilent E4438C ESG vector
In this experiment, the sampling frequency is 12.5 MHz. The
Bluetooth Enhanced Rate signals were generated by an
Agilent E4438C ESG vector signal generator using a carrier
frequency of 2.4 GHz, and the power level was set as
−16.8 dBm. The root raised cosine filter with 0.35 filter alpha
used here. For the Tektronix RSA 6120A real-time spectrum
analyzer, the analyzing span was set as 10.0 MHz and the
reference level was 6 dBm. And the measurement of IP3 for
ZX60-8008E-S+ was 25 dBm.

Fig. 6 The experimental result of

DPD-PA output of LTE-M signal
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Figure 4 shows the measurement of power spectrum den-
sity of the original Bluetooth EDR signals (Blue line), the
amplified Bluetooth EDR signals (Black line) and amplified
Bluetooth EDR signals with DPD (Red line). The out-of-band
emission was improved by a maximum of 12 dB in the third-
order intermodulation frequency zone (∣B ∣ < f < ∣ 3B∣,
where B is the bandwidth of the signals). This illustrates that
the IM-ARMA DPD algorithm can improve the power re-
growth of Bluetooth EDR signals.
5.2 Wi-Fi
In the Wi-Fi experiment, the multiple access modulation was
OFDM with 20 MHz bandwidth and the sampling frequency
was 122.8 MHz. The Wi-Fi signal was generated by an
Agilent E4438C ESG vector signal generator using carrier
frequency of 2.412 GHz, and the power level was set as
−16.8 dBm. For the Tektronix RSA 6120A real-time spectrum
analyzer, the analyzing span was set as 60.0 MHz and the
reference level was −23 dBm. Furthermore, the measurement
of IP3 for ZFL-1000LN+ was 17 dBm.
Figure 5 shows the measurement of power spectrum den-
sity of the original Wi-Fi signals (Blue line), the amplified Wi-
Fi signals (Black line) and amplified Wi-Fi signals with DPD
(Red line). The out-of-band emission was improved by the
maximum of 10 dB, which illustrates that the IM-ARMA
DPD algorithm can improve the power regrowth of Wi-Fi
signals.
5.3 LTE-M
In the LTE-M experiment, the multiple access modulation was
OFDM with 1.4 MHz bandwidth The LTE-M signal was gen-
erated by an Agilent E4438C ESG vector signal generator
using carrier frequency of 0.8 GHz, and the power level was
set as −16.8 dBm. For the Tektronix RSA 6120A real-time
spectrum analyzer, the analyzing span was set as 10.0 MHz
and the reference level was −23 dBm. Furthermore, the mea-
surement of IP3 for ZFL-1000LN+ was 17 dBm.
Figure 6 shows the measurement of power spectrum den-
sity of the original LTE 1.4 M signals (Blue line), the ampli-
fied LTE-M signals (Black line) and amplified LTE-M signals
with DPD (Red line). The out-of-band emission was improved
by the maximum of 8 dB, which illustrates that the IM-
ARMA DPD algorithm can improve the power regrowth of
Wi-Fi signals LTE-M.
6 Conclusion
In this article, we apply our previous work, the inverse
autoregressive moving-average model, further to IoT technol-
ogies. The improvement results based on the DPD model have
been verified by experimental measurements. This algorithm
helps RF designers to meet the IoT signal out-of-band require-
ments and degrades the output of spectral regrowth to increase
the accuracy of IoT signal transmission. The results proved
that the inverse autoregressive moving -average model can
help the IoT RF designer to improve the power consumption,
and extend the battery life of the products.
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Siyuan Yan received the B.S. degrees in electrical engineering from the
North University of China (China) in 2012, the M.S. degree in electrical
engineering from Stevens Institute of Technology (USA) in 2014. He is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineer-
ing at Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA. His research interest
includes signal processing and wireless communication.
Xiao Li received the B.S. degree in automation at Shenyang Ligong
University (China) in 2008, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
and computer engineering from Portland State University (USA) in 2010
and 2013. Since 2012, he has been an RF application engineer in
Tektronix. His research interests include digital signal processing and
wireless communication systems.
Prof. Changhong Jiang received the B.S. degrees in automation from
Jilin University of Technology (China) in 1991, the M.S. degree in
J Electron Test
agricultural machinery design from Jilin University of Technology
(China) in 1998, and his Ph.D. degree in automation from Jilin
University (China) in 2006.
Prof. Hui Li received the B.S. degrees in automation from Jilin University
of Technology (China) in 1996, the M.S. degree in electrical and elec-
tronic engineering from Changchun University of Technology (China) in
2002, and her Ph.D. degree in geodetection and information technology
from Jilin University (China) in 2007.
Prof. Lingmei Wang received the B.S. and M.S. degree in engineering
thermophysics at Tianjin University in 1989, and the Ph.D. degrees in
environmental sciences from Shanxi University in 2004.
Prof. Fu Li received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in (optical) physics from
Sichuan University (China) in 1982 and 1985, respectively, and his Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering from the University of Rhode Island
(USA) in 1990. Since then, he has been with Portland State University
where he is currently a Full Professor of Electrical and Computer
Engineering. He was an associate editor of the IEEE Transactions on
Signal Processing (1993–96) and a column associate editor of the IEEE
Signal Processing Magazine (2002). He served on various committees or
chapter of IEEE societies either as a member or as the chair. He was also
the general chair of the 9th IEEE-SP Workshop on Statistical Signal and
Array Processing (SSAP-1998), while he served on various conferences
as committee member, session chair, or reviewer. His research interests
include signal, image, and video processing, as well as wireless, network,
and multimedia communications. He has published over one hundred
papers in the refereed journals and international conferences. He is a
Professional Engineer licensed in the State of Oregon. He is a member
of the ETA KAPPA NU (the honor society of electrical engineering). He
is a recipient of a number of awards for his technical and professional
contributions, which include a Pew Teaching Leadership Award at the
Second National Conference on Training and Employment of Teaching
Assistants in 1989, and several IEEE awards.