Available online at www.sciencedirect.
com Current Opinion in
ScienceDirect
Plastic pollutants: effective waste management for pollution
control and abatement
Kunju Vaikarar Soundararajan Rajmohan1, Chandrasekaran Ramya2,
Manakkal Raja Viswanathan1 and Sunita Varjani3
Abstract
Plastics have been reported as one of the major pollutants
among various pollutants that are disposed of in the envi-
ronment. They play a pivotal part in human life as they are
cost-effective and are versatile. Plastics are known to have a
mixture of many chemical components and are used for
various domestic applications. Despite various useful appli-
cations, plastics take a long time to degrade. The burning of
plastics releases chemicals such as phosgene and dioxides
that are considered a hazard to the ecosystem. The toxic
debris that is released from the plastics enters the food chain
and water bodies in the form of microplastics. Microplastic-
polluted foods and the presence of meager amounts of
phthalates in toys lead to serious health consequences such
as congenital diseases and malignant cancers. The dioxins
released from the plastic polymers are lethally persistent
organic pollutants which cause tumor and neurological
damage in humans. Inadequate waste management practices
have led to significant plastic pollution of water bodies.
Plastics tend to settle on beaches, which decreases esthetic
and recreation values. In this article, we have discussed ways
for resource recovery from plastic wastes and the possible
effects of plastics on the environment and available safety
regulations for the use of plastics. This article also discusses
scientific literature about the remediation of plastics using
various methods, which can help to promote further
improvement of the existing system by competent authorities
and researchers.
Addresses
1
National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004 Telangana, India
2
Department of Biochemistry, National University of Singapore 117
543, Singapore
3
Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 010, India
Corresponding author: Varjani, Sunita (drsvs18@gmail.com)
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019,
12:72–84
This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental Impact
Assessment: Green technologies for environmental remediation
Edited by Huu Hao Ngo, Wenshan Guo and Raj Boopathy
For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2019.08.006
2468-5844/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 12:72–84
Environmental Science & Health
Keywords
Plastic, Micropollutants, Regulations, Plastic as a resource, Remedia-
tion, Waste management.
Introduction
The word plastic comes from the Greek term plastikos,
which means that it can remain shaped in various sys-
tems. Plastics consist of long-chain polymer molecules
and are extracted from petroleum, coal, and natural gas
as its by-product. About 22e43% of plastic wastes end
up as landfills, causing the soil to lose its fertility. This is
because most of the plastic wastes are nonbiodegrad-
able, contain lethal additives, and can take up to 500
years to decompose. Research indicates that tons of
‘microplastic’ debris pollute the world’s oceans. The
consumption of plastic is increasing by 5% every year,
and global production is about 150 million tons annually
[1]. Chemicals affect people and ecosystems because
they are present in the form of plastic wastes. Plastic
wastes can appeal to contaminants, including persistent
organic pollutants. In the marine context, this is the case
because many of these contaminants are hydrophobic
and are suitable to contaminate the marine life, espe-
cially when buried/disposed of in the sea level [2].
Plastics are not inert but contain several toxic chemicals
and are also able to disperse in the form of microplastic
contaminants. They contain chemicals that cause
chronic respiratory disorders and other health problems.
The dioxins released from plastic polymers are fatal
organic pollutants that cause cancer and neurological
damage and impair the development of reproductive
systems [3]. In comparison with other materials, plastics
have significant advantages in aspects of weight, dura-
bility, and low cost in terms of manufacture [4]. Most
plastics manufactured today are nondegradable, finding
applications in medical, domestic, and commercial
purposes [5].
The sturdiness of plastic polymers is due to high CH
linkage. One way of degrading such regenerated plastics
is to biologically degrade them, which is usually called
biodegradation [6]. Polymer strength and density are
the most important parameters for the study of plastic
film degradation. The Plastic Bottle Institute has
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 Plastic pollutants: effective waste management Rajmohan et al.
designed a common system to help reduce and recycle
disposable products [7].
With technological advancement and rapid economic
growth worldwide, plastic supplies continue unabated.
Yet a great number of plastics such as polyethylene and
poly(vinyl chloride) are nonbiodegradable and thus grow
as accrual pollutants. Plastic polymers affect the degra-
dation process owing to properties such as unique
chemical structures, molecular weight, melting tem-
perature, elasticity, modality, and crystalline structures
[8]. The molecular size is a vital aspect of biodegradable
processes [9].
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that decompose
because of the activity of microbes such as bacteria and
algae. Aromatic polyesters are most susceptible to mi-
crobial attacks, while aliphatic polyesters are biode-
gradable owing to their possibly hydrolyzable ester
bonds. Some biodegradable plastics may degrade to the
extent that the microorganisms can metabolize them
entirely into carbon and water [10]. Conventional plas-
tics are often mixed with organic wastes and liquids,
rendering them to be hard and impractical to recycle the
polymer without the involvement of expensive treat-
ment processes. Recyclable papers are found to be a
potential strategy for the rehabilitation of large quanti-
ties of wastes by composting mixed organic food waste
scraps and yard trimmings.
Phthalates are mainly used as plasticizing materials in
toys such as teethers. In India, most toys contain
appalling levels of lead and cadmium alloys. Children
tend to suck these toys. All these plastic toxins lead to
serious developmental disorders [11]. However, owing
to the lack of definite plastic waste mitigation policies
and legislation, there have been no clear environmental
policies and legislation on plastic waste in India until
recently. Inadequate plastic waste disposal practices are
leading to challenges that affect flora and fauna. It is a
great threat to conservation. Although biological
methods have priority when compared with chemical
treatments in the Indian context, the cost is still a
concern [12]. Incineration is a combustion process that
is followed commonly for solid waste management. This
process involves high organic and inert materials, which
are further difficult to degrade on burning [13]. Polymer
degradation also involves microbes in the process of
degradation of plastics. In this process, both natural and
synthetic plastics can be degraded using microbes. The
microplastics-containing debris when burnt results in
airborne contamination by releasing noxious gases [14].
The recalcitrant nature of plastics creates an enormous
burden on the degradation process. For plastics, a lack of
adequate disposal techniques and inefficient regulations
make plastic waste disposal an insurmountable chal-
lenge [15].
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In this article, we discuss the environmental impacts of
plastics and e-waste and their possible health effects,
with special focus on India. The plastic biodegradation
techniques reported in this review article will provide
relevant knowledge about the multiple remediation
techniques available in India. This article also discusses
regulations and legislation available to monitor the
excess use of plastics. Finally, this review sheds light on
the impact of overuse of plastics and laws for controlling
and ensuring safer use of plastics.
Types and properties of plastics that affect
degradation
Plastics are used for a wide range of applications. They
are blended with resins (or with other components) that
are called additives [16]. These additives may include
artificial fillers (e.g. silica, adipates, polymers, trimelli-
tates, 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester,
citrates, phthalates) for the reinforcement of plastic
fabrics and can be used as stabilizers to avoid disinte-
gration. Some of the important characteristics to indi-
cate the level of degradation [17] are as follows: (a)
weight of plastics, (b) thickness of plastics, and (c)
density [18].
Two main categories of plastics are widely used for
commercial purposes. The classification is based on
their chemical structure and properties, namely, ther-
mosetting and thermoplastics. A thermoset is a polymer
that irreversibly solidifies or ‘sets’ when heated. It is
mainly used in automobiles, construction, adhesives,
inks, and coatings [19]. A thermoplastic is a polymer, in
which weak bonds in the molecules are held together.
Thermoplastics can be easily molded and shaped into
jugs, floor covers, credit cards, and carpet fibers.
Although hundreds of plastic products are available in
the market, only some of these are qualified as com-
modity thermoplastics available in large quantities and
at comparatively low prices [20].
Thermoset composite material recycling technology
occurs through three processes. These include (a) me-
chanical combination technique, which reduces scratch
dimensions to create filling products; (b) chemical
breakdown into easy chemical components of polymeric
matrices; and (c) thermal degradation, which reduces
plastics and energy waste [21].
Problems associated with plastics
management in India
As per the report of worldwide pollution control asso-
ciation, 5 trillion plastic bags are used every year. It is
believed that the annual accumulation of plastic waste
in seas and oceans is estimated at around 13 million
tons. Among all countries, India consumes 50% of single-
use plastics. In every household, plastic wastes
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74 Environmental impact assessment: green technologies for environmental remediation

account for more than 10% of the total wastes that are
produced every day. India’s annual plastic manufacture
growth is nearly 16%, compared with China (10%) and
the UK (2.5%) [22].
Plastics were not regarded as a significant risk, and they
were simply regarded as an esthetic interference. The
importance of legislating the use of plastics is due to the
reasons that they affect soil and marine habitats. Plastics
tend to undergo photo-oxidation processes when they
are subjected to sunlight or UV radiation [23]. Most
often, toxic gases that contain dioxins, furans, and
polychlorinated biphenyls are released into the atmo-
sphere [24].
Besides, plastic wastes that are dumped into the landfill
lead to soil decay and increase the danger of plastic
consumption by domestic animals. Plastics that are
disposed of in the aquatic environment result in
extinction of aquatic creatures and the danger of bio-
magnification and bioamplification because of toxic
compounds [25]. Recyclable plastics and biodegradation
methods have received attention in recent years
because of the increased pressure from environmental-
ists to reduce environmental dumping [26]. However,
not all disposed plastics are suitable for recycling,
including plastic bags, packaging wastes, or metalized
packaging wastes [27]. This is due to the recalcitrant
nature of the disposal product in the low-lying areas, and
hence, the landfills that carry plastic wastes pose a risk
to the ecosystem.
Plastics and their associated health and
environment risks
Humans tend to face risks from plastic polymers,
especially when they are mixed with additives [28].
Besides, burning of poly(vinyl chloride) releases hal-
ogens that contaminate the air. Plastic additives
produce dioxins or toxic substances. Most plastic
wastes are sublethal but can become lethal in com-
bination with other solid wastes [29]. Polystyrene
plastics are detrimental to humans. Without proper
implementation of disposal methods, dumping or
burning of these polymers leads to serious risks such
as cardiac malfunction, severe respiratory problems
including asthma and emphysema, vomiting, kidney
or liver damage, and damage to the reproductive
system. Dioxins deposit on the surface of plants and
aquatic systems and find their way to enter the
human food chain. Significant phthalate pathways
include direct releases into humans consuming plas-
tic-contaminated materials, unknowingly. Several
chemical substances such as bisphenol A (BPA) are
added to the plastic polymers to enhance their ap-
plications. Lethal monomers have been linked to
cancer and reproductive problems [30].
Impact of plastics in marine and fresh water
Even though 80% of marine litters come from land, most
plastics are disposed of in river systems [31]. This is
particularly common along coastal areas. The greatest
consequences of this pollution are faced by birds and
fishes. More serious consequences occur if zooplanktons

Table 1

Sources of phthalates exposure and its health effects [37].

Sr. no Phthalates Sources of exposure Health impact

1 Dimethyl phthalate (DMP)
2 Diethyl phthalate (DEP)
3 Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP)
4 Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)
5 Diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP)
(1) Industrials: In petroleum production (1) Fatal toxicity
(2) Insect repellents, plastic (2) Affects musculoskeletal system
(3) Developmental abnormalities of the
eye and ear
(1) Personal care products such as shampoo, (1) Reduced growth rate
cosmetics, creams, soap (2) Decrease food consumption
(2) Pharmaceuticals, medications
(3) Industrial solvents and pesticides
(1) Adhesives (1) Decreases sperm production but
(2) Personal care products returns to near normal levels
(3) Industrial solvents after elimination of exposure
(4) Medications (2) Mild skin irritation
(1) Vinyl flooring (1) Testicular toxicity
(2) Adhesives and sealants (2) Cryptorchidism
(3) Synthetic leather (3) Reduced anogenital distance
(4) Car care products
(1) Soft plastics used in household products (1) Hepatocellular carcinoma
(2) Blood banks storage devices (2) Testicular toxicity
(3) Food containers and packaging (3) Anovulation
(4) Fetal growth restriction

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 Plastic pollutants: effective waste management Rajmohan et al.
Figure 1
Technologies available for solid waste management.
tend to ingest this microplastic debris as it would
disturb their food web [32]. The average density of
plastic pellets in the world’s oceans has been recorded to
be between 1000 and 4000 km surrounding the seabed
and coastal areas. Most researchers believe that ingested
plastic is likely to injure seabirds that eat fish, which are
becoming extinct. These will result in detrimental ef-
fects affecting the digestive system [33]. Inadequate
recycling costs and improper waste management tech-
niques have led to significant amounts of plastics
affecting coastal areas [34].
India has 43% of natural coastlines. Unfortunately, most
plastic wastes are disposed of in the coastal areas and
along the lakes [35]. Research into microplastics in the
sediments of Vembanad Lake, a Ramsar site in India,
showed that microplastics with a particle size of <5 mm
are found in the intestines of aquatic organisms. The
dominant sort of the polymer element from these
microplastics contains a low-density polyethylene. As
fishes are a major source of food and business in coastal
areas, these plastics pose a danger to the food web of the
lake [36].
Health impact of plastics to humans
Additives are often introduced to plastics to enhance
their hardness or to make them colorful for their
respective applications [37]. Many of the additives in
plastics have been associated with severe health dis-
orders that include sexual disorders and disruption of
endocrine systems. Reports have shown that traces of
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75
additives such as BPA have been associated with adult
diabetes, early puberty, and even obesity. However,
there have been concerns with the release of chemicals
such as BPA, polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE),
and polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) from plastics
[38]. Studies on American women’s breast milk con-
tents have revealed the owing to the exposure to
plastics, brominated flame retardants are highly pre-
sent in breast milk. Inducing molecular epigenetic
modifications in many organ systems can also
contribute to transgenerational effects [39].
BPA additives present in the plastics degrade their
monomeric structure because of the heat. These can be
drained from their sources and affect air or food products
[40]. Current research indicates that BPA breaks down
in the human body. However, these chemical additives
were shown to transform into a compound that can
stimulate obesity. Research has shown that BPA-O-beta-
D -glucopyranoside (BPAG) compound was not estro-
genic and that adipogenesis was caused by the additives
present in the plastics [41]. Repeatedly storing acidic or
basic food items in plastic containers for a long period
results in breaking down of the polymers. Brominated
flame retardants are a group of chemical products
commonly used in electronic equipment, textiles, and
healthcare sector, the annual consumption of which
being more than 1.5 million tons. In vitro studies have
shown that both ovarian and testis functions have been
altered after exposure to PBDEs, resulting in thyroid
hormonal imbalance [42]. Prenatal PBDE exposure is
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76 Environmental impact assessment: green technologies for environmental remediation
associated with a low IQ and hyperactivity in children
[43].
Impact of plastic phthalates used in children’s toys
Phthalates are the group of heavily exploited com-
pounds, containing phthalic acids that are used in toys.
These additives act as stabilizers to provide flexibility
and elasticity in toys [44]. The ingestion of phthalate-
contaminated materials occurs through household arti-
cles, food packed in plastic containers, cosmetics, or
exposure to air through wall paints [45]. The prevalent
causes of pollution and effects of different phthalates
are shown in Table 1.
The intake of the phthalate-containing plastics has a
risk because of unexpected higher exposure to them
during the time of children’s growth, which leads to
physiological illness [46].
Plastic bags: a major threat to cattle life
Thousands of polythene bags are used throughout the
world every year by individuals. Polythene obstructs
water drains, pollutes the earth, and slowly but surely
poisons the environment. In India, around 95% of urban
stray bovine animals suffer from various illnesses caused
by dangerous materials (mainly plastic bags) that get
trapped inside their intestines [47]. People often use
plastic bags and polythene bags to store wastes, which
are eventually disposed of as municipal wastes. Un-
knowingly, animals such as cattle and donkeys consume
these plastics that contain food products from the
dumping sites. The naive eating habits and mineral
deficit make the cattle susceptible to involuntary
digestion of these toxic foreign materials [48]. Depres-
sion, incomplete anorexia, weight loss, ruminal disorder,
and decreased milk yields are clinical symptoms. Milk
and weight reduction in animals are commonly
observed. All these will affect their lactation stage,
resulting in infection. In acute stages, these toxins cause
bloating in the animals, causing their death. When these
animals suffer intestinal disorders, a highly expensive
medical technology such as rumenotomy is the only
option to save the life of cattle. The death of cattle
exercises negative impact on farmers’ day-to-day life,
resulting in disruption of normal agricultural activities
[49].
Plastic waste treatments in India
Plastics are now part of our lives. In India, proper-
ties of plastic waste debris vary significantly with
respect to structure and toxicity in comparison with
solid wastes in Western countries. It also relies on
broad parameters such as food habits, social tradi-
tions, environment, and income [50]. Although ini-
tiatives taken for plastic disposal techniques have
been proven and evaluated in advanced nations
with positive outcomes, financial viability and
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 12:72–84
sustainability remain a challenge in India [51].
There are several technologies available for the
management of plastic solid waste management as
discussed in Figure 1.
Chemical treatment methods
These methods are based on the use of chemicals that
can break the polymeric linkage of plastics and convert
polymers to a nonhazardous state. These methods
cannot be used in large-scale operations because
chemicals used for plastic degradation will create huge
chemical waste debris [52]. Traditional practices of
plastic waste treatment and disposals cause more
damage than benefits. The gases emitted by the com-
bustion of plastic wastes are extremely risky and can
trigger a range of respiratory disorders. Disposal of
plastic waste in municipal waste disposal systems pro-
duces poisonous leachate when it gets in contact with
soil [53].
Physical methods
These techniques include physical methods that help in
decreasing the volume of plastic waste by the process of
squeezing, pulverizing, and incinerating. Some of the
commonly used physical methods of waste management
include UV degradation and photo-oxidation. Moreover,
these methods generate additional environmentally
hazardous by-products [54].
Thermal treatment techniques
Thermal treatment of solid waste can be achieved by
incineration, pyrolysis, and plasma arc gasification.
Incineration is a process of thermal waste treatment,
which can be used for raw or unprocessed garbage [55].
Incineration processes take place in air at a temperature
of 850  C, and the effluent is converted into carbon
dioxide, water, and strong waste fuel material [56].
Incineration eliminates the need for landfilling resulting
in the production of energy that can be useful for other
applications. However, burning of plastics releases many
harmful gases which cause air pollution. The only
advantage incineration has over a landfill is that in the
former, we can get some amount of energy from plastic
which is not possible to be achieved in the latter process
[57].
Pyrolysis is another method of thermochemical
conversion in which solid fuel is burned without the
presence of an oxidizing agent (in an inert envi-
ronment). There are two different techniques of
thermal transition: fast pyrolysis for bio-oil
manufacturing and slow pyrolysis for charcoal
manufacturing [58]. The gasification process is used
for converting carbonated organic or fossil fuel into
commonly used gases such as carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. in the presence of a
controlled amount of oxygen or air. The process
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 Plastic pollutants: effective waste management Rajmohan et al.
takes place at extremely elevated temperatures
(>600  C) and oxidizes the hydrocarbon which can
be used as an energy source [59].
Biological methods
In this process, plastic polymers are degraded without
producing toxic by-products. Biomethanation is the
method of converting organic polymers or solid wastes
into methane and manure by microbial intervention.
This process takes place in the absence of oxygen
through a method called anaerobic digestion [60]. Solid
wastes from agro-based sectors are used in this process,
resulting in helpful products such as biogas and soil
manures. A two-stage method of acidification and
methanation is discussed in Figure 2.
Solid waste management in the Indian scenario
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is
controlled by environmental authorities in India. Most
of the urban local bodies do not have adequate solid
waste intervention or implementation schemes.
Regrettably, no town in India can assure 100% separation
of landfill at housing sites. Only 12.45% of the landfills
gathered are scientifically handled and approved as
disposal sites with proper accessible dumping [61].
Figure 3 shows existing and prospective property
demand for storage of municipal solid waste (MSW)
along with population growth and production of MSW.
The review of significant MSWM parameters that are
observed in the Indian scenario is outlined as follows:
Figure 2
Biomethanation process of solid waste removal.
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 In India, MSWs are produced mainly in low-level areas
that violate plastic dumping process. Not all urban
local bodies and states in India are equipped with
appropriate sewage deposits, and wastes are dumped
on highways and in the periphery of the city.
 Landfilling is still widely accepted in India although
the availability of land for waste disposal is limited.
The penetration of leachate debris into soil is the
biggest issue in waste disposal. However, in metro-
politan locations such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and
Chennai, there is limited space for waste disposals.
The development of new site settlement/extension is
being reported in states such as Andhra Pradesh
(Vizianagaram), Goa, Gujarat (8 sites), Haryana (Sirsa
and Ambala), Punjab (Adampur), Rajasthan
(Jodhpur), Navi Mumbai (12 sites), and Maharashtra
(Nashik and Sonpeth). Landfills generate toxic gases
that can damage human and aquatic life. Methane and
carbon dioxide (up to 90 percent) are mainly used in
waste gas systems (land fill gas [LFG]) and are
generated as a result of decomposition of not only
methanogenic agents but also CO, N2, alcohol, hy-
draulic carbon, organic acid compounds, and heavy
metals [62].
Role of Asian countries in plastic pollution
of ocean
Plastic bags are convenient and cost-effective way to
pack groceries. They are also nonbiodegradable and
usually end up in oceans. Tackling plastic pollution has
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78 Environmental impact assessment: green technologies for environmental remediation
Figure 3
Estimate prediction of solid waste generation from 2001 to 2051 [55]. MSW, municipal solid waste.
been less of a priority in Asia, which is the world’s
biggest producer of the material and plastic waste. An
estimated 1.3 million to 3.5 million metric tons of plastic
is estimated to enter oceans annually from the coastlines
[63]. More than 80% of plastic in oceans has originated
from land [64]. A study has revealed that 90% of ocean
plastic originates from just 10 rivers, and among them, 8
rivers are in Asia and 2 are in Africa [65]. The Great
Pacific garbage patch is an example of large plastic ac-
cumulations on the surface waters. The Great Pacific
garbage patch has 79,000 tons of plastic with a large
particle size (mesoplastics and macroplastics) due to
fishing lines, nets, hard plastics, and films. Asian coun-
tries such as China, the Philippines, Indonesia,
Thailand, India, and Vietnam contribute more than 50%
of ocean plastic waste [66]. In 2017, one-third of 1.67
million tons of domestic waste disposed of in Singapore
consisted of packaging waste, primarily plastic bags, and
food packaging. Japan, although not a major marine
plastic polluter, is the world’s second consumer of
plastic packaging per person after the United States.
As a plastic waste management measure, if the plastic
input from the catchment areas of the rivers is reduced
to half, it would be a major success. Systematic efforts
are already being made. In 2013, China introduced a
temporary restriction on waste imports, naming it
‘Green Fence,’ that resulted in significantly less
contamination [67]. Later, in 2017, China announced a
new import policy permanently banning the import of
nonindustrial plastic waste [68]. Japan had committed
to lead the world in reducing marine plastic trash,
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 12:72–84
including developing biodegradables and other in-
novations, in the Group of Twenty (G20) summit held
in June 2019 at Osaka [69].
A nongovernmental organization, One Island One Voice,
led a massive effort with more than 20,000 people
gathering to clean up 120 beaches around the popular
Indonesian island of Bali in March 2018. The Indonesian
government has set itself the ambitious target of
cleaning up the Citarum River and making the water
drinkable within seven years. The Philippines govern-
ment has ordered the half-year closure of Boracay to
tourists since April 2019 to clean up marine waste [70].
Vietnam and Thailand will block all imported plastic
waste in the next few years. Taiwan is moving to ban all
one-time-use plastic, including bags, beverage cups, and
cutlery issued by restaurants and businesses by 2030. It
has already taken steps to ban single-use plastic straws.
Successful outcomes include decreased material-spe-
cific waste, increased total recycling rates (64% in-
crease), and decreased total garbage volumes (27%
decrease) [71,72].
Indian government regulations for the use
of plastics
To ensure the effective segregation, transport, process-
ing, and storage of MSWs and to improve current infra-
structure to prevent soil and ground water contamination,
the Ministry of Environment and Forest of the govern-
ment of India has released MSW (governance and
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 Plastic pollutants: effective waste management Rajmohan et al.
handling) regulations. Municipal corporation acts have
been promulgated from various regions such as the Delhi
Municipal Corporation Act 1959, Uttar Pradesh Munic-
ipal Corporation Act 1959, and Karnataka Municipal
Corporation Act 1976 to regulate the management of
plastic solid wastes. These acts also address the envi-
ronmental pollution by improper MSW dissipation, for
example, the Delhi Plastic Bag Act of 2000 on the pre-
vention of consumption of foods carried in recycled
plastic bag and disposal of nonbiodegradable waste in
toilets, highways, and sites [73].
In efforts to reduce the environmental impact of plas-
tics, legislation and regulations came into use. Such
regulation often aims to reduce the use of plastic
packaging. Some rules can be strictly followed to solve
the problems caused by untreated plastic waste to
resolve the issue of waste management. The packaging
waste directive of the European Union, Council Direc-
tive 94/62/CE, has been adopted in 1994. It requires the
member states of the European Union to take any action
necessary to collect 50e65% of solid wastes and recycle
about 25e45% of package waste, with at least 15% for
packaging material of each type [74].
Some of the important considerations for waste man-
agement are being implemented by the government.
➢ To ease plastic waste recovery, the size of the debris
to be recycled has been increased from 40 to 50 mm.
➢ Brand owners, who promote the need for plastic
products, must also arrange for collection of all
wastes generated by their products. This helps to
minimize the production cost and give an insight into
the need for reduction of production cost.
➢ Wastes can be reused for various purposes, for
example, as concrete and for solar energy production
in buildings.
Safety considerations and challenges for preventing
plastic usage in the Indian scenario
Sustainable low-cost solid waste management ap-
proaches are essential to be scheduled and executed in
developing nations such as India. Lack of consciousness,
financial resources, responsibility, and application of
legislation and policy and inappropriate technical
expertise are key factors for the lack of proper sanitation
techniques. The following challenges involved in the
proper management of plastics wastes in India have
been discussed.
➢ Environmental awareness: Ecological awareness and
involvement in the segregation of the landfill at the
origin, door-to-door compilation, and storage of
wastes in suitable bins are essential. This is the most
critical stage of the entire MSWM cycle that enables
proper disposal, leading to the eventual
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achievement. In India, however, the current situa-
tion shows that almost none of the waste produced at
the source site is segregated into multiple ecological
issues, which results in very ineffective waste man-
agement [75].
➢ Municipal solid waste characterization: India is a vast
nation separated into distinct climate zones, distinct
food habits, and distinct living standards, generating
disposal of distinct kinds. So far, there has been no
extensive research covering nearly all Indian cities to
identify garbage produced and disposed of in land-
fills. Government authorities are dependent on the
limited data that are sourced from a few places
because of inadequate solutions for the waste pro-
duced in a particular region.
➢ Implementing ground-level laws: With population
growth, the task of providing appropriate infrastruc-
ture in metropolitan areas and fresh choice of landfill
sites are becoming crucial. The implementation of
strict laws at the basic levels creates a challenge as
most locations in metropolitan towns are not
equipped.
➢ Need for reliable technology: There is a need to
export economically viable and established waste
management techniques in India. Structures with
adequate capacity to dispose of waste materials,
availability of professionally qualified staff , techno-
logically feasible alternatives, suitable and rapid
urban land-clearing choice ensuring clean delivery,
are necessary for landfill crops to be identified as
landfill material and supplied separately in accor-
dance with requirements.
Reduction of e-plastic wastes and legal regulations
e-waste refers to used electronic products that are
intended to be reused or recycled. e-waste processing
may cause major health and pollution problems in
developing countries owing to few regulations. e-waste
has recently become an important target for the man-
agement of domestic and international material cycles
with a view to the preservation of the environment and
the use of resources [76]. The emission from hazardous
materials is mainly due to primitive methods of mining
metals as well as combustion of e-waste in the open.
e-wastes, in particular cables and wires, result in the
release of persistent organic pollutants. Electronic scrap
components (such as cathode ray tubes, cadmium,
beryllium, and brominated flame retardants) may
contain lead. Keeping in mind the harmful effects of
hazardous waste on both the atmosphere and hygiene,
several nations have called for a worldwide arrangement
to tackle these issues. In India, e-waste strategy projects
are rudimentary and need careful consideration.
The following are some of India’s e-waste strategy
efforts:
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 12:72–84
80 Environmental impact assessment: green technologies for environmental remediation
➢ The hazardous waste (management and handling)
amendment rules, 2003: Under schedule 3, e-waste
is described as ‘waste electrical and electronic
equipment including all parts, subassemblies, and
their fractions except batteries fell under these
guidelines.’ The concept given here is comparable
with the Basel Convention Concept, in which e-
waste is not covered in depth but only shortly in the
regulations [77].
➢ e-waste Management and Handling Rules, 2011:
The 2011 e-waste management and handling rules
were notified on May 2011, and it has been effective
since 01-05-2012. The concerned company will be
notified in advance, and sufficient time is given to
implement these regulations and also to provide the
infrastructure it needs [78].
➢ In India, unfortunately, there are no e-waste collec-
tion centers and no definite information on the
amount of e-waste disposed of each year and that
created an economic danger. As main measures to
eradicate these wastes, the electronic products in
Germany must be replaced by new products. Sev-
enty-eight percent of all personal computers assem-
bled in India are projected in the business sector.
Official information on e-waste, that is, how much
electrical waste is produced or disposed of every year,
is not accessible. However, some reports of autono-
mous research by nongovernmental organizations and
public organizations are available [79].
➢ In 2003, Korea enacted Recycling Law 22, according
to which the principle of extended manufacturer
accountability is that TVs, freezers, laundry ma-
chinery, etc., are to be recycled. In the Philippines,
the law Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of
2000 was signed. It classifies consumables and white
goods as special waste, which must be treated
distinctly from other residential and commercial
waste.
Reuse of plastics for domestic purposes: need for
recycling
Plastics are becoming a part of everyone’s life and are
used every day. Reduce, reuse, and recycle are keywords
for the control and management of any pollutants, and
this scenario is also applicable to plastics. However, very
few plastic products wind up only in a disposal flow
owing to its single usage. Reusing of plastics is better
than regeneration because they cause less pollution and
are less toxic [80]. In recent years, the recycling of
plastics has increased significantly. An extensive di-
versity range of products are being developed and
packaged in the after-use plastics such as accessories
and toys that can be used in everyday life. It is estimated
that 65%e70% of plastics produced end up as waste
disposals. A related estimate is that only 25% of plastic
beverage bottles are recycled. According to a packaging
expert Sterling Anthony, the advancements in
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 12:72–84
technology will expand the plastic recycling infrastruc-
ture by making it more efficient and cost-effective
[81,82]. The various health effects of e-waste are
discussed in Table 2.
Life cycle assessment of plastic waste
Life cycle assessment is pragmatically applied for
products and processes to quantitatively understand
their effect on land and fresh water [83]. Unfortunately,
life cycle assessment (LCA) that guides designers
neglect plastics and impact indicators for marine plastic
pollution is currently unavailable. Structural, as well as
data-related, uncertainties pose challenges in the fore-
casting of plastic pollution. Owing to lack of LCA data,
no simple solution is available for this complex global
problem. Well-organized metrics accounting for plastic
debris in the ocean are required to come up with sound
waste management approaches while accounting for
intricate ecological impact trade-offs. Research focuses
on the integration of the nonlinear behavior of global
circulation models within an LCA framework and
enhancing spatial differentiation, particularly the
depiction of coastal zones in global circulation models
and ocean carbon cycle models which are to be solved to
mark LCA as an all-inclusive and vigorous ecological
impact assessment tool [84]. Any LCA model should be
data-dependent, considering the different type and
sizes of plastics including the input, transport, distri-
bution, and lifetime of plastic debris in the ocean [85].
Advancement in life cycle impact assessment method-
ologies to calculate the effects of plastic waste in LCA is
a promising approach to alleviate the problem of disposal
of plastics.
Future perspectives on plastic waste
management
As plastic polymers form an important aspect in
contemporary living, there is an utmost need for the
creation of better products for potential safe use. The
absence of biodegradability of numerous plastics creates
a huge toxicological impact. To avoid the accumulation
of plastic particles in terrestrial and marine habitats, the
next generation of plastics and plasticizers should
consist of nonpetroleum and carbon-neutral monomers.
Nonpetroleum products are nontoxic and degradable.
The life cycle of plastics must be considered from the
development and manufacture of biodegradable plastics
to their application. Necessary steps must be taken to
systematically address the strategy and governance stage
through appropriate legislations. The manufacture and
consumption of plastics that are not within standard
regulations is unethical. Conventional reuse of plastic is
endeavored to reduce the dumping of plastic. Reuse of
plastics by converting into different products without
reproducing them helps save time and resources. Energy
and raw material economies are reduced by substituting
one-time-use products with a recyclable one. Reuse of a
www.sciencedirect.com
 Plastic pollutants: effective waste management Rajmohan et al. 81

broader variety of plastics will further improve the

acidize fish or flora. Brominated dioxins, heavy and

Lead, barium, and other heavy materials are leached
recycling rates of plastic waste and prevents landfill

Air and glass dust, tin, plumes, brominated dioxins,

Air, water, and soil releasing hydrocarbon ashes

sewage dumping in urban areas. Reusable cloth bags,

materials are directly released into rivers that

into soil, and toxic phosphorous is released.

Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and brominated

jute bags, and other natural fibers are durable and eco-

hydrocarbon emissions air. Air emissions.

Potential environmental hazard
friendly. This reduces the problem of waste plastic
management and solves an environmental problem.
Simultaneously, a few other useful items can be

and mercury emissions to rivers

extracted from recycling processes that will decrease the
productivity of plastics. Although the LCA of plastic
waste is limited, research on converting plastic waste
into energy and fuel is emphasized mainly due to the
economic potential that the plastic-to-energy conver-
sion holds [86]. The research is still in infancy in India,
and limited published results are available on this topic.
Waste blends containing biodegradable and reclaimed
plastic solid waste are being studied. Upscaling this into
pilot and industrial scale is needed for a better and green
planet.

Conclusions
In the world we inhabit, exposures to plastics, plasti-
Chemical removal with nitric acid and HCL and then
Desuction and removal of chips, burning open, and

cizers, and other polymer additives are omnipresent.

While these are often expected to be below critical
acid bath for finished metals to be removed

threshold numbers, in some cases, excessive amounts

Breaking and removal followed by dumping

are recognized, causing major impacts on certain sensi-

Open combustion and removal of copper

tive communities of the environment. Although the

potential risk due to plastic wastes is likely to vary ac-
Process used

cording to the type, it has an adverse impact on the

environment. Microplastic debris consumed by marine
organisms poses a threat to human beings. Moreover, the
deposition of plastic debris in soil leads to soil corrosion
and landslides. The impact of these pollutants has to be
chip burning

addressed carefully to identify the associated hazards.

Dumping plastic or simply burying it in the soil is a
threat to the environment. Reduce, reuse, and recycle
are keywords for plastic management. However, owing
to the nonavailability of LCA and lack of sound knowl-
edge on disposal techniques and remediation of soil and
environment from plastic waste, the question of
disposing of plastic waste remains a big challenge. New
innovations in the field of solid waste management are
Circuit boards (a thin plate on which chips and other

in nascent stages and need to be explored by

Cathode ray tubes (used in TVs, ATMs, and video

researchers.
Effect of e-wastes in the environment [76].

Conflict of interest statement

Nothing declared.
Gold-plated chips and other parts

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