ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Exploring the Impact of Cellphone Usage on Relationships: A Regression Analysis of

Relationships

Christina Michaels, Rebekah Cartlidge, Heather Duran, Allison Owen

Illinois State University

(Miller-Ott, 2015 & Lynne, 2015).

ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Abstract

This study is going to investigate how cell phone usage impact relationships, both

romantic and platonic. We have investigated different variables such as, the type of relationship,

the distance of the relationship, the amount of cell phone usage used, autonomy and the impact

of cell phone usage in romantic relationships. We will be handing out samples to undergraduate

and graduate students at Illinois State University to investigate how cell phone usage impacts

relationships. Participants are being asked to select a specific relationship in their life and focus

on this throughout the entire duration of the study. These responses will be used to help

determine relationships between cell phone use and a participant’s relationship with another. We

will be using linear regression in order to evaluate the impact of cell phones on the quality of

relationships. Regression analysis will also be used because it will explore the relationship

between two or more variables, this is essential in this study in order to see the connection

between cell phone use and relationships.

ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Literature Review

Cell Phone Usage Within Relationships

Cell phone usage within relationships is immensely important because it enables people

to maintain their connectedness (Miller-Ott, 2015 & Lynne, 2015). However, cell phone usage

can also negatively impact relationships because it can allow people to reduce the quality time

they spend together (Miller-Ott, 2015 & Lynne, 2015). One reason why people dislike when their

partner is using their cell phone during quality is because it threatens their positive face

(Miller-Ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017). The violation of the person’s positive face could essentially

imply messages such as the person’s partner is not interested in spending time with them, the

person’s partner views the person as not being interesting enough to spend time with, or that the

partner does not take their relationship seriously (Miller-Ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017). Negative

face threats are also a reaction some people attain when they are faced with their partner using

their cell phone during quality time. Negative face threats are essentially the feeling of wanting

to remain free and autonomous (Miller-Ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017). When a person faces a

negative face threat, they may feel that it is not appropriate or that it is uncomfortable to ask their

partner to not use their cell phones during quality time (Miller-Ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017). To

dive further into the discussion of people wanting to control their partners’ cell phone usage or

allowing their partner to have complete freedom of cellphone usage during quality time, it was

discovered that most people attain a desire to control their partners’ cellphone usage during

quality time (Miller-Ott, 2016 & Lynne, 2016). Not only does cell phone usage during quality

time impact relationships, but the expectations that partners will always be accessible via their

cell phone can also negatively impact a relationship (Miller-Ott, 2012 & Lynne, 2012 & Robert,
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

2012). Findings have shown that cell phone usage does impact romantic relationships because

they are an important way to communicate; cell phone usage within a relationship is strongly and

positively associated with relational satisfaction (Miller-Ott, 2012 & Lynne, 2012 & Robert,

2012). While the use of cell phones between people impact their relationship, the communication

that goes on via cell phone between people can also impact the relationship as well (Lynne, 2018

& Miller-Ott, 2018). People faced more miscommunication when communicating over text

message compared to when people would communicate over the phone or through face-to-face

interactions (Lynne, 2018 & Miller-Ott, 2018). It is evident that cell phone usage within

relationships can both negatively and positively impact a relationship. However, people have

many different ways of expressing their discomfort and concerns.

Cell Phone Usage Amongst College Students

For this generation of college students, cell phones are a necessity in their daily lives.

College students are seen as one of the most important targeted markets for cell phone companies

(Totten, 2005 & Lipscomb, 2005 & Cook, 2005 & Lesch, 2005). Staying connected to everyone

this day in age is one of the most important things for a college student. The correlation between

cell phones and leisure have shown that the most used functions on a college students’ phone is

text messaging, keeping time, alarm functions, contacts, receiving and sending photographs, and

internet access (Totten, 2013 & Lipscomb, 2013). These functions listed are required as tools to

aid in the balance and connection between friends and family in students’ daily lives. Some of

these functions can also be seen as activities for students when faced with boredom. For this

demographic, development of interaction with others is vital to the growth of their mental and
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

physical health (Lepp, 2005 & Li, 2005 & Barkley, 2005 & Salehi-Esfahani, 2005.) This social

stimulation between the usage of phones for college students allows for them to feel as though

they are important to others’ lives. The relationship between cell phones and college students is

the amount of connective power that can be created through a singular device. College students

believe that cell phones provide an efficient use of time. College students phone usage is lined

with the importance and need of wanting to maintain and keep relationships through the use of

social media and text messaging. All students carry a cell phone with them at all times. Cell

phones to the students are a direct link to social status and purpose. The stigma to have a cell

phone is seen as a necessity (Emanuel, 2013). Keeping in contact with someone you are in a

relationship or friendship with allows for that particular relationship to grow further and create a

better connection. The tools provided from the cell phones are the main source for when you are

apart to continue to stay in contact with the other person. The cell phone is used as a main tool to

connect a relationship and allow for it to become stronger and grow in times together and apart.

Autonomy Within Relationships

As relationships, whether they be romantic or platonic, rely heavily on the basis of

connection, the importance of autonomy is often questioned by scholars. Autonomy is the ability

to govern one’s own self and is described as a psychological basic need (Costa, 2019 &

Gugliandolo, 2019 & Barberis, 2019 & Cuzzocrea, 2019 & Liga, 2019). The lack of autonomy

has shown to lead to negative impacts on children such as the onset of insecure attachment,

which can affect their future romantic relationships (Lavy, 2009 & Mikulincer, 2009 & Shaver,

2009 & Gillath, 2009). The less ability a child has to govern their own freedom, the less secure

they will be as an adult. A study ran by Horne and Johnson (2019) concluded that a high level of
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

autonomy within romantic relationships predicted higher levels of relationship satisfaction. Thus,

how much one is able to govern themselves in a relationship is shown to be related to the level of

relational satisfaction. One way that autonomy in relationships has declined over the years is due

to the increase of technological mediums, like cell phones, in a relationship (Wei, 2006 & Lo,

2006). While the basis of a relationship relies on both physical and psychological closeness,

autonomy can be just as important as connection, psychological or physical (Baxter, 1983).

Therefore, cell phone usage in relationships can be harmful if this usage threatens one’s

autonomy.

Connection Within Relationships

There is an obvious factor of connection within relationships. However, the amount of

emotional connection presents a diversifying look at the quality of the relationship. By increasing

the amount one is connecting with their partner on an emotional level, long term relationships

and their day-to-day interactions are shown to increase in their regulation (Mazzuca, 2019 &

Kafetsios, 2019 & Livi, 2019 & Presaghi, 2019). The use of phones in relationships have helped

partners stay connected for decades. Ability to stay in touch has become increasingly simple as

cell phones offer more opportunities for connection than landline telephones (Duran, 2011 &

Kelly, 2011 & Rotaru, 2011). While cellphones do not replace the human need for in-person

connection, online interactions create a connection referred to as ‘virtual togetherness’ which

acts as a different platform for connection within relationships (Rufas, 2018 & Hine, 2018). Cell

phones have been widely criticized as a means for tarnishing the quality of connection in a

relationship, however, are shown to have no effect on the meaningfulness of connection in a

relationship (Crowley, 2018 & Allred, 2018 & Follon, 2018 & Volkmer, 2018). In addition to
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

this, Rufas and Hine (2018) found that connection through the utilization of online platforms

allow for connections to be made between members of society who would have a rare chance of

connecting and interacting in person. Beyond romantic relationships, Ponti and Smorti (2019)

found that level of connection and lack of autonomy impact children with highly connected and

attached parents and have shown a decreased level of life satisfaction, showing the need for

independence in one’s lifestyle.

Distance of Relationships

It is apparent that positive levels of connection are important in relationship satisfaction.

However, those who are involved in long distance relationships (LDR), either platonic or

romantic, note common stressors in regulating the emotional closeness and connectedness with

the other person. Communication researchers have employed many methods to which

geographical separation influences relationship communication and stability. Results reveal

strong levels of uncertainty that surface from LDR communication, with relationship outcomes

that can include: self- uncertainty, partner uncertainty, and relationship uncertainty (Maguire,

2010 & Kinney, 2010). Self-uncertainty refers to uncertainty toward individual feelings towards

the partner and relationship. Partner uncertainty however is uncertainty with your partner’s

feelings and intentions, and relationship uncertainty is uncertainty about the overall state of the

relationship. LDR partners may experience higher uncertainty levels due to physical distance and

limited face-to-face interaction, however it is difficult to label all LDR’s with a universal

problem, as partners experience uncertainty differently (Wang, 2018 & Roaché, 2018 & Pusateri,

2018). A study performed by Johnson, Haigh, Craig and Becker (2019) shares evidence to
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

support that the relationship status, whether platonic or romantic is completely self defined by

each individual. This group of researchers employed the method of asking people to respond to

why they think they are in a LDR, along with asking sample participants the number of nights

the pair spends apart. They offered choices such as “my significant other lives far enough away”

and “I’ve known my significant other for a great depth of time” in order to categorize the

relationship appropriately (Johnson, 2009 & Haigh, 2009 & Craig, 2009 & Becker, 2009).

Although, researchers now see a shift in the dynamics behind these posed questions, as the norm

of communication evolves in technological advancements with the use of cell phones and social

media interaction. As a result, an alternative conceptualization has been introduced that labels

platonic and romantic LDR’s to be more flexible in closeness and connectedness, overall

boosting relationship satisfaction and lower levels of uncertainty and stability (Stafford, 2003).

When focusing on platonic LDR’s specifically, they often offer more freedom of intimacy and

can be seen as less stressful and more flexible (Becker, 2009 & Johnson, 2009 & Craig, 2009 &

Gilchrist, 2009 & Haigh, 2009 & Lane, 2009). One’s commitment to them are now commonly

elastic, even with the separation of geographical distance. Indeed, the introduction of cell phones

may prove beneficial toward LDR’S however there is much research to contradict its role in

other forms of relationships.

Platonic Relationships

The use of cell phones has increased exponentially, while cell phones may prove

beneficial in long distance relationships, addiction to cell phones is one of the negative

consequences of excessive use of the device (Jafari, 2019). In a study by Jafari, from a survey of
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

429 college students, 71.3% of those students were identified as cell phone addicts. When

comparing these numbers to a sense of loneliness, there was a significant and negative

correlation between the scores of mobile phone addiction and a sense of loneliness (Jafari, 2019).

In terms of relationships, friends tend to experience a tension between positive and negative face

needs that develop from cell phone usage. Participants in a politeness theory analysis considered

their friends “rude” when they would constantly be on their phone, and even went as far as

saying that their friends were violating “common courtesy” while they were using their cell

phones (Miller-Ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017). Negative and positive face threats are prevalent in all

types of cell phone use, in regards to platonic relationships, participants explain how they believe

it is unacceptable to ask their friends to stop using their cell phones, a threat to an individuals’

negative face is increased (Miller-ott, 2017 & Lynne, 2017).

Romantic Relationships

The effects of cellphone usage in romantic relationships received both positive and

negative outcomes. In a study about the effects of cell phone usage rules on satisfaction predicted

that individuals rate cell phones as an important communication tool in their relationships

(Miller-Ott, 2012). Results revealed that partners in a romantic relationship were happy with the

use of cell phones, under the condition that the two individuals did not discuss interpersonal

issues or fought over the phone (Miller-Ott, 2012). When it comes to the negative outcomes,

results revealed that in some cases, the use of cell phones within romantic relationships could

create a course of conflict and rule making. This is due to enabling around-the-clock contact, this

creates dialectical tension of autonomy versus connection in the interpersonal relationships of

romantic partners (Duran, 2011). The use of cell phones in regards to romantic relationships is
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

seen to be beneficial if the two individuals are able to establish ground rules and a strong

interpersonal relationship.
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Hypothesis
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Methods

Sample

This study will consist of a randomly selected sample based upon whomever completes

the survey questions. The survey questions will be released to both undergraduate and graduate

students at Illinois State University. We are hoping to obtain a diverse field of participants, and

this will be observed through the demographic questions that ask the participants what their age,

gender, grade level, and ethnicity they are.

Procedures

The survey questions will first begin by asking students to think about a singular

relationship of their choosing, it can be platonic or romantic, and to give answers based upon

how cell phone usage has impacted their relationship in particular. After this, the participants are

then going to be asked to think about whether or not they believe cell phones are a big part in the

growth of their relationship and whether or not cell phones positively or negatively change how

the participants feel about their relationship.

Measures

The survey items within this study are designed to examine participants, either engaged

in platonic or romantic relationships and are asked to fill out a survey that targets a singular

platonic or romantic relationship of their choosing. Participants will then provide responses to

the survey questions to specifically target the connectedness of cell phone usage within that

relationship. The scale of these questions explore variables concerning individual cell phone

usage from the participant and their approximate singular screen time, along with the participants

strength of their platonic or romantic relationship they had chosen. Questions will then go deeper
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

to discuss their beliefs about the link between cell phones in their relationship, in order to

effectively communicate the influence of cell phones in relationship satisfaction. These answers

will allow for researchers to understand the strength and longevity of the relationships, and to

further investigate how cell phones challenge or change how the participant felt about the

relationship. The nine scales would be entitled Cell Phone Dependency (3 items), Screen Usage

(4 items), Type of Relationship (3 items), Length and Distance of Relationship (3 items), Strength

of Relationship (4 items), Cell Phone Dependency of Partner (3 items), Screen Usage of Partner

(3 items), Connection (3 items), and Disconnection (3 items). The survey items within each scale

include at least three demographic questions and would be arranged on a 5-point Likert scale,

specifically asking participants to display the frequency of their behavior. Most of the survey

questions would range from 1 (never) to 5 (very often), while others would range from 1

(disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) in order to more effectively communicate cell phone usage within

platonic and romantic relationships.

Data Analysis

Linear regression is the next step up after correlation. It is used when we want to predict

the value of a variable based on the value of another variable. The variable we want to predict is

called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome variable). The variable we are using to

predict the other variable's value is called the independent variable (or sometimes, the predictor

variable). For example, We are using a linear regression to understand whether cell phone usage

impacts the quality of relationships which can be predicted based on autonomy, connection,

distraction, and presence. Furthermore, Regression analysis is a statistical technique that attempts

to explore and model the relationship between two or more variables. For example, we wanted to
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

know if there is a relationship between quality of relation and the amount of cell phone usage

used. Regression analysis forms an important part of the statistical analysis of the data obtained

from designed experiments.

ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

References

Baxter, L. A. (1983). Relationship Disengagement: An Examination of the

Reversal Hypothesis. Western Journal of Speech Communication: WJSC,
47(2), 85–98.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1080/10570318309374109

Becker, J. A. H., Johnson, A. J., Craig, E. A., Gilchrist, E. S., Haigh, M. M., &
Lane, L. T. (2009). Friendships are flexible, not fragile: Turning points in
geographically-close and long-distance friendships. Journal of Social and
Personal Relationships, 26(4), 347–369. doi: 10.1177/0265407509344310

Costa, S., Gugliandolo, M. C., Barberis, N., Cuzzocrea, F., & Liga, F. (2019).
Antecedents and consequences of parental psychological control and
autonomy support: The role of psychological basic needs. Journal of
Social & Personal Relationships, 36(4), 1168–1189.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/0265407518756778

Crowley, J. P., Allred, R. J., Follon, J., & Volkmer, C. (2018). Replication of the
Mere Presence Hypothesis: The Effects of Cell Phones on Face-to-Face
Conversations. Communication Studies, 69(3), 283–293.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1080/10510974.2018.1467941

Duran, RobertL., et al. “Mobile Phones in Romantic Relationships and the

Dialectic of Autonomy Versus Connection.” Communication Quarterly,
vol. 59, no. 1, Jan. 2011, pp. 19–36. EBSCOhost,
doi:10.1080/01463373.2011.541336.

Emanuel ,R. C. (2013). “The American College Student Cell Phone Survey.”
College Student Journal, 47(1), 75–81.
https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true
&db=eft&AN=92757385&site=eds-live&scope=site

Horne, R. M., & Johnson, M. D. (2019). A labor of love? Emotion work in

intimate relationships. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 36(4),
1190–1209.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/0265407518756779

Jafari, Hale, et al. “The Relationship between Addiction to Mobile Phone and
Sense of Loneliness among Students of Medical Sciences in Kermanshah,
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Iran.” BMC Research Notes, vol. 12, no. 1, Oct. 2019, p. N.PAG.
EBSCOhost, doi:10.1186/s13104-019-4728-8.

Jin, Borae, and JorgeF. Peña. “Mobile Communication in Romantic Relationships:

Mobile Phone Use, Relational Uncertainty, Love, Commitment, and
Attachment Styles.” Communication Reports, vol. 23, no. 1, Jan. 2010, pp.
39–51. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/08934211003598742.

Jin, Borae, and Namkee Park. “In-Person Contact Begets Calling and Texting:
Interpersonal Motives for Cell Phone Use, Face-to-Face Interaction, and
Loneliness.” CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, vol. 13,
no. 6, Dec. 2010, pp. 611–618. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0314.

Johnson, A. J., Haigh, M. M., Craig, E. A., & Becker, J. A. H. (2009). Relational
closeness: Comparing undergraduate college students geographically close
and long-distance friendships. Personal Relationships, 16(4), 631–646.
doi: 10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01243.x

Juhasz, Audrey, and Kay Bradford. “Mobile Phone Use in Romantic

Relationships.” Marriage & Family Review, vol. 52, no. 8, Dec. 2016, pp.
707–721. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/01494929.2016.1157123.

Kelly, L., & Miller-Ott, A. E. (2018). Perceived Miscommunication in Friends’

and Romantic Partners’ Texted Conversations. Southern Communication
Journal, 83(4), 267–280. doi: 10.1080/1041794x.2018.1488271

Lavy, S., Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Gillath, O. (2009). Intrusiveness in
romantic relationships: A cross-cultural perspective on imbalances
between proximity and autonomy. Journal of Social & Personal
Relationships, 26(6/7), 989–1008.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/0265407509347934

Lepp, A., Li, J., Barkley, J. E., & Salehi-Esfahani, S. (2015). “Exploring the
relationships between college students’ cell phone use, personality and
leisure.” Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 210–219.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.006
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

Maguire, K. C., & Kinney, T. A. (2010). When Distance is Problematic:

Communication, Coping, and Relational Satisfaction in Female College
Students Long-Distance Dating Relationships. Journal of Applied
Communication Research, 38(1), 27–46. doi:
10.1080/00909880903483573

Mazzuca, S., Kafetsios, K., Livi, S., & Presaghi, F. (2019). Emotion regulation
and satisfaction in long-term marital relationships: The role of emotional
contagion. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 36(9), 2880–2895.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/0265407518804452

Miller-Ott, A. E., & Kelly, L. (2017). A Politeness Theory Analysis of Cell-Phone

Usage in the Presence of Friends. Communication Studies, 68(2),
190–207. doi: 10.1080/10510974.2017.1299024

Miller-Ott, A. E., Kelly, L., & Duran, R. L. (2012). The Effects of Cell Phone
Usage Rules on Satisfaction in Romantic Relationships. Communication
Quarterly, 60(1), 17–34. doi: 10.1080/01463373.2012.642263

Miller-Ott, A. E., & Kelly, L. (2015). Competing Discourses and Meaning

Making in Talk about Romantic Partners’ Cell-Phone Contact with
Non-Present Others. Communication Studies, 67(1), 58–76. doi:
10.1080/10510974.2015.1088876

Miller-Ott, A., & Kelly, L. (2015). The Presence of Cell Phones in Romantic
Partner Face-to-Face Interactions: An Expectancy Violation Theory
Approach. Southern Communication Journal, 80(4), 253–270. doi:
10.1080/1041794x.2015.1055371

Ponti, L., & Smorti, M. (2019). The roles of parental attachment and sibling
relationships on life satisfaction in emerging adults. Journal of Social &
Personal Relationships, 36(6), 1747–1763.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/0265407518771741

Roberts, James A., and Meredith E. David. “My Life Has Become a Major
Distraction from My Cell Phone: Partner Phubbing and Relationship
Satisfaction among Romantic Partners.” Computers in Human Behavior,
ENGAGEMENT REGRESSION ANALYSIS 1

vol. 54, Jan. 2016, pp. 134–141. EBSCOhost,

doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.058.

Rufas, A., & Hine, C. (2018). Everyday connections between online and offline:
Imagining others and constructing community through local online
initiatives. New Media & Society, 20(10), 3879–3897.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/1461444818762364

Stafford, L. (2003). Maintaining Romantic Relationships: A Summary and

Analysis of One Research Program. Maintaining Relationships Through
Communication, 51–78. doi: 10.4324/9781410606990-3

Totten, J. W., & Lipscomb, T. J. (2013). “College Students’ Usage of Mobile

Phones.” Society for Marketing Advances Proceedings, 25, 50–54.
https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true
&db=bth&AN=93451504&site=eds-live&scope=site

Totten, J. W., Lipscomb, T. J., Cook, R. A., & Lesch, W. (2005). “General
Patterns of Cell Phone Usage Among College Students: A Four-State
Study.” Services Marketing Quarterly, 26(3), 13–40.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1300/J396v26n03_02

Vidales-Bolaños, María-José, and Charo Sádaba-Chalezquer. “Connected Teens:

Measuring the Impact of Mobile Phones on Social Relationships through
Social Capital.” Comunicar, vol. 25, no. 53, Oct. 2017, pp. 19–27.
EBSCOhost, doi:10.3916/C53-2017-02.

Wang, N., Roaché, D. J., & Pusateri, K. B. (2018). Interconnection of Multiple

Communication Modes in Long-Distance Dating Relationships. Western
Journal of Communication, 83(5), 600–623. doi:
10.1080/10570314.2018.1552986

Wei, R., & Lo, V.-H. (2006). Staying connected while on the move: Cell phone
use and social connectedness. New Media & Society, 8(1), 53–72.
https://doi-org.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/10.1177/1461444806059870