VIRTUE ETHICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe Virtue Ethics theories.
 Define and analyze such important terms and concepts as virtue, the virtues, vice, and
vices.
 Explain why Aristotle considers virtues to be central for living a good life based on his
Nicomachean Ethics.
 Summarize the advantages of Virtue Ethics in the context of an overall theory of ethics.

VIRTUE
Virtue – the quality of moral excellence, righteousness, and responsibility
- a specific type of moral excellence or other exemplary quality considered meritorious
- behavior showing high moral standards

ARISTOTLE’S NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

Virtue Ethics derives from Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (named for Aristotle’s son,
Nicomachus).
Emphasis on Goodness of Character
Aristotle is concerned with action, not as being right or good in itself, but as it is conducive to
human good in. In ethics, he starts from the actual moral judgments of human beings and says
that by comparing, contrasting, and sifting them, we come to the formulation of general
principles. Notice how this differs from the Divine Command Theory and the theories of Kant
and Ross, as to the way in which principles are established. In the latter theories, ethical
principles are objective to, or outside of, human beings and are established by the supernatural or
by abstract reason itself. Aristotle presupposes that there are natural ethical tendencies implanted
in human beings and that to follow them with a general attitude of consistent harmony and
proportion constitutes an ethical life.

Virtue and Happiness

The word happiness in the Ethics is a translation of the Greek term eudaimonia, which carries
connotations of success and fulfillment. For Aristotle, this happiness is our highest goal.
However, Aristotle does not say that we should aim at happiness, but rather that we do aim at
happiness. His goal in the Ethics is not to tell us that we ought to live happy, successful lives, but
to tell us what this life consists of. Most people think of happiness as physical pleasure or honor,
but this is because they have an imperfect view of the good life.
The conception people have of happiness frequently does not line up with true happiness because
people are generally deficient in virtue. Virtue is a disposition to behave in the right manner,
which is inculcated from a young age. A person with the virtue of courage, for instance, will not
only show confidence in the face of fear, but will think of this courage as a good thing. Behaving
courageously will make the virtuous person happy and will be one part of living a generally good
life. By contrast, a person who has been poorly brought up and exhibits the vice of cowardice
will find happiness in the avoidance of danger and thus will have an imperfect view of the good
life.
According to Aristotle, virtue is a mean between two extremes, both of which are vices—either
excess or deficiency (defect). Moral virtue, then, is defined by Aristotle as being “a disposition to
choose by a rule… which a practically wise man would determine” to be the mean between two
extremes of excess or deficiency. And according to Aristotle, practical wisdom is the ability to
see what is the right thing to do in any circumstance. Therefore, a person must determine what a
“practically wise, virtuous man” would choose in any circumstance calling for moral choice and
then do the right thing. Obviously, Aristotle attaches much more importance to an enlightened
conscience than to prior theoretical rules.

CONFUCIAN MORAL SELF-CULTIVATION

At the heart of Chinese theories of moral self-cultivation is the concept of virtue. The Chinese
term de, (virtue) can be traced back to the Shang dynasty in the twelfth century .B.C.E. where it was
understood to be “a kind of power that occurred to or resided within an individual that acted
favorably toward a spirit or another person.” In later etymologies, the term de (virtue) meant to
“have a hold upon” someone, but this power to influence others was such that it could not be
used to manipulate others in order to satisfy one’s own self-interest. De (virtue) is the inherent
power or tendency to affect others.
But, it was also believed that de could be cultivated and developed in ways that would lead to a
self-transformation necessary to live an ethically fulfilled life. The lives of such transformed
individuals would in turn have a positive, dramatic, and powerful effect upon other. The term
thus carries the sense of self-realization in that it signifies all that a person can do or be as a
member of a community. As such the term “excellence” might be a better translation of de.. It
connotes an individual excelling at becoming all that one can be in the sense of doing the best
with what one has. That which each person has inherently is de, but the excellence is to develop
it fully in the context of one’s life and society.

The Confucian Analects

For Confucius, human beings are fundamentally social in nature. One is born into a family and is
a member of a community and a nation that was regarded as an extended or “big” family. In
other words, one’s identity is at all times tied to the group and one’s relationships within the
social order. As a relational self, the individual occupies certain social roles that carry
corresponding responsibilities. Enmeshed in, and a part of , this social structure one is expected
to exercise mutual consideration in all human relationships. In Confucianism there are five
cardinal relationships, chiefly patriarchal and hierarchical in nature, that specify duties and
privileges. It is within the structure of these relationships that the virtues and attitudes that would
enhance daily life were carried out.

The Five Confucian Cardinal Relationships

 Ruler and Subject
 Father and Son
 Husband and Wife
 Elder Brother and Younger Brother
 Friend and Friend

Confucius sees a clear difference between doing the right thing and being a good person.
All the Confucian relationships are governed by the practice of shu (reciprocity). The father os to
care for the son, give protection, and provide education. In return, the son is to practice filial
piety; accept instruction, guidance, and direction from the father; and care for him in old age. In
addition, the eldest son was to conduct the burial ceremony according to customary procedures
and to honor ancestors.
As husband, the man is to head the household, take care of family duties, and provide for his
wife and family. Moreover, he was to be honorable and faithful. The wife’s position is
subordinate to her husband. She is to look after the home and be obedient to her husband. There
is an old saying in China: “The husband sings and the wife harmonizes.” Additionally, the wife
is expected to meet the needs of her husband and care for children. The elder brother is to set an
example of good behavior and cultivate refinement for the younger children. The younger
brother in turn, shows respect to the elder brother because of his experience and character.
Friendship is reciprocal of respect among equals. It is the only cardinal relationship that is not
hierarchical. The nature of the Confucian relationships tell us that while we must show respect
equally to all, not everyone is equal. There is a place for legitimate authority, and it is proper to
show deference to that position of authority. Over time the relationships and their corresponding
roles and responsibilities change—the elder son becomes a husband and father and children
become parents. In the Confucian relationships, each person understands his or her place in
relation to others, and virtue only makes sense within interpersonal relationships. The Confucian
virtues thus are decidedly social in nature.
Confucian Harmony
The two chief Confucian virtues:
Ren – human-heartedness; benevolence; goodness; humanensess
Li – rites; ritual propriety; appropriateness

Ren is characterized by the Confucian Silver Rule: “Not to do to others as you would not wish
done to yourself.” Ren is the chief Confucian virtue and highlights and enhances the natural
relationship between the individual and the community. In fact, the term Ren has an ideogram
that is : “one-being-with-others.” One is an “individual” only in relation to others, and those
relationships constitutes one’s identity Ren attempts to harmonize individual interests with the
good of the community. However, in all cases primacy is extended to the common good.
Li is the Confucian virtue that must be cultivated if one is to be a full participant in the
community, which by way of li is itself ritually constituted. Li refers to all meaning-invested
roles and life forms within the community that are transmitted by way of custom and tradition
from generation to generation. Li makes it possible for the individual to exhibit appropriate
conduct in any specific situation from conducting oneself in the presence of a ruler, to dress,
table manners and etiquette, patterns of greetings, to graduations, weddings, funerals, and
ancestor worship. Li brings social stability to a society and allows it to run well without
excessive imposition of laws and threats of punishment.
Confucius’ disciple Mengzi or “Mencius” (391-308 B.C.E.) presented an idealized Confucianism
and argued that human beings are innately good. That is, people have a natural disposition
toward goodness. As such, moral self-cultivation, involves the development and bringing forth of
one’s true nature. Like “sprouts”, virtue needs to be tended and cultivated into full bloom.
However, an equally great figure in the Confucian tradition, Xunzi (310-219 B.C.E.), offered what
he considered a realistic rendering of Confucian thought. Master Xun taught that human nature is
evil. Human nature is evil because people are not, as Mengzi thought, naturally disposed to
goodness but are inclined to self-interest. Since goods are limited and people desire the same
things, society involves disciplined cultivation. In contrast to Mencius who describes moral self-
cultivation utilizing the agricultural metaphor or tending sprouts, Xunzi describes mora self-
cultivation metaphorically in terms of the severe processes of straightening crooked wood and
sharpening metal on a grindstone. That is to say, becoming virtuous is non-natural, but strictly
conventional.
In any case, all Confucians agree that the virtues are developed through moral self-cultivation
until they become habits and attitudes of character. This process is a process of not only
becoming a good person but also, in fact, of becoming fully human. This moral ideal is
embodied in the person of the junzi (superior person or cultivated individual) which is similar in
some respects to Aristotle’s “virtuous man”. In Confucian thought, moral self-cultivation is
always an exercise in, and refinement of social virtuosity.

ADVANTAGES OF VIRTUE ETHICS

- CREATING THE GOOD HUMAN BEING
Virtue Ethics attempts to create the good or virtuous human being, not just good acts or
rules and not just a robot who follows pre-established rules or a person who acts on whim or tries
to achieve good consequences. It seeks to inculcate virtue by urging human beings to practice
virtuous acts in order to create the habitually virtuous or good person who will then continue to
act virtuously.

- UNIFYING REASON AND EMOTION

Virtue Ethics attempts to unify reason and emotion by stating that virtues are dispositions
not only to act in certain ways but also to feel in certain ways—virtuously in both cases. The
purpose is to use reasoning (practical wisdom) to cause people to do what is virtuous, while at
the same time inculcating that virtuousness within so that humans not only reason virtuously but
also begin and continue to feel virtuous.

- EMPHASIZES MODERATION
Virtue Ethics, at least Aristotle’s version of it, gives us a way to achieve moderation
between excess and deficiency. Many ethicists believes, along with the Greeks, that “moderation
in all things” is what human beings ought to strive for. Aristotle also encourages freedom by
allowing individuals to decide upon the appropriate mean relative to themselves. Again, he
encourages an integration between feeling and reason by urging individuals to use both their
reason and their feelings to decide upon the appropriate mean for them. For Confucius, the
virtues contribute both to harmony between reason and feelings and to harmony between the
individual and society.

VICE AND VIRTUE

Vice such as cowardice, jealousy, envy, greed, gluttony, and spite are examples of understanding
character traits. These traits become imbedded in an individual’s life through the indulgence of
degrading appetites, lack of self-discipline and education, and the habitual practice of immoral
conduct. Because of vice, the processor is rendered base and ignoble. Such a person is ruled, not
by reason, but by impulse. The vicious person is discontent and anxiety ridden and lives a life
tormented by inner tension and chaos. This stormy inner life manifests itself in conduct that is
corrupt, ignoble, and immoral. Some hold the life of the vicious person is defective.
In contrast, virtues are “human excellences”. They consist of those traits of character that should
be fostered in human beings, such as honesty, loyalty, courage, wisdom, moderation, civility,
compassion, tolerance, and reverence. This is only a partial list. The life of the virtuous person is
characterized by inner strength, contentment, happiness and purpose.
ST. AUGUSTINE’S VICES
St. Augustine (354-430) is one of the great Christian philosophers in the Western tradition. In
“The Depths of Vice”, St. Augustine looks at the anatomy of evil. In his discussion, he lists a
number of vices and describes the various manifestations of these vices:
pride imitates loftiness of mind…
what does ambition seel, except honor and glory…
the cruelty of the mighty desires to be feared…
the caresses of the wanton call for love…
curiosity pretends to be a desire for knowledge…
ignorance itself and folly are cloaked over the names of simplicity and innocence…
sloth... seeks rest…
luxury of life desires to be called plenty and abundance…
prodigality casts but the shadow of liberality
avarice desires to possess many things
envy contends for excellence…
anger seeks vengeance…
fear shrinks back at sudden and unusual things threatening what it loves…
sadness wastes away over things now lost in which desire once took delight…
the soul commits fornication when it is turned away from God.

FRANKLIN’S THIRTEEN VIRTUES

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), is a true “universal man”—philosopher, scientist, political sage,
sprinter, business and civic leader, musician, and inventor. He desired to achieve moral
excellence. In order to fulfill his purpose, he chose, from among the many enumerations of the
virtues that he had encountered in his personal reading and study, 13 virtues. To each, he
annexed (added) a short precept that he felt fully expressed the extent he assigned to its meaning.
The names of Franklin’s virtues and their precepts are:
1. TEMPERANCE
 Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.
2. SILENCE
Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself.
3. ORDER
Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.
4. RESOLUTION
Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.
5. FRUGALITY
Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; that is, waste nothing.
6. INDUSTRY
Lose no time; be always employed in something useful; cut off all unnecessary
actions.
7. SINCERITY
Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly and, if you speak, speak
accordingly.
8. JUSTICE
Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
9. MODERATION
Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
10. CLEANLINESS
Tolerate no uncleanness in body, cloths, or habitation.
11. TRANQUILITY
Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.
12. CHASTITY
Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the
injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation.
13. HUMILITY
Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
Franklin’s plan was to make each of the 13 virtues a habit by focusing his attention on only one
at a time until he had achieved mastery. With that aim in mind, Franklin arranged the virtues in
the order they appear as mentioned earlier.