UNIT – 2

HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

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 CONDUCTION AND

BREAKDOWN IN GASES

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Properties of Gas Insulation

 High Dielectric strength

 High thermal stability
 High chemical inertness against the
construction materials used.
 Non flammable
 Low toxity
 Low boiling point
 Good heat transfer properties
 Low cost
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Gas Insulation Environment

ANODE
CATHODE

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 Types of Electric Field

There are two types

 Uniform Electric Field

 Non-Uniform Electric Field

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Uniform Electric Field
E1

E3 E2

E1=E2=E3
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Non Uniform Electric Field

E1

E3 E2

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 Breakdown in a gas
 Consider a low pressure gas column
in which an electric field E is
applied across two plane parallel
electrodes.

 At very low input voltage the

leakage current (I0) is available.

 With intermediate voltage the

current reaches a saturation value,
and

 at high fields the current generated

from the cathode gets multiplied
due to ionization.

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 There is spark occurs between two Sivakasi
Leakage current
 Breakdown in a gas (Continued)

 The breakdown in a gas,

called spark breakdown is
the “Transition of a non-
sustaining discharge into
a self-sustaining
discharge”.

 The main reason of

breakdown in a gas is the
build-up of high currents
which is mainly due to
the process known as
ionization.
Leakage
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 Ionization
It is a process of liberating “an
electron and positive ion from neutral gas atom
or molecule”.

Types of ionization processes:-

 Ionization by collision

 Photo-ionization and

 Secondary ionization.

 Electron attachment process.

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 Ionization by collision
In the process of ionization by
collision, a free electron collides with a
neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a
new electron and a positive ion.
e-

e- A
A+

e-

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 Ionization by collision (cont…)
Consider a low pressure gas column
in which an electric field E is applied
across two plane parallel electrodes.

If the energy (E) gained during this

travel between collisions exceeds
the ionization potential ( Vi = which
is the energy required to dislodge an
electron from its atomic shell),
Then ionization takes place.

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 Photo-ionization

Photo-ionization occurs when the

amount of radiation energy absorbed by an
atom or molecule exceeds its ionization
potential.

There are several processes by which

radiation can be absorbed by atoms or
molecules. They are

(a)excitation of the atom to a higher energy state.

(b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or

dissociation of diatomic molecule or direct ionization etc.
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 Photo-ionization (cont..)
Just as an excited atom emits radiation when the
electron returns to the lower state or to the ground state, the
reverse process takes place when an atom absorbs radiation.
This reversible process can be expressed as

Ionization occurs when

The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be the wavelength of
the radiation capable of causing ionization.

A radiation having a wavelength of 1250 A° is capable

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 Secondary ionization
Secondary ionization processes by which secondary electrons
are produced are the one which sustain a discharge after it is established
due to ionization by collision and photo-ionization.

Types of process:-

(a)Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact

(a)Electron Emission due to Photons

(a)Electron Emission due to Meta-stable and

Neutral
Atoms
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 due to Positive Ion Impact
Being positively charged, they travel towards the
cathode.
Ionization occurs when

If the total energy of the

positive ion ≥ twice the work function
(kinetic energy + of the metal
the ionization energy)

Then one electron will be ejected and a second

electron will neutralize the ion.
The probability is measured by Yi (the net yield of electrons per
incident positive ion)- the Townsend's secondary ionization
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 due to Photons
To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should
be given enough energy to overcome the surface potential
barrier.
The energy can also be supplied in the form of a photon
of ultraviolet light of suitable frequency.

Ionization occurs when

and

If the incident radiation has a greater frequency than the

threshold frequency, then the excess energy goes partly as the
kinetic energy of the emitted electron and partly to heat the
surface of the electrode.
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 Meta-stable and Neutral Atoms

Meta stable atom:-

A metastable atom or molecule is an excited particle whose

lifetime is very large (10-3s) compared to the lifetime of an
ordinary particle (10-8s).

Electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the

impact of excited (metastable) atoms, provided that their total
energy is sufficient to overcome the work function.

Neutral atoms:-

Neutral atoms in the ground state also give rise to

secondary electron emission if their kinetic energy is high (=
1000 eV). At low energies the yield is considerably less.

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 Time Lags For Breakdown
It is defined as a time difference between the
application of a voltage sufficient to cause breakdown
and the occurrence of breakdown itself.

Types of Time lags:-

Time in which lapses between
the application of the voltage
1. Statistical time lag (ts) sufficient to cause breakdown and the
appearance of the initiating electron

2. formative time lag (tf) Time is required for the ionization

processes to develop fully to cause
the breakdown of the gap

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 Mechanism Of Breakdown

 Two types of theories are used to

explain the mechanism for
breakdown in a gas insulation
Uniform electric field
under different conditions

 Townsend theory.
Non-uniform electric field

 Streamer theory.
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 PASCHEN'S LAW
According to Townsend’s breakdown criterion in gases

where the coefficients  and  are functions of P & E/P,

i.e

and and

By Replacing the constants

The above equation Implies that the breakdown voltage varies as the
product pd varies.
PASCHEN'S LAW
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 PASCHEN'S LAW (cont..)
In order to account for the effect of temperature(according
to the gas law pv= NRT),

the Paschen's law is generally stated as V =f(Nd)

where N is the density of the gas molecules.

Based on the experimental results, the breakdown potential of air is

expressed as a power function in pd as

At 760 torr and 2930K

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 Limitations of Townsend theory
Factors Townsend mechanism Practical condition
Current Growth Due to ionization processes only. Also depend on the gas
Process pressure and the geometry of
the gap.
Time lags In the order of (10-5S) In the order of (10-8S)

Discharge It predicts a very diffused form of Discharges were found to be

discharge. filamentary and irregular.

Application only at low pressures, pressures and pd values are

corresponding to p x d (gas very much higher
pressure x gap distance) values of
1000 torr-cm
and below.
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 Streamer Theory
Raether and, Meek and Loeb independently proposed the
Streamer theory

It predict the development of a spark discharge directly

from a single avalanche in which the space charge
developed by the avalanche itself is said to transform the
avalanche into a plasma streamer.

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Streamer Theory

Cathode (-) Anode (+)

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Streamer Theory (conti…)

Avalanche
Space charge

+ ---

Cathode (-) Anode (+)

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 Streamer Theory

- -
+ - + -
- -

- -
+ - + -
- -

Cathode (-) Anode (+)

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 Streamer Theory

Cathode (-) Anode (+)

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 Electric field Estimation
Meek proposed a simple quantitative criterion to estimate
the electric field that transforms an avalanche into a
Streamer.

The field Er produced by the space charge, at the radius r,

is given by

where a is Townsend's first ionization coefficient,

p is the gas pressure in torr, and
x is the distance to which the streamer has extended
in the gap.
According to Meek, the minimum breakdown voltage is
obtained when Er = E and x = d in the above equation.
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POST-BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA AND APPLICATIONS

Glow Discharge

Arc Discharge

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 Glow Discharge
A glow discharge is characterized by a diffused luminous
glow.
The colour of the glow discharge depends on the cathode
material and the gas used.

Normal glow:-
The glow discharge covers the cathode partly and the space
between the cathode, and the anode will have intermediate dark
and bright regions.

Abnormal glow:-
If the current in the normal glow is increased such that the
discharge covers the entire cathode surface.

Applications:-
cold cathode gaseous voltage stabilized tubes (voltage regulation
tubes or VR tubes), for rectification, as a relaxation oscillator, and as an
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 Arc Discharge
If the current in the gap is increased to about 1 A or more,
the voltage across the gap suddenly reduces to a few volts (20-50
V). The discharge becomes very luminous and noisy (region EG).
This phase is called the arc discharge.
the current density over the cathode region increases to very
high values of 103 to 107 A/cm2. Arcing is associated with high
temperatures, ranging from 100O0C to several thousand
The discharge will contain a very high density of electrons
and positive ions, called the arc plasma.

Applications:-

It is used for welding and cutting of metals.

It is the light source in lamps such as carbon arc lamp.
High temperature plasmas are used for generation of electricity
through magneto-hydro dynamic (MHD) or nuclear fusion processes.
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PENNING EFFECT
 Introduced by Dutch Physicist Frans
Michel Penning in 1927

 The Penning effect in a penning gas

mixture is the ionization by charge
transfer during collision between a
metastable atom and a neutral atom
which decreases the average energy to
form an ion pair
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Practical Example of Penning effect
 98 – 99.5 % of neon gas with 0.5 – 2 % of
argons to improve electrical char of neon
lamp
 Easier to ionize than either neon and
argon alone
 Argon has lower ionization potential than
neon
 By energy transfer via collisions, this can
ionize the neon gas particles
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BREAKDOWN IN
ELECTRONEGATIVE GASES

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 Electron Attachment Process

The types of collisions in which electrons may become

attached to atoms or molecules to form negative ions are
called attachment collisions.
Since negative ions like positive ions are too massive
to produce ionization due to collisions.

It can be represented as:

The gases in which electron attachment plays an

important role is called ELECTRO NEGATIVE GASES.
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 Breakdown in Electro Negative Gases
Two types of attachment processes encountered in
electro negative gases.

(a) Direct attachment

In which an electron directly attaches to form a

negative ion

(b) Dissociative attachment

In which the gas molecules split into their constituent

atoms and the electronegative atom forms a negative ion.
Eg: - sulphur hexa fluoride, freon , carbondioxide and
fluorocarbons
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Breakdown in Electro Negative Gases (cont..)

With such gases, the Townsend current growth

equation is modified to include ionization and
attachment.
An attachment coefficient (η) is defined, the
number of attaching collisions made by one
electron drifting one centimetre in the direction of
the field.

The Townsend breakdown criterion for attaching gases

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BREAKDOWN IN NON
UNIFORM FIELD AND CORONA
DISCHARGES

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 Breakdown in Non-uniform Fields

In non-uniform fields,

The applied field varies across the gap.

Similarly, Townsend's first ionization coefficient  also varies

with the gap.
d

Townsend's criterion is rewritten by replacing d by  dx

0

Townsend's criterion for breakdown now becomes

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 Breakdown in Non-uniform Fields

According to streamer theory,

The space charged field (Er) is available at the head of the

avalanche when it has crossed the distance is modified into

Examples:-

Non uniform field exists in coaxial cylinders, point-plane and

sphere-plane gaps

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 CORONA

 If the electric field is uniform, a gradual increase in

voltage across a gap produces a breakdown of the gap in
the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges.

 If the field is non-uniform, an increase in voltage will

first cause a discharge in the gas to appear at points with
highest electric field intensity, namely at sharp points or
where the electrodes are curved or on transmission lines.

 This form of discharge is called a corona discharge.

 It can be observed as a bluish luminescence.

 This phenomenon is always accompanied by a hissing

noise.
 The air surrounding the corona region becomes converted
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DISRUPTIVE CRITICAL VOLTAGE :
 When a gradually increasing voltage is applied across two
conductors, initially nothing will be seen or heard.

 As the voltage is increased, the air surrounding the

conductors get ionised, and at a certain voltage a hissing
noise is heard caused by the formation of corona.

VISUAL CORONA INCEPTION VOLTAGE.

 A further increase in the voltage would cause a visible

violet glow around the conductors.

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 Limitations

 Corona is responsible for considerable loss of power

from high voltage transmission lines

 It leads to the deterioration of insulation due to the

combined action of the bombardment of ions and of
the chemical compounds formed during discharges.

 It gives rise to radio interference.

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Why we use SF6

 Gives high breakdown strength to a

gas

 It is used to removal the free

electrons from an ionized gas
when arc interruption occurs in gas-
insulated switchgear.

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Properties of SF6:
The electric power industry has been using Sulfur
Hexafluoride (SF6) gas as a dielectric and insulating
material for many years.

1) Dielectric strength twice that of air.

2) Nontoxic, nonflammable and noncorrosive.
3) Chemically stable with high breakdown strength. SF6
molecules provide excellent arc extinction during electrical
operations which minimizes contact wear and maintenance.
4) Excellent thermal conductivity. High heat transfer permits
lower operating temperatures.
5) Ready availability in many commercial locations

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Common Applications of SF6:
(i)high voltage circuit breakers,
(ii)high voltage transformers,
(iii) Distribution voltage switchgear,
(iv) Gas insulated power substations, gas insulated
transmission lines,
(v)Radar equipment,
(vi) linear particle accelerators and generators.

Approximately 80% of the annual consumption of SF6 is

used for gas insulated substation (GlS) equipment and
medium voltage switchgear including circuit breakers and
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 VACUUM

INSULATION

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VACUUM INSULATION
 What is vacuum?
◦ If pressure is maintained at a value much
below the atmospheric pressure , we can
create vacuum .
Types of vacuum (based on millimetres of
mercury)
1. High vacuum : 1 x 10-3 to 10-6 Torr
2. Very High vacuum : 1 x 10-6 to 10-8 Torr
3. Ultra High vacuum : 1 x 10-9 Torr and below

One standard atm pressure is equal to 760mm

at temp of 0 degree celsius.

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How does vacuum act as insulation?
 Idea of using vacuum for insulation purposes
is very old.

 No charged particles = no breakdown ??

Remember Townsend’s Theory
So vacuum is perfect insulating medium ???
NO….
Due to presence of metallic electrodes &
insulating surfaces within vacuum –
Breakdown occurs
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Applications of Vacuum insulation

 Vacuum contactors
 Vacuum interrupters
 High frequency capacitors
 Electrostatic genertors
 Microwave tubes , etc.

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Breakdown Mechanism of Vacuum
dielectrics
 Unlike gaseous breakdown, electron
crosses the gap without encountering any
collisions
 Classifications
• Particle Exchange Mechanism
• Field Emission Theory
• Clump Mechanism

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 Particle Exchange Mechanism
 Assumption : Charged particle (electrons)
emitted from cathode under action of high
electricElectrons
Secondary field Photons (C)
(D)

Cathode Anode

Secondary Electrons
Positive ions(A)
(B)
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Condition for Breakdown
 Breakdown will occur if the coefficients of
production of secondary electrons exceeds unity

Mathematically, condition for breakdown can be

AB + CD > 1
Again this theory is modified to allow for presence
of negative ions and the criterion for breakdown
becomes AB + EF > 1
E & F – No of negative ions produced by postive
ions and photons

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Field Emission Theory
 When the gap voltage increases and
nearer to the breakdown voltage, sharp
points of cathode surface is responsible
for the pre breakdown. This is called field
emission process

 i) Anode Heating Mechanism

 Ii) Cathode Heating Mechanism

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i) Anode Heating Mechanism
 - Electrons produced due to
small micro projections on
Cathode Anode
the cathode
 Due to field emission
bombard the anode causing
local rise in temperature Microprojection +veions

 It produces gases and

vapours into the vacuum gap
 These electrons ionize the
atoms of gas and produce Vapour cloud
positive ions.

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 ii) Cathode Heating Mechanism
 As per field emision process, pre
Cathode Anode
breakdown current flows.

 This current causes resitive

Microprojection
heating at the tip of the point

 Tip melts and explodes when it

reaches critical current density

 Thus vacuum discharge initiated Vapour cloud

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3.Clump Mechanism
 Assumptions
1. A Loosely bound particles (clump) exists on one of
the electrode surfaces

2. By high voltage, this particle gets charged and

gets detached from the electrode and is
accelerated across the gap

3. Breakdown occurs due to a discharge in the

vapour or gas released by the impact of the partice
at the target electrode

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Clump Mechanism (cont..)
Cathode Anode

Clump

Vapour

1.Clump is loosely attached to the surface

2. Clump is detached from cathode surface and moved across the
3. Impact on the clump on the anode , gives out AP/EEE
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Clump Mechanism (cont..)
 Cranberg was the first to propose this theory
 Breakdown will occur when energy per unit area
W delivered to target electrode by a clump
exceeds a constant value C’ which characteristics
of a given pair of electrodes
 W is the product of voltage and electric field
W = V x E = C’
 For parallel plane electrodes, E = V/d
V2 / d = C’
The criterion for breakdown
V=
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Problems
 What will be the breakdown voltage of a
spark gap in a gas at pd=760 torr at 25oC
if A=15/ cm and B=360/ cm, d=1mm and
γ = 1.5x10-4 ?

 Answer : Breakdown voltage 4885 volts

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