Kinematics

Topic 5
Kinematics of a Particle
1. Introduction to Kinematics
Kinematics is the section of mechanics which treats of the geometry of the
motion of bodies, without taking into account their inertia (mass) or the forces
acting on them.
By motion in mechanics is meant the relative displacement with time of a body in
space with respect to other bodies.
In order to locate a moving body (or particle) we assume a coordinate system,
which we call the frame of reference or reference system, to be fixed relative to
the body with respect to which the motion is being considered. When we speak
of the motion of a body with respect to a given frame of reference, we shall mean
its motion relative to a body fixed with respect to that frame of reference.
Any motion in space takes place with time. In mechanics we deal with three-
dimensional Euclidean space in which all dimensions are measured by the
methods of Euclidean geometry.
To describe the motion, or the law of motion, of a given body (particle)
kinematically means to specify the position of that body (particle) relative to a
given frame of reference for any moment of time.
The principal problem of kinematics is that of determining all the kinematic
characteristics of the motion of a body as a whole or of any of its particles (path,
velocity, acceleration, etc.) when the law of motion for the given body is known.
For the solution of this problem we must know either the equations of motion for
the given body or for another body kinematically associated with it.
We shall start the study of kinematics with an investigation of the motion of the
simplest body—a particle (kinematics of a particle), proceeding later to the
examination of the kinematics of rigid bodies.
2. Vector Method of Describing Motion of a Particle.
To describe the motion of a particle, it is necessary to specify its position in a
chosen frame of reference at any given moment of time. Curvilinear motion can
be described by one of the following three methods:
1) the vector method, 2) the coordinate method, 3) the natural method.
We shall start with the vector method of describing
motion. Let a particle M be moving relative to any frame of
reference Oxyz. The position of a particle at any instant
can be specified by a vector r drawn from the origin O to
the particle M. Vector r is called the radius vector of the
particle M.
When the particle moves, the vector changes with time both in magnitude and
direction. Thus, r is variable vector (a vector-function) depending on the
argument t:
r =r (t) (1)

Eq. (1) describes the curvilinear motion of a particle in vector form. The locus of
the tip of vector r defines the path of the moving particle.

3. Velocity Vector of a Particle

One of the basic kinematic characteristics of motion of a particle is a vector
quantity called velocity. First let us introduce the concept of average velocity of a
particle in a given time interval. Let a moving particle occupy at time t a position
M defined by the radius vector r, and at time t1 a position M1 defined by the
radius vector r1 (Fig. 1). The displacement during the time interval Δt = t1— t is
defined by a vector MM1 which we shall call the displacement vector of the
particle. The vector is directed along a chord if the particle is in curvilinear motion
and along the path in the rectilinear motion.
From triangle OMM1 we have r+MM1=r1 whence
MM1=r1 – r=Δr
The ratio of the displacement vector of a particle to the corresponding time
interval defines a vector quantity called the average (both magnitude and
direction) velocity of the particle during the given time interval:
 ´ 1 ∆r
MM
v av= =
∆t ∆t
The magnitude of the average velocity is
MM 1
v av=
∆t

Figure 1

Vector v avhas the same direction as vector MM ´ 1, i.e., along the chord MM1 in the
direction of the motion of the particle in the case of curvilinear motion, and along
the path itself in the case of rectilinear motion.
The instantaneous velocity of a particle at any time t is defined as the vector
quantity v towards which the average velocity v avtends when the time interval ∆ t
tends to zero:

The limit of the ratio∆ r /∆ t as ∆ t →0 is the first derivative of the vector r with
respect to t and is denoted, like the derivative of a scalar function, by the symbol
dr
.
dt
Finally we obtain:
dr
v= . (2)
dt
Thus, the vector of instantaneous velocity of a particle is equal to the first
derivative of the radius vector of the particle with respect to time.
As the limiting direction of the secant MM1 is a tangent, the vector of
instantaneous velocity is tangent to the path of the particle in the direction of
motion.

4. Acceleration Vector of a Particle

Acceleration characterizes the time rate of change of velocity in magnitude and
direction.
Let a moving particle occupy a position M and have a velocity v at a given time t,
and let it at time t1 occupy a position M1 and have a velocity v1 (Fig. 2). The
increase in velocity in the time interval Δt=t1 – t is Δv=v1 – v. T o construct vector
∆ v , lay off vector v1 from point M and construct a parallelogram with v1 as its
diagonal and v as one of its sides. It is evident that the other side will represent
vector ∆ v . Note that vector ∆ v is always directed towards the inside of the path.
The ratio of the velocity increment vector ∆ v to the corresponding time interval
∆ t defines the vector of average acceleration of the particle in the given time
interval:
∆v
w av =
∆t

Figure 2

Obviously, the vector of average acceleration has the same direction as vector ∆ v ,
i.e., towards the inside of the path.
The instantaneous acceleration of a particle at a given time t is defined as the
vector quantity w towards which the average acceleration wav tends when the
time interval ∆ t tends to zero:

or, taking into account Eq. (2),

 (3)
Thus, the vector of instantaneous acceleration of a particle is equal to the first
derivative of the velocity vector or the second derivative of the radius vector of the
particle with respect to time.
In rectilinear motion vector w is, obviously, directed along the straight line in
which the particle is moving. If the path is a plane curve, the acceleration vector
w, like the vector wav lies in the plane of the curve and is directed towards the
inside of the curve.

5. Coordinate method of describing motion. Determination of

the path, velocity and acceleration of a particle
The position of a particle with respect to a given frame of reference Oxyz can be
specified by its Cartesian coordinates x, y, z (Fig. 3). When motion takes place, the
three coordinates will change with time. If we want to know the equation of
motion of a particle, i.e., its location in space at any
instant, we must know its coordinates for any moment
of time, i.e., the relations
x=f 1 ( t ) , y =f 2 ( t ) , z=f 3 (t) (4)
should be known.
Figure 3
Eqs. (4) are the equations of motion of a particle in
terms of the Cartesian rectangular coordinates. They
describe the curvilinear motion of a particle by the coordinate method. If a
particle moves in one plane, then, taking the plane for the xy plane, we obtain
two equations of motion:
x=f 1 ( t ) , y =f 2 ( t )

Let us see how the kinematics of motion are determined by the coordinate
method of describing the motion of a particle.

1.The velocity vector of a particle is v=dr/dt. Hence, from relation (2), we obtain;
or

The projections of the velocity on the coordinate axes are equal to the first
derivatives of the corresponding coordinates of the particle with respect to time.
Knowing the projections of the velocity, we can find the magnitude and direction
vi.e., the angles α , β , γ which vector v makes with the coordinate axes) from the
equation:

Determination of the Acceleration of a Particle. The acceleration vector of a

particle is w = dv/dt. Hence, we obtain:

i.e., the projections of the acceleration on the coordinate axes are equal to the
first derivatives of the projections of the velocities, or the second derivatives of the
corresponding coordinates, of the particle with respect to time.
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration are given by the equations

where α 1 , β 1 , and γ 1 , are the angles made by the acceleration vector with the
coordinate axes.
Example. The motion of a particle is described by the equations x = 8t — 4t 2,
y = 6t — 3t2 where x and y are in metres and t is in seconds.
Determine the path, velocity and acceleration of the particle.
Solution. To determine the path, we first eliminate time t from the equations of
motion. Multiplying both parts of the first equation by 3 and both parts of the
second by 4, and subtracting the second from the first, we obtain 3x – 4y = 0, or
y = (3/4)x.
Now let us determine the velocity of the particle.

To determine the acceleration of the particle,

Figure 4

Vectors v and w are evidently directed along the path, i.e., along AB. The
projections of the acceleration on the coordinate axes are always negative,
consequently, the acceleration is always directed from B to A. The projections of
the velocity at 0 < t < 1 are positive, consequently, within this time interval, the
velocity is directed from O to B. At time t = 0, v; = 10 m/s, and at time t = 1 s, v = 0.
When t > 1 s, both projections of the velocity are negative and, consequently, the
velocity is directed from B to A, i.e., similarly to the acceleration.

6. Determination of the Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle

When its Motion is described by the Natural Method
The natural method of describing motion is convenient when the path of a
particle is known at once.
 Figure 5

s = f(t) (5)

Eq.(5) expresses the law of motion of the particle M along its path.
Thus, in order to describe the motion of a particle by the natural method, a
problem must state:
1) the path of the particle;
2) the origin on the path, showing the positive and negative directions;
3) the equation of the particle's motion along the path in the form s = f(t),
where the distance s = OM gives the arc' coordinate of the particle.

(6)

The numerical value of the instantaneous velocity of a particle is equal to

the first derivative of the displacement (of the arc coordinate) s of the particle
with respect to time.

The projection of the acceleration of a particle on the tangent to the path is called
tangential acceleration wτ and is equal to the first derivative of the numerical
value of the velocity, or the second derivative of the displacement (the arc
coordinate) s, with respect to time. Tangential acceleration characterized the
change of velocity in value.
The projection of the acceleration on the principal normal is called normal
acceleration wn and is equal to the second power of the velocity divided by the
radius of curvature of the path at the given point of the curve. Normal
acceleration characterized the change of velocity in direction.

Figure 1

Let us lay off vectors

w τ and wn along the tangent Mt and principal normal Mn respectively. These
vectors are the normal and tangential components of the acceleration of the
particle. Component wn is always directed along the inward normal (the value of
wn is always positive), while component w τ can be directed either in the positive
or the negative direction of the axis Mt depending on the sign of the projection w t
.
The acceleration vector w is the diagonal of a parallelogram constructed with the
components wt and wn as its sides. As the components are mutually
perpendicular, in magnitude

The angle μ between vector w and the normal Mn is determined by the formula

Thus, if the motion of a particle is described by the natural method and the path
and the equations of motion are known, we can determine the magnitude and
direction of the velocity and acceleration vectors of the particle for any instant.
7. Some Special Cases of Particle Motion
Using the results obtained above, let us investigate some special cases of particle
motion.
(1) Rectilinear Motion. If the path of a particle is a straight line, then ρ=∞, and
v2
w n= and the total acceleration is equal to the tangential acceleration:
ρ
dv
w=wτ = (7)
dt
As in this case the velocity changes only in magnitude, we conclude that the
tangential acceleration characterizes the change of speed.
(2) Uniform Curvilinear Motion. Curvilinear motion is uniform when the speed is
dv
constant: v = const. w τ = dt =0 and the total acceleration of the particle is equal to
the normal acceleration:
v2
w=wn=
ρ
The acceleration vector is continuously directed along the normal to the path of
the particle.
As in this case acceleration is represented only by the change in the direction of
the velocity, we conclude that the normal acceleration characterizes the change
in direction of the velocity.
Let us deduce the equation of uniform curvilinear motion. From Eq. (6) we have
ds
=v , or ds = v٠dt.
dt
Let a particle be at the initial time (t = 0) at a distance so from the origin. Then,
integrating both members of the equation over the respective intervals, we have

as v = const. Finally, we obtain the equation of uniform curvilinear motion in the

form
 s = so + vt
(3) Uniform Rectilinear Motion. In this case wn = w τ = 0, therefore, w = 0. Note
that uniform rectilinear motion is the only case of motion in which the
acceleration is continually zero.
(4) Uniformly Variable Curvilinear Motion. Curvilinear motion is called uniformly
variable if the tangential acceleration is constant: wτ= const. Let us write the
equation of this motion, assuming that, at t = 0, s = so and v = vo, where Vo is the
initial velocity of a particle. By Eq. (7), dv/dt=wτ or dv=wτ dt.
As wτ= const., integrating both members of the last equation over the
corresponding intervals gives us:
v=vo+wτt (8)
Let us write Eq. (8) in the form

Integrating again, we obtain the equation of the uniformly variable curvilinear

motion of a particle in the form

The velocity of this motion is given by Eq. (8).

If, in curvilinear motion, the magnitude of the velocity increases, the motion is
said to be accelerated, if it decreases, the motion is said to be retarded. As the
change in magnitude of the velocity is characterized by the tangential
acceleration, the motion is accelerated if v and wτ have the same sign, i.e., the
angle between vectors r and w is acute and retarded if the signs are different (the
angle between v and w is obtuse).

8. Examples of Solution of Problems

Problem 1. A train starts moving from rest with uniform acceleration along a
curve of radius R = 800 m and reaches a velocity v1 = = 36 km/h after travelling a
distance s1 = 600 m. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the train at the
middle of this distance.
Solution. As the train moves with uniform acceleration and v0 =0, its equation of
motion (assuming s0 = 0) is

and its velocity is v=w τ t .

Eliminating time t from these equations, we obtain
v 2=2 wτ S .

According to the conditions of the problem, at s = s1, v = v1, whence we find

v 21
wτ=
2 s1

At the middle of the path, where s2= s1/2, the velocity v2 is:

The normal acceleration at this point of the path is:

Knowing wτ and wn2 we find the total acceleration of the train at the middle of the
curve:

Substituting the numerical values, we obtain:

Problem 2. The equations of motion for a particle thrown with a horizontal

velocity are:
x= v 0t, y=gt2/2 , where v0 and g are constants.
Determine the path, velocity and acceleration of the particle, its tangential and
normal accelerations and the radius of curvature of its path at any point,
expressing them in terms of the velocity of the particle at the given point.
Solution. Determining t from the first equation and substituting its expression into
the second, we obtain

The path of the particle is a parabola.

Figure 2

Differentiating the equations of motion with respect to time, we find:

whence

(a)
Thus, at the initial moment (t = 0) the velocity of the particle v = v0 and it
continuously increases with time.
Let us now determine the acceleration of the particle. From the respective
equations we have:
Consequently, the acceleration is
w = g.
In the present case the particle has an acceleration of constant magnitude and
direction parallel to axis y (the acceleration of gravity). Note that, although
w = const., the motion of the particle is not uniformly variable, since the condition
for uniformly variable motion is not w = const., but wτ = const. In this case, we
shall find, wτ is not constant.
Knowing the dependence of v on t [formula (a)], we can find w τ

But from equation (a) we have v2 = v02 –g2t2 and consequently.

Substituting this expression of t, we express wτ in terms of the velocity v:

It follows that at the initial moment, when v = v0, wτ=0 equals zero, then
increases together with v, and, at v → ∞ , wτ → g . Thus, in the limit the tangential
acceleration approaches the total acceleration g.
To determine wn, we refer to the equation

whence wn2=w2-wτ2=g2v02/v2 and wn=v0g/v.

Thus, at the initial moment (v = v0), wn = g, decreasing as v increases and in the
limit approaching zero.
To determine the radius of curvature of the path, we use the equation
Topic 6
Translation and Rotational Motions
1.Translational Motion
In kinematics, as in statics, we shall regard all solids as rigid bodies, i.e., we shall
assume that the distance between any two points of a body remains the same
during the whole period of motion.
Problems of kinematics of rigid bodies are basically of two types;
(1) Definition of the motion and analysis of the kinematic characteristics of the
motion of a body as a whole; (2) analysis of the motion of every point of the body
in particular.
We shall begin with the consideration of the motion of translation of a rigid body.
Translation of a rigid body is such a motion in which any straight line through
the body remains continually parallel to itself.
Translation should not be confused with rectilinear motion. In translation the
particles of a body may move on any
curved paths. Here are some examples of
translation.
(1) When a motor car travels along a
horizontal road, the motion of its body is
that of translation, since every point of
the body moves on a straight-line path.
(2) The motion of the connecting rod AB Figure 1

in Fig. 1 is also that of translation, since, when the cranks O1A and O2B (O1A = O2B)
rotate, any straight line through the rod Figure 1
remains parallel to itself.
The properties of translational motion are defined by the following theorem:
In translational motion, all the particles of a body move along similar paths
{which will coincide if superimposed) and have at any instant the same velocity
and acceleration.
To prove the theorem, consider a rigid body translated with reference to a system
of axes Oxyz. Take two arbitrary points A and B on the body whose positions at
´ joining the
time t are specified by radius vectors rA and rB (Fig. 2). Draw a vector AB
two points. It is evident that
´
r A + r B = AB (1)

Figure 2
The length of AB is constant,
being the distance between
two points of a rigid body, and the direction of AB is constant by virtue of the
translational motion of the body. Thus, the vector AB ´ is constant throughout the
motion of the body ( AB´ = const.). It follows then from Eq. (1) (and the diagram)
that the path of particle B can be obtained by a parallel displacement of all the
points of the path of particle A through a constant vector AB ´ . Hence, the paths of
particles A and B are identical curves which will coincide if superimposed.
To determine the velocities of points A and B, we differentiate both parts' of
Eq. (1) with respect to time. We have

But the derivative of the constant vector AB´ is zero while the derivatives of
vectors rA and rB with respect to time give the velocities of points A and B. Thus
we find that
vA = vB,
i.e., at any instant the velocities of points A and B are equal in magnitude and
direction.
Again, differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to time, we obtain

Hence, at any instant the accelerations of A and B are equal in magnitude and
direction.
As points A and B are arbitrary, it follows that the paths and the velocities and
accelerations of all the points of a body at any instant are the same, which proves
the theorem.
It follows from the theorem that the translational motion of A rigid body is fully
described by the motion of any point belonging to it. Thus, the analysis of
translational motion of a rigid body is reduced to the methods of particle
kinematics examined before.
The common velocity v of all the points of a body in translational motion is called
the velocity of translation, and the common acceleration w is called the
acceleration of translation. Vectors v and w can, obviously, be shown as applied
at any point of the body.
It should be noted that the notions of velocity and acceleration of a body make
sense only when translation is considered. In all other cases, as we shall see later,
the points of a body have different velocities and accelerations and the
expressions “velocity of a body” or “acceleration of a body” are meaningless.

2. Rotational Motion of a Rigid Body.

2a. Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration
Rotation of a rigid body is such a motion in which there are always two points of
the body (or body extended) which remain motionless (Fig. 3). The line AR
through these fixed points is called the axis of rotation.
Since the distance between the points of a rigid body does not change, it is
evident that in rotational motion all points of the body on the axis of rotation are
motionless, while all the other points of the body describe circular paths the
planes of which are perpendicular to the axis of rotation and the centres of which
lie on it.

Figure 3

To determine the position of a rotating body, let us pass two planes through the
axis of rotation Az plane I, which is fixed, and plane II through the rotating body
and rotating with it.
The position of the body at any instant will be fully specified by the angle φ
between the two planes, taken with the appropriate sign, which we shall call the
angle of rotation of the body.
We shall consider the angle positive if it is laid off counterclockwise from the fixed
plane by an observer looking from the positive end of axis Az, and negative if it is
laid off clockwise. Angle φ is always measured in radians.
The position of a body at any instant is completely specified if we know the angle
φ as a function of time t, i.e.,

φ=f (t) (2)

Eq. (2) describes the rotational motion of a rigid body.
The principal kinematic characteristics of the rotation of a rigid body are its
angular velocity ω and angular acceleration ε.
If in an interval of time Δt=t1 - t body turns through an angle ∆ φ=φ 1−φ , the
average angular velocity of the body in the given time interval is
The angular velocity of a body at a given time t is the value towards which ωav
tends when the time interval ∆ t tends to zero:

(3)
Thus, the angular velocity of a body at a given time is equal in magnitude to the
first derivative of the angle of rotation with respect to time.
The sign of ω specifies the direction of the rotation. It will be noticed that ω > 0
when the rotation is counterclockwise, and ω < 0 when the rotation is clockwise.
The dimension of angular velocity, if the time is measured in seconds, is

as the radian is a dimensionless unit.

dφ
The angular velocity of a body can be denoted by a vector of magnitude ω= dt
along the axis of rotation of the body in the direction from which the rotation is
seen as counterclockwise (see Fig.4). Such a vector simultaneously gives the
magnitude of the angular velocity, the axis of rotation, and the sense of rotation
about that axis.
Angular acceleration characterizes the time rate of change of the angular
velocity of a rotating body.
If in a time interval ∆ t=t 1−t the change of angular velocity of a body is Δω
= ω1 - ω, the average angular acceleration of the body in that interval of time is
εav = Δω/Δt.
The angular acceleration at a given time t is the value towards which ε avtends
when the time interval Δt tends to zero. Thus,

or, taking into account Eq. (3)

 (4)
Thus, the angular acceleration of a body at a given time is equal in magnitude to
the first derivative of the angular velocity, or the second derivative of the
angular displacement, of the body with respect to time. The dimension of
angular acceleration is [ ε ]=sec −2 .
If the angular velocity increases in magnitude, the rotation is accelerated, if it
decreases, the rotation is retarded. It will be readily noticed that the rotation is
accelerated when ω and ε are of the same sign, and retarded when they are of
different sign.
By analogy with angular velocity, the angular acceleration of a body can be
denoted by a vector ε along the axis of rotation. The direction of ε coincides with
that of ω when the rotation is accelerated (Fig. 4a), and is of opposite sense
when the rotation is retarded (Fig. 4b).

Figure 4

2b. Uniform and Uniformly Variable Rotations

If the angular velocity of a rotating body does not change ( ω = const.), the
rotation is said to be uniform. Let us develop the equation of uniform rotation.
We have from Eq. (3) dφ=ω dt .Hence, assuming that at the initial moment (t = 0)
angle φ = 0 and integrating the left-hand member from 0 to φ and the right-hand
member from 0 to t, we obtain:
φ=ω t
It follows from Eq. (39) that in uniform rotation
ω=φ /t
In engineering, the velocity of uniform rotation is often expressed as the number
of revolutions per minute n (rpm).
Let us establish the relation between n (rpm) and ω (sec-1). A complete revolution
turns a body through an angle of 2 π and n revolutions take it through an angle2 πn
. If the duration of this rotation is t = 1 min = 60 s, then we have

If the angular acceleration of a body does not change during the rotation (ε =
const.), the rotation is said to be uniformly variable. Let us develop the equation
of uniformly variable rotation assuming that at the initial instant t = 0, angle φ = 0
and that the angular velocity ω = ω 0 (where ω 0 is the initial angular velocity).
From Eq. (4) we haved ω=εdt . Integrating the left-hand member over the interval
w 0 to w the right-hand member from 0 to t, we obtain
ω=ω 0+ εt

Let us write the equation in the form

Integrating again, we obtain the equation of uniformly variable rotation:

If ω and ε have the same sign, the rotation is uniformly accelerated, if they have
opposite signs, it is uniformly retarded.

2c. Velocities and Accelerations of the Points of a Rotating Body

Having established in the previous sections the characteristics of the motion of
bodies as a whole, let us now investigate the motion of the individual points of a
body.
Consider a point M of a rigid body at a distance h from the axis of rotation Az (Fig.
3). When the body rotates, point M describes a circle of radius h in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation with its centre C on that axis. If in time dt the
body makes an infinitesimal displacement through an angle dφ , point M will have
made a very small displacement ds=hdφ along its path. The velocity of the point is
the ratio of ds to dt, i.e..

This velocity v is called the linear, or circular, velocity of the point M.

Thus, the linear velocity of a point belonging to a rotating body is equal to the
product of the angular velocity of that body and the distance of the point from the
axis of rotation.
The linear velocity is tangent to the circle described by point M, or perpendicular
to the plane through the axis of rotation and the point M.
As the value of ω at any given instant is the same for all points of the body, the
linear velocity of any point of a rotating body is proportional to its distance from
the axis of rotation (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 Figure 6

In order to determine the acceleration of point M, we apply equations

In our case, ρ = h. Substituting the expression for v, we obtain

The tangential acceleration w τ is tangent to the path (in the direction of the
rotation if it is accelerated and in the reverse direction if it is retarded); the
normal acceleration wn is always directed along the radius h towards the axis of
rotation(Fig. 6).
The total acceleration of point M is

The inclination of the vector of total acceleration to the radius of the circle
described by the point is specified by the angle μ given by the equation

Substituting the expressions of wt and wn, we obtain

Since at any given instant ε and ω are each the same for all the points of the
body, it follows that the accelerations of all the points of a rotating rigid body are
proportional to their distances from the axis of rotation.

2d. Examples of problem solving

Example 1. A shaft rotating with a speed of n = 90 rpm decelerates uniformly
when the motor is switched of and stops in t1 = 40 s. Determine the number of
revolutions made by the shaft in this time.
Solution. As the rotation is uniformly retarded,

The initial angular velocity of the uniformly retarded rotation is that which the
shaft had before the motor was switched off. Hence,
At the instant t == t1, when the shaft stopped, its angular velocity was ω1 = 0.
Substituting these values into equation (b), we obtain;

If we denote as N the number of revolutions of the shaft in time t 1 (not to be

confused with n, which is the angular velocity!), the angle of rotation in that time
will be φ 1=2 πn. Substituting the values of ε and φ 1 in equation (a), we obtain

Example 2. A flywheel of radius R = 1.2 m rotates uniformly making n = 90 rpm.

Determine the linear velocity and acceleration of a point on the rim of the
flywheel.
Solution. The linear velocity of such a point is v=Rω , where the angular velocity ω
must be expressed in radians per second. In our case

Hence,

As ω=const, ε =const, and consequently,

The acceleration is directed towards the axis of rotation.

Example 3. The equation of motion of an accelerated flywheel is
Determine the linear velocity and acceleration of a point lying at a distance
h = 0.8 m from the axis of rotation at the instant when its tangential and normal
accelerations are equal.
Solution. We determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
flywheel:

The formulas for the tangential and normal accelerations of the point arw τ =hε ,
and ω n=h ω 2.
Denote the instant when wτ= wn by the symbol t1. Obviously, at that instantε 1=ω21,
or

whence

Substituting this value of t1 in the expressions for ε 2 and ω, we find that at time t1

The required values are thus

Example 4. The weight B in Fig.7 rotates a shaft of radius r with gear 1 of radius r 1
mounted on it. The weight starts moving from rest with a constant acceleration a.
Develop the equation of rotation of the gear 2 of radius r 2 which is meshed with
gear 1.
Solution. As the initial velocity of the weight is zero, its velocity v B at any instant t
is vB=at. All the points on the surface of the shaft have the same velocity. At the
same, their velocity is ω1r, where ω1 is an angular velocity of both the shaft and
gear 1. Consequently,
ω1r =at and ω1=at/r

Figure 7

Now let us determine ω2. As at point C, where the gears mesh, the linear velocity
of both gears must be the same, we have vc= ω1r1= ω2r2, whence

Thus, the angular velocity of gear 2 increases in proportion to time. Since

where φ 2is the angle of rotation of gear 2, we have

from which, integrating both sides and assuming angle φ 2 = 0 at time t = 0, we

obtain the equation of uniformly accelerated rotation of gear 2 in the form
 Topic 7
Plane Motion
1.Equations of Plane Motion. Resolution of Motion into
Translation and Rotation
Plane motion of a rigid body is such motion in which all its points move parallel to
a fixed plane P (Fig. 1). Many machine parts have plane motion, for example, a
wheel running on a straight track or the connecting rod of a reciprocating engine.
Rotation is, in fact, a special case of plane motion.
Let as consider the section S of a body produced by passing any plane Oxy parallel
to a fixed plane P (see Fig. 1). All the points of the body belonging to line MM'
normal to plane P move in the same way. Therefore, in investigating plane motion
it is sufficient to investigate the motion of section S of that body in the plane Oxy.
In this book we shall always take the plane Oxy parallel to the page and represent a
body by its section S.
The position of section S in plane Oxy is completely specified by the position of
any line AB in this section (Fig. 2). The position of the line AB may be specified
by the coordinates xA and yA of point A and the angle φ between an arbitrary line
AB in section S and axis x.

Figure 1 Figure 2

The point A chosen to define the position of section S is called the pole. As the
body moves, the quantities xA, yA and φ will change and the motion of the body,
i.e., its position in space at any moment of time, will be completely specified if we
know
 (1)
Eqs. (1) are the equations of plane motion of a rigid body. Let us show that plane
motion is a combination of translation and rotation.

Figure 3

Consider the successive positions I and II of the section S of a moving body at

instants t1 and t 2=t 1+ ∆ t (Fig. 3). It will be observed that the following method can
be employed to move section S, and with it the whole body, from position I to
position II. Let us first translate the body so that pole A occupies position A2 (line
A1B1 occupies position A2B'1) and then turn the section about pole A2 through
angle∆ φ1. In the same way we can move the body from position II to some new
position III, etc.
We conclude that the plane motion of a rigid body is a combination of a
translation, in which all the points move in the same way as the pole A, and of
a rotation about that pole.
The translational component of plane motion can, evidently, be described by the
first two of Eqs. (1), and the rotational component by the third.
The principal kinematic characteristics of this type of motion are the velocity and
acceleration of translation, each equal to the velocity and acceleration of the pole
(vtrans = vA, wtrans = wA), and the angular velocity (o and angular acceleration e of
the rotation about the pole. The values of these characteristics can be found for any
time t from Eqs. (1).

2. Determination of the Velocity of a Point of a Body

Plane motion of a rigid body is a combination of a translation in which all points of
the body move with the velocity of the pole and a rotation about that pole. Let us
show that the velocity of any point M of the body is the geometrical sum of its
velocities for each component of the motion.

Figure 4

Figure 5

The position of a point M in section S of the body is specified with reference to the
coordinate axes Oxy by the radius vector r =r A +r ' (Fig. 4), where vector r ' = AM
´
. Then,

In this equation dr/dt=vA is equal to the velocity of pole A; the quantity dr’/dt is
equal to the velocity vMA of point M at rA = const., i.e., when A is fixed or, in
other words, when the body rotates about pole A. It thus follows from the
preceding equation that
 (2)
The velocity of rotation vMA of point M about pole A is

(3)
where ω is the angular velocity of the rotation of the body.
Thus, the velocity of any point M of a body is the geometrical sum of the
velocity of any other point A taken as the pole arid the velocity of rotation of
point M about the pole.
The magnitude and direction of the velocity Vm are found by constructing a
parallelogram (Fig. 5).

Example 1. Determine the velocity of a point M on the rim of a wheel of radius R

(Fig. 6) rolling without slipping along a straight rail if the velocity of the centre C
of the wheel is VC and angle DKM = α .
Solution. Taking point C whose velocity is known as the pole, we find that
Vm = Vc + VMC ,where VMC is perpendicular to CM and in magnitude
v MC =ωMC=ωR . The magnitude of the angular velocity is determined from the
condition that point K of the wheel does not slip and, consequently, at the given
moment vk = 0. On the other hand, just as for point M, VK = Vc + VKC, where
v KC =ωKC=ωR . For point K, VKC and VC are collinear, therefore, at VK=0, VKC=VC,
vc
whence ω= R .

Thus we find that

 Figure 6

The parallelogram constructed with vectors VMC and VC as its sides is a rhombus.
But the angle between Vc and VMC is equal to angle β as the sides of these angles
are mutually perpendicular. On the other hand, angle β = 2 α, as a central angle
subtended by the same arc as the inscribed angle α. Hence, by virtue of the
properties of a rhombus, the angles between Vc and VM and between VMC and VM
are also equal to α. Finally, as the diagonals of a rhombus are mutually
perpendicular, we obtain

3. Theorem of the Projections of the Velocities of Two Points of

a Body
The use of Eq. (2) to determine the velocities of the points of a body usually leads
to involved computations. However, we can evolve from Eq. (2) several simpler
and more convenient methods of
determining the velocity of any point of a
body.
One of these methods is given by the
theorem: The projections of the velocities
of two points of a rigid body on the
straight line joining those points are
equal.

Figure 7
Consider any two points A and B of a body. Taking point A as the pole (Fig. 7) we
have from Eq. (2) VB= VA +VBA. Projecting both members of the equation on AB
and taking into account that vector VBA perpendicular to AB, we obtain:

and the theorem is proved.

This result offers a simple method of determining the velocity of any point of a
body if the direction of motion of that point and the velocity of any other point of
the same body are known.

4. Determination of the Velocity of a Point of a Body Using the

Instantaneous Centre of Zero Velocity.
Another simple and visual method of determining the velocity of any point of a
body performing plane motion is based on the concept of instantaneous centre of
zero velocity.
The instantaneous centre of zero velocity is a point belonging to the section S
of a body or its extension which at the given instant is momentarily at rest.
It will be readily noticed that if a body is in non-translational motion, such one
and only one point always exists at any instant t.
Let points A and B in section S of a body (Fig. 8) have, at time t, non-parallel
velocities vA and vB.
Then point P of intersection of perpendiculars Aa to vector vA and Bb to vector vB
will be the instantaneous centre of zero velocity, as vp=0.
For, if we assumed that v p ≠ 0, then, by the theorem'of the projections of the
velocities of the points of a body, vector vP would have to be simultaneously
perpendicular to AP (as vA is perpendicular to AP) and to BP (as vB is
perpendicular to BP), which is impossible. It also follows from the theorem that,
at the given instant, no other point of section S can have zero velocity.
If, now, we take a point P as the pole at time t, the velocity of point A will, by Eq.
(2), be
as Vp = 0. The same result can be obtained for any other point of the body.
Thus, the velocity of any point of a body lying in section S is equal to the
velocity of its rotation about the instantaneous centre of zero velocity P.
From Eqs. (3) we have

It also follows that

(4)
i.e., that the velocity of any point of a body is proportional to its distance from the
instantaneous centre of zero velocity.
These results lead to the following conclusions:
(1) To determine the instantaneous centre of zero velocity, it is sufficient to know
the directions of the velocities vA and vB of any two points A and B of a section of
a body (or their paths); the instantaneous centre of zero velocity lies at the
intersection of the perpendiculars erected from points A and B to their respective
velocities, or to the tangents to their paths.
(2) To determine the velocity of any point of a body, it is necessary to know the
magnitude and direction of the velocity of any point A of that body and the
direction of the velocity of another point B of the same body. Then, by erecting
from points A and B perpendiculars to vA and vB , we obtain the instantaneous
centre of zero velocity P and, from the direction of vA the sense of rotation of the
body. Next, knowing vA , we can find from Eq. (4) the velocity of any point M of
the body. Vector is perpendicular to PM in the direction of the rotation.
(3) The angular velocity of a body, as can be seen from Eqs. (3), is at any given
instant equal to the ratio of the velocity of any point belonging to the section S to
its distance from the instantaneous centre of zero velocity P:
(4) If plane motion is performed by a cylinder rolling without slipping along a
fixed cylindrical surface, the point of contact is momentarily at rest and,
consequently, is the instantaneous centre of zero velocity. An example of such
motion is that of a wheel running on a rail.
(5) If the velocities of points A and B of the body are parallel to each other, and
AB is not perpendicular to vA, the instantaneous centre of zero velocity lies in
infinity, and the velocities of all points are parallel to vA (Fig.8). From the theorem
of the projections of velocities it follows that v A cosα=v B cosβ , i.e., v B=v A; the result
is the same for all other points of the body. Consequently, in this case the velocities
of all points of the body are equal in magnitude and direction at every instant, i.e.,
the instantaneous distribution of the velocities of the body is that of translation
(this state of motion is also called instantaneous translation). The angular velocity
ω of the body at the given instant is zero.
(6) If the velocities of points A and B are parallel and AB is perpendicular to vA,
the instantaneous centre of zero velocity P can be located by the construction
shown in Fig. 9. The validity of this construction follows from the proportion (4).
In this case, unlike the previous ones, we have to know the magnitudes of
velocities and to locate the instantaneous centre of zero velocity P.

Figure 3 Figure 9

The above shows that in plane motion the velocities of the points of a body are
distributed at any given instant as if the body were rotating about an axis Pz,
perpendicular to the section S through point P. This line is called the instantaneous
axis of rotation of the body. Unlike a fixed axis of rotation, the instantaneous axis
continually changes its position. Plane motion is the result of a series of
consecutive infinitesimal rotations about the instantaneous axis of rotation.
5. Examples of solution of problems
Problem 1. Crank OA of length r of the mechanism in Fig. 10 rotates with an
angular velocity ω OA .The length of the connecting rod AB=L. If angle φ is given,
determine: (1) the velocity of block B, (2) the position of the point M on the
connecting rod which has the least velocity, (3) the angular velocity ω AB of the
connecting rod. Also analyze the positions of the mechanism for φ = 0 and φ = 90°.

Figure 10

Solution. It follows from the statement of the problem that the velocity of point A
is v A =ω OA r perpendicular to OA, and the velocity of B is directed along BO. These
data are sufficient to determine all the kinematic characteristics of the connecting
rod.
(1) From the theorem of the projections of velocities we have
v A cosα=v B cosβ . Angle OAD, as a supplementary angle of triangle OAB, is
equal to φ+ β. Hence, α =90 °−(φ+ β), and

Now eliminate angle p from the equation. From triangle OAB,

Furthermore,

And finally,
(2) The instantaneous centre of zero velocity P of the connecting rod (AP is an
extension of OA) is located by erecting perpendiculars from points A and B. The
point with the least velocity M is that which is closest to the centre P, i.e., on the
perpendicular PM to AB. Its velocity is

(3) From Eq. (55), the angular velocity of the rod is

The length PB (or PA) is calculated from the data given in the statement of the
problem.

Figure 11 Figure 12

(4) At angle φ=0 (Fig. 11), the perpendicular AB to velocity VA and the
perpendicular Bb to VB intersect at B. Consequently, for this position point B is the
instantaneous centre of zero velocity, and vB = 0 (the “dead” position of the
mechanism). For this position

The distribution of velocities along the connecting rod is shown in the diagram.
(5) At angle φ = 90o (Fig. 11b), velocities VA and VB are parallel, and the
perpendiculars to them intersect at infinity. Consequently, at that instant all the
points of the rod have the same velocity vA; ω AB=0
Problem 2. Link OA in Fig. 12 rotates about axis 0 with an angular velocityω OA;
with it moves gear 1 which rolls around the fixed gear 2. The radii of the two gears
are both equal to r. Hinged to gear 1 is a connecting rod BD of length l, attached to
which is a rockshaft DC. Determine the angular velocity ω BD of the connecting rod
for the instant when it is perpendicular to link OA if at that instant angle BDC =
45°.
Solution. To determine ω BDwe must know the velocity of an arbitrary point on the
connecting rod BD and the position of its instantaneous centre of zero velocity. Let
us determine the velocity of point B from the fact that it also belongs to gear 1, for
which the velocity is known to be v A =ω OA 2r and the instantaneous centre of zero
velocity is at P1. Consequently, vB is perpendicular to PB, and from the theorem of
the projections of velocities v B cos 45=v A , whence
v B=v A √ 2=2 r ωOA √ 2

Now we know the velocity vB of the connecting rod and the direction of velocity V
D(V D is perpendicular to DC). Erecting perpendiculars to VB and VD, we obtain
the instantaneous centre of zero velocity PBD of the connecting rod. It will be
readily noticed that the segment

whence
 Figure 13

Problem 3. A gear 1 and crank OA are mounted independently of each other on an

axle O (Fig. 13). The crank rotates with an angular velocity ωOA. Fixed to the
connecting rod AB with its centre at A is gear 2. The crank OA carries an axis A of
gear 2, which is fixed to a connecting rod AB passing through a rocker slide C.
The radii of gears and 2 are both equal. Determine the angular velocity ω1 of gear
1 at the instant when OA is perpendicular to OC, if angle ACO = 30°.
Solution. To determine the angular velocity of gear 1, we have to find the linear
velocity of its point E. For this we make use of the fact that point E of gear 2 has
the same velocity. For gear 2 we know the direction and magnitude of the velocity
of point A:
v A ⊥ OA , v A =ωOA 2 r

Besides, we know the direction of velocity VE, but in this case this is not sufficient,
as VE || VA. Neither can the value of VE be found from the theorem of the
projections of velocities, since VA and VE are perpendicular to AE.
Therefore, we shall exploit the fact that, being riveted together, gear 2 and the
connecting rod are actually one body for which we know the direction of the
velocity of point C: vector VC (not shown in the figure) is directed along CA, as at
point C the rod can only slide in the rocker. By erecting perpendiculars to VA and
VC, we obtain the instantaneous centre of zero velocity P of the body BAE.
From the statement of the problem, angle ACO = 30°, hence angle CPA = 30°.
Therefore AC = 2AO = 4r, PA = 2AC = 8r, PE = 7r, and from the proportion

we find that

6. Determination of the Acceleration of a Point of a Body

We shall demonstrate that, like velocity, the acceleration of any point M of a body
in plane motion is composed of its accelerations of translation and rotation. The
location of point M with respect to axes Oxy (see Fig. 4) is specified by the radius
´ . Hence,
vector r=rA+r’, where r '= AM

In this equation the quantity

is the acceleration of the pole A, and the quantity

is the acceleration of point M in its rotation with the body round A. Hence,

(5)
The acceleration of point M in its rotation about A is
where w and ε are the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the body, and μ
is the angle between the direction of WMA and line MA.
Thus, the acceleration of any point M of a body is composed of the acceleration
of any other point taken for the pole and the acceleration of Ike point M in its
rotation together with the body about that pole.
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration WM are determined by
constructing a parallelogram (Fig. 14).
However, the computation of wM by means of the parallelogram in Fig. 191 makes
the solution more difficult, as it becomes necessary first to calculate the angle μ
and then the angle between vectors WMA and wA. Therefore, in problem solutions
it is more convenient to replace vector WMA by its tangential and normal
components w τMA and w nMA where

(6)

Figure 14 Figure 15

Vector w τMA is perpendicular to AM in the direction of the rotation, if it is

accelerated, and opposite the rotation if it is retarded; vector w nMA is always
directed from point M to the pole A (Fig. 15).
Instead of Eq. (5) we obtain

(7)
If pole A is in non-rectilinear motion, its acceleration is also composed of the
tangential and normal accelerations, hence
 w M =w Aτ + w An +w τMA + wnMA (8)
the magnitudes of the latter two components being obtained from Eq. (6). Eqs.
(61) and (7) should be used in solving problems, first computing the vectors in the
right-hand part of the equation and then finding their geometrical sum or making
a graphic construction.

7.Examples of solution of Problems.

Problem 1. The centre O of a wheel of radius R = 0.2 m rolling along a straight rail
(Fig. 16) has at a given instant a velocity v0=1 m/sec and an acceleration w0=2
m/sec2. Determine the acceleration of point B lying at the end of diameter AB
perpendicular to OP and the acceleration of point P coincident with the
instantaneous centre of zero velocity.

Figure 16

Solution. (1) As Vo and Wo are known, we take point O for the pole.
(2) Determination of ω. The point of contact P is the instantaneous centre of
zero velocity; hence the angular velocity of the wheel is

(a)
The direction of ω is determined by the direction of Vo and is shown in the
diagram by the solid arrow.
(3) Determination of ε. As in equation (a) the quantity PO = R is constant for
any position of the wheel, by differentiating the equation with respect to time
we obtain:
 (b)
The signs of ε and ω are the same, therefore the rotation of the wheel is
accelerated.
It is important to remember that the value of ε is determined from the equation
(b) only when the distance PO in equation (a) is constant.
Note: (a) It should not be assumed that Vo is constant only because the given
value of Vo = 1 m/sec. This value, stated in the conditions of the problem, is for
the given instant, and it changes with time, sincew o ≠ 0 .
(b) In this case dvo/dt=wo, as the motion of point O is rectilinear. In the general
case dvo/dt=woτ .
(4) Determination of w τBO and w nBO. As point 0 is the pole, from Eq. (7) we have

In our case BO = R, and

Now draw a separate diagram for point B, showing (not necessarily to scale) the
component vectors of the acceleration WB, namely vector Wo (transferred from
point O), vector w τBO (in the direction of the rotation as it is accelerated), and
vector w nBO (always from B towards the pole 0).
(5) Determination of WB. Drawing axes Bx and By, we find that

whence

Similarly we can easily find that the acceleration of point P is w p=wnPO =5 m/sec 2 and
is directed along PO. Thus, the acceleration of point P, whose velocity at the given
instant is zero, is not zero.
 Figure 17

Problem 2. Gear 1 of radius r1 = 0.3 m in Fig. 17a is fixed; rolling around it is gear 2
of radius r2 = 0.2 m mounted on link OA. The link turns about axis 0 and has at the
given instant an angular velocity w = sec-1 and an angular acceleration ε =−4 sec −2.
Determine the acceleration of point D on the rim of the moving gear at the given
instant (radius AD is perpendicular to the link).
Solution. (1) To solve the problem, consider the motion of gear 2. From the
statement of the problem it is easy to determine the velocity VA and acceleration
WA of point A of the gear, which we take as the pole.
(2) Determination of VA and WA. Knowing ω and ε of the link, we obtain

As the signs of v A and w An are different, the motion of point A from the given
position is retarded. Vectors W Aτ and W An are directed as shown in the diagram.
(3) Determination of ω 2. The point of contact P is the instantaneous centre of zero
velocity of gear 2; consequently, the angular velocity of gear 2 is

The direction of ω 2 (the direction of rotation of the gear) is determined by the

direction of VA and is indicated by the solid arrow.
(4) Determination of ε 2. As in the previous problem, the quantity AP = r2 is
constant, and consequently

As ω 2 and ε 2 are of different sign, the rotation of gear 2 is retarded.

(5) Determination of w τDA and w nDA . The acceleration of point D is found from
Eq. (8):

In our case DA = r2, and

Now draw the component vectors of acceleration wD (Fig. 17b), namely w Aτ , w An

(transferred from point A), w τDA (directed against the rotation since it is retarded),
and w nDA (from D towards the pole A).
6) Calculation of WD. Drawing axes Dx and

The magnitude of WD can also he obtained graphically by constructing a vector

polygon with vectors w Aτ , w An , wτDA , wnDA to scale.
Problems on Kinematics for self-study.
Problem 1. A train runs at a speed of 72 km/h. When the brakes are applied its
deceleration is 0.4 m/sec2. When and how far from the station should the brakes
be applied so that the train stops at the station?
Ans. 50 sec; 500 m.
Problem 2. A train moving with uniformly variable motion at an initial velocity of
54 km/h covered a distance of 600 m in the first 30 seconds. If the train travels
along a curved track whose radius is R= 1 km, determine its speed and
acceleration at the end of the 30th second.
Ans. u=25 m/sec; w = 0.708 m/sec2.

Problem 3. A coastal gun is placed at a height of h = 30 m above sea level (Fig. 1).
A projectile is fired from the gun at the angle of elevation α 0 = 45°, and initial
velocity is v0 = 1000 m/sec. Neglecting air friction, find how far from the gun the
projectile will hit a target located at sea level.
Ans. 102 km.

Figure 1

Problem 4. Find the constant angular acceleration of a body if, starting from rest,
it makes 3600 revolutions during the first 2 minutes.
Ans.ε =π sec−2
Problem 5. A wheel of radius R = 0.5 m rolls without sliding along a straight road
(Fig. 2). The velocity of its centre is constant: Vo=10 m/sec. Find the velocities of
the ends M1, M2, M3 and M4 of the vertical and horizontal wheel diameters.
Determine the angular velocity of the wheel.

Figure 2

Problem 6. Two parallel laths move in the same direction with constant velocities
v1 = 6 m/sec and v2 = 2 m/sec. A disk with radius a =0.5 is gripped by the laths and
rolls between them without sliding (Fig. 3). Find the angular velocity of the disk
and the velocity of its centre.
Ans. ω= 4 sec-1; v0=4 m/sec.

Figure 3
Problem 7. A crank OA rotates with angular velocity ωo=2.5 sec-1 about an axle O
of a fixed gear of radius r2=15 cm. The crank drives a gear A of radius r1 = 5 cm
which is mounted on the crank end (Fig. 4). Find the magnitude and direction of
velocities of the points A, B, C, D and E on the movable gear, if CE is perpendicular
to BD.

Figure 4

Problem 8. Find the velocity of a slider B in an off-centre slider-crank mechanism

at two horizontal and two vertical positions of the crank if the crank rotates about
a shaft O with angular velocity ω = 1.5 sec-1 (Fig. 5). Numerical data are as follows:
OA = 4 0 cm, AB = 200 cm, OC=20 cm.
Ans: v1 = v3 = 6.03 cm/sec; v2 = v4 = 60 cm/sec

Figure 5

Problem 9. A rod OB is constrained to rotate about the axle O with a constant

angular velocityω= 2 sec-1, and so sets the rod AD in motion (Fig. 6). The end A of
the rod AD moves along the horizontal axis Ox and the point C along the vertical
axis Oy. Determine the velocity of the point D of the rod when φ=45 ° ,and find the
equation path. AB=OB=BC=CD=12 cm.

Figure 6

Problem 10. Determine the velocity of the bar DE of the steam engine at the two
vertical and the two horizontal positions of the crank OA (Fig. 7) The angular
velocity of the crank is ω=const=20 sec-1. OA=40 cm; AC=20 √37 cm ,CB =20 √37 cm.

Figure 7

Problem 11. A Watt’s straight-line mechanism has a rocker arm O 1A which rotates
about the axis O1 (Fig. 8). By means of a connecting rod AB the rocker arm
transmits a torque to a crank OB, freely mounted on the axle O 1A gear I is also
mounted on the same axle O. A connecting rod AB is rigidly joined to the gear II.
Given that r 1=r 2=30 √ 3 cm, O1A = 75 cm, AB = 150 cm, and the angular velocity of
the rocker arm is ω0 = 6 sec-1, find the angular velocities of the crank OB and the
gear I at the instant when α =60 ° , β =90°

Figure 8

Problem 12. A wheel rolls without sliding down the inclined plane, as shown in
Fig. 9. At a certain moment the velocity of the centre of the wheel is v 0=1 m/sec,
and its acceleration is w0=3 m/sec2. If the radius of the wheel is R = 0.5 m, find the
accelerations of the ends of two mutually perpendicular diameters of the wheel,
when one of the diameters is parallel to the plane.
2m 3.16 m 6.32 m
Ans. w 1= 2
; w 2= 2
; w3 = ;
sec sec sec 2
5.83 m
w 4= ;
sec 2

Figure 4

Problem 13. A gear of radius R = 12 cm is driven by a crank OA rotating about an

axle O of a fixed gear with the same radius (Fig. 10). The crank rotates with an
angular acceleration ε 0 = 8 sec-2 and its instantaneous angular velocity is
ω0 = 2 sec-1. Determine: (1) the acceleration of a certain point on the rolling gear
which, at this moment, coincides with the instantaneous centre of velocities; (2)
the acceleration of the point N which is diametrically opposite to the first point,
and (3) the position K of the instantaneous centre of accelerations.

Figure 5

Problem 14. A 20-cm crank OA uniformly rotates with angular velocity

ω0 =10 sec-1 and drives a connecting rod AB of length 100 cm. A slider B moves in
the vertical direction (Fig. 11). Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration
of the connecting rod as well as the acceleration of the slider B when the crank
and connecting rod are mutually perpendicular and make angles α=45° and β =
45° with the horizontal axis.
 Figure 6

Problem 15. An antiparallelogram consists of two cranks AB and CD each 40 cm

long and a rod BC of length 20 cm pivoted to them. The distance between two
fixed axes A and D is 20 cm. The crank AB rotates with a constant angular velocity
ω0. Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the rod BC at the
instant when the angle ADC equals 90° (Fig. 12).

Figure 7
 Course Paper on Kinematics
Kinematic Analysis of Plane Motion.
Find the speed and acceleration of points B and C for a given
position of the mechanism, as well as the angular velocity and
angular acceleration of the link to which these points belong.
Example of completing a task
The scheme of the mechanism in a current position and the values of parameters
for solving the problem are given.

vB =? vC=?, ωBC =?, εBC=? aB =?, aC=?

Solution.
a) Determination of velocities.

PAB is the instantaneous centre of zero velocity for AB.

Angular velocity of AB:

On the basis of the theorem about the projections of velocities

From which vB =8.7 cm/sec

b) Determination of accelerations.
Acceleration of the point A:
wA= wAτ +wAn ; wAτ=εOA٠OA ; wAn=ωOA2٠OA

According to the theorem:

wB= wA +wABτ +wABn
or wB= wAτ +wAn +wABτ +wABn
Where, wABτ and wABn are, respectively, the tangential and normal acceleration of
point B in the rotational motion AB around the pole A.
wABn=ωAB2٠AB, wABτ=εAB٠AB
wAτ = 20 cm/s; wAn =22.5cm/s; wABn=5cm/s
Choosing the direction of the x and y axes, as shown in
the figure, we get:
wB cos30o = -wAτ cos60o + wAn cos30o+ wABn
wB cos60o = wAτ cos30o + wAn cos60o+ wABτ
From where we find wB and wABτ :
wB =16.7 cm/sec2; wABτ = -20.2 cm/sec2
Determine the angular acceleration AB:
εAB= IwABτI/AB εAB =0.34 sec-2

Acceleration of the point C

According to the theorem:
wC= wAτ +wAn +wACτ +wACn (а)
wACτ = εAB٠AC wACn = ωAB2٠AC
wACτ=6.8 cm/s2 ; wACn=1.76 cm/sec2
We project (а) on the x and y axes.
wCx = -wAτ cos60o + wAn cos30o+ wACn
wCy cos60o = wAτ cos30o + wAn cos60o- wACτ
wC = (wCx2 + wCx2)0.5 = 24,5 cm/sec2