In the present context, aerodynamic stability and control derivatives are used to

model the aerodynamic properties of the aeroplane. The concept of the aerodynamic
derivative as a means for describing aerodynamic force and moment characteristics
is introduced and described in Chapter 4 (Section 4.2). The use of the aerodynamic
derivative as a means for explaining the dependence of the more important dynamic
characteristics of the aeroplane on its dominant aerodynamic properties is discussed
in Chapters 6 and 7Chapter 6Chapter 7. In the illustrations, only those derivatives
associated with the dominant aerodynamic effects are discussed. Clearly, if the
most important aerodynamic properties ascribed to every derivative are known,
a more subtle and expansive interpretation of aircraft dynamics may be made in
the analysis of the response transfer functions. Thus, a good understanding of
the origin, meaning, and limitation of the aerodynamic derivatives provides the
means by which the flight dynamicist may achieve very considerable insight into the
subtleties of aircraft dynamics and into flying and handling qualities. In the author’s
opinion, this knowledge is also essential for the designer of stability augmentation
systems for the reasons illustrated in Chapter 11.
 In the present context, aerodynamic stability and control derivatives are used to
model the aerodynamic properties of the aeroplane. The concept of the aerodynamic
derivative as a means for describing aerodynamic force and moment characteristics
is introduced and described in Chapter 4 (Section 4.2). The use of the aerodynamic
derivative as a means for explaining the dependence of the more important dynamic
characteristics of the aeroplane on its dominant aerodynamic properties is discussed
in Chapters 6 and 7Chapter 6Chapter 7. In the illustrations, only those derivatives
associated with the dominant aerodynamic effects are discussed. Clearly, if the
most important aerodynamic properties ascribed to every derivative are known,
a more subtle and expansive interpretation of aircraft dynamics may be made in
the analysis of the response transfer functions. Thus, a good understanding of
the origin, meaning, and limitation of the aerodynamic derivatives provides the
means by which the flight dynamicist may achieve very considerable insight into the
subtleties of aircraft dynamics and into flying and handling qualities. In the author’s
opinion, this knowledge is also essential for the designer of stability augmentation
systems for the reasons illustrated in Chapter 11.

This chapter is concerned

This chapter
with aispreliminary
concerned with
reviewa preliminary
of, and introduction
review of,to, and
aerody-
introduction to, aerody-
namic stability andnamic
control
stability
derivatives
and control
at the simplest
derivativeslevel
atconsistent
the simplest withlevel
theconsistent
fore- with the fore-
going material. However,
going material.
it must be However,
remembered
it mustthat
bealternative
remembered methods
that alternative
for aero- methods for aero-
dynamic modellingdynamic
are commonly
modelling
in use
arewhen
commonly
rather ingreater
use when
detailrather
is required
greaterindetail
the is required in the
equations of motion.
equations
For example,
of motion.
in continuous
For example,
simulation
in continuous
models,simulation
the equationsmodels, the equations
of motion may wellofbemotion
non-linear
may well
and the
be non-linear
aerodynamic andmodels
the aerodynamic
are correspondingly
models are correspondingly
rather more complex.
rather
Today,
more it complex.
is common Today,
practice
it is to
common
investigate
practice
analytically
to investigate
the analytically the
dynamic behaviourdynamic
of combat behaviour
aircraft at
of very
combat
highaircraft
anglesatofvery
incidence,
high angles
conditions
of incidence, conditions
which may be grossly
which
non-linear
may be grossly
and fornon-linear
which the aerodynamic
and for whichderivative
the aerodynamic
would derivative would
be incapable of providing
be incapable
an adequate
of providing
description
an adequate
of the aerodynamics.
description of the
Foraerodynamics.
such For such
applications experimental
applications
or semi-empirical
experimental sources
or semi-empirical
of aerodynamic
sources
information
of aerodynamic information
are more appropriate.
are more appropriate.

Whatever the sourceWhatever

of the aerodynamic
the source ofmodels,
the aerodynamic
simple or models,
complex,simple
the best
or that
complex, the best that
can be achieved is can
an estimate
be achieved
of theis aerodynamic
an estimate ofproperties.
the aerodynamic
This immediately
properties. This immediately
prompts the question,
prompts
how good
the question,
is the estimate?
how goodThisis question
the estimate?
is not
This
easy
question
to answer
is not easy to answer
and depends ultimately
and depends
on the confidence
ultimately on in the
the aerodynamic
confidence inmodelling
the aerodynamic
processmodelling process
and the fidelity of the
andaircraft
the fidelity
dynamics
of thederived
aircraft from
dynamics
the aerodynamic
derived frommodel.
the aerodynamic model.
2.10 Properties of the Navier-Stokes Equations
terms), when the flow variable (e.g., pressure) is doubled the term is also doubled.
This is also true for the viscous terms. Thus these terms are proportional to the
unknown flow variables; that is, they are linear. Now consider a typical inertial term,
say , which is plainly proportional to and not u and is therefore nonlinear.
 terms), when the flow variable (e.g., pressure) is doubled the term is also doubled.
This is also true for the viscous terms. Thus these terms are proportional to the
unknown flow variables; that is, they are linear. Now consider a typical inertial term,
say , which is plainly proportional to and not u and is therefore nonlinear.

The second sourceThe of difficulty

second source
is moreofsubtle.
difficultyIt involves
is more the subtle.
complex
It involves
effectsthe complex effects
of viscosity. In order
of to
viscosity.
understand
In order
it, ittois understand
necessary toit,makeit is necessary
the Navier-Stokes
to make the Navier-Stokes
equations nondimensional.
equationsThe nondimensional.
motivation forThe working
motivation
with nondimensional
for working withvari- nondimensional vari-
ables and equations ables
is that
andit equations
makes theistheorythat itscale-invariant
makes the theory andscale-invariant
accordingly more and accordingly more
universal (see Section
universal
1.5). In(see
order
Section
to fix1.5).ideas,
In let
order
us consider
to fix ideas,
thelet
airus
flowing
consider
at the air flowing at
speed toward a body,speed a circular
towardcylinder
a body, or a circular
wing, say,cylinder
of length
or wing,
L (seesay,
Fig.of2.30).
lengthThe
L (see Fig. 2.30). The
space variables x, y,space
and zvariables
can be made
x, y, and
nondimensional
z can be madebynondimensional
dividing by L. can by dividing
be by L. can be
used as the reference
used time
as the
to make
reference
timetime nondimensional.
to make timeThus nondimensional.
we introduceThus the we introduce the
nondimensional coordinates
nondimensional coordinates

Figure 2.30. Uniform

Figure
flow2.30.
approaching
Uniform aflow
body.
approaching a body.

(2.169) (2.169)

can be used as thecan

reference
be usedflow
as the
speed
reference
to makeflowthespeed
velocity
to components
make the velocity
dimen-components dimen-
sionless, and (compare
sionless,
withand
Bernoulli's
(compare equation,
with Bernoulli's
Eq. (2.18))
equation,
can be used
Eq. (2.18))
as thecan be used as the
reference pressure.reference
(For incompressible
pressure. (For
flow,
incompressible
at least, only flow,
pressure
at least,
difference
only pressure
is of difference is of
significance and not
significance
the absolute
andvalue
not the
of the
absolute
pressure.)
valueThis
of the
allows
pressure.)
us to introduce
This allows us to introduce
the following nondimensional
the followingflow nondimensional
variables: flow variables:

(2.170) (2.170)

If, by writing , and If,

soby
forth,
writing
the ,nondimensional
and so forth, thevariables
nondimensional
given in Eqs.
variables
(2.169)
given in Eqs. (2.169)
and (2.170) are substituted
and (2.170)intoare
Eqs.
substituted
(2.164) and
into (2.165)
Eqs. (2.164)
to (2.167)
and with
(2.165)
theto (2.167) with the
body-force terms omitted,
body-force
we terms
obtainomitted,
the Navier-Stokes
we obtain the
equations
Navier-Stokes
in the form
equations in the form

(2.171) (2.171)

(2.172) (2.172)

(2.173) (2.173)

(2.174) (2.174)
where the shorthand notation Eq. (2.168) for the material derivative has been used.
A feature of Eqs. (2.172) to (2.174) is the appearance of the dimensionless quantity
known as the Reynolds number:
boundary-layer thickness . If the boundary layers remained attached to the surface
they have little effect beyond giving rise to skin-friction drag. But in all real flows the
boundary layers separate from the surface of the body, either because of the effects
of an adverse pressure gradient or because they reach the rear of the body or its
trailing edge. When these thin regions of vortical flow separate, they form complex
unsteady vortex-like structures in the wake. These structures take their most extreme
form in turbulent flow, which is characterized by vortical structures with a wide range
of length and time scales.
model tests using standard wind tunnels. In fact, dynamic similarity can usually be
achieved in aerodynamics only by using very large and expensive facilities where the
dynamic similarity is achieved by compressing the air (thereby increasing its density)
and using large models.
 model tests using standard wind tunnels. In fact, dynamic similarity can usually be
achieved in aerodynamics only by using very large and expensive facilities where the
dynamic similarity is achieved by compressing the air (thereby increasing its density)
and using large models.

In this example weIn

briefly
this example
revisitedwe
thebriefly
material
revisited
coveredtheinmaterial
Section covered
1.5. The in
objective
Section 1.5. The objective
was to show how dimensional
was to showanalysis
how dimensional
of the Navier-Stokes
analysis of the
equations
Navier-Stokes
(effectively
equations (effectively
the exact governing
the
equations
exact governing
of the flow
equations
field) can
of establish
the flow field)
morecan
rigorously
establishthe
more rigorously the
concepts introduced
concepts
in Section
introduced
1.5. in Section 1.5.
visualize airflow characteristics; (5) design and experimental development of a con-
trol system for the morphing wing, in open loop and in closed loop architectures; (6)
morphing wing system integration; and (7) experimental validation of the developed
model in bench tests and wind tunnel tests.
 visualize airflow characteristics; (5) design and experimental development of a con-
trol system for the morphing wing, in open loop and in closed loop architectures; (6)
morphing wing system integration; and (7) experimental validation of the developed
model in bench tests and wind tunnel tests.

The model was equipped

The model withwas
a flexible
equipped
skin with
madea flexible
of composite
skin made
materials
of composite
(layers ofmaterials (layers of
carbon and Kevlar carbon
fibers inand a resin
Kevlarmatrix)
fibersmorphed
in a resinbymatrix)
two actuation
morphedlines by two
(Fig.actuation
1 lines (Fig. 1
[4]). Each actuation[4]).
lineEach
usedactuation
shape memory
line used
alloys
shape
(SMA)
memory
wires alloys
as actuators.
(SMA) wires
At theas actuators. At the
same time, 16 opticalsame pressure
time, 16 sensors
opticaland
pressure
16 Kulite
sensors
pressure
and 16sensors
Kulitewere
pressure
placed sensors were placed
on the flexible skin onin different
the flexible positions
skin in different
along thepositions
chord (Fig.
along
2 [2]).
theThe
chord
sensors
(Fig.were
2 [2]). The sensors were
positioned on two lines,
positioned
in a V-configuration,
on two lines, in ata V-configuration,
angles of 15° from at the
angles
symmetry
of 15° from
line the symmetry line
(Fig. 3 [26]). The rigid
(Fig.lower
3 [26]).
structure
The rigid
waslower
madestructure
from aluminum,
was madeand fromwasaluminum,
designed and was designed
to allow space for the
to allow
actuation
spacesystem
for theand
actuation
wiring system
[2–4,19–34].
and wiring [2–4,19–34].

Fig. 1. Morphing wing

Fig. 1.
model—cross-section.
Morphing wing model—cross-section.

Fig. 2. Pressure sensors

Fig. 2.distribution
Pressure sensors
on thedistribution
flexible skin.on the flexible skin.
Fig. 3. Pressure sensors
Fig. 3.distribution
Pressure sensors
on thedistribution
morphing wing
on the
experimental
morphing wing
model.
experimental model.
Fig. 4. Morphed airfoil
Fig. 4.
shapes
Morphed
for different
airfoil shapes
flow cases.
for different flow cases.
between the nickel-titanium alloy SMA wires, which pulled the sliding rod in one
direction, and the gas springs, which pulled the sliding rod in the opposite direction.
Each sliding rod was actuated by means of three parallel SMA wires connected
to an electrical current controllable power supply. From the optimized airfoils, an
approximately 8 mm maximum vertical displacement was obtained for the rods,
requiring a maximum horizontal displacement of 24 mm from the actuators.
 between the nickel-titanium alloy SMA wires, which pulled the sliding rod in one
direction, and the gas springs, which pulled the sliding rod in the opposite direction.
Each sliding rod was actuated by means of three parallel SMA wires connected
to an electrical current controllable power supply. From the optimized airfoils, an
approximately 8 mm maximum vertical displacement was obtained for the rods,
requiring a maximum horizontal displacement of 24 mm from the actuators.

The gas springs roleThe

wasgas
to springs
counteract
rolethe
waspulling
to counteract
effect oftheaerodynamic
pulling effect forces
of aerodynamic
acting forces acting
in the wind tunnelin over
thethe
windflexible
tunnel skin
overwhen
the the
flexible
SMAs skin
were
when inactive.
the SMAsThe were
pullinginactive. The pulling
action of the gas springs
action retracted
of the gasthe
springs
flexible
retracted
skin in the flexible
unmorphed-reference
skin in the unmorphed-reference
air- air-
foil configuration, foil
while
configuration,
the pulling action
while of
thethe
pulling
SMA action
wires deployed
of the SMA thewires
actuators
deployed the actuators
in the load mode, i.e.,
in themorphed
load mode,
airfoil
i.e.,
in morphed
the optimized
airfoilairfoil
in theconfiguration
optimized airfoil
[4]. configuration [4].

Two architectures were

Two architectures
developed forwere the morphing
developedwingfor the
control
morphing
system:wing
(1) control
an opensystem: (1) an open
loop architecture, which
loop architecture,
controlled the which
SMAcontrolled
actuatorsthesystem
SMAelectrically
actuators system
and (2) electrically
a and (2) a
closed loop architecture,
closed which
loop architecture,
included thewhichopen included
loop architecture
the openasloopan internal
architecture as an internal
loop and controlledloop
the and
transition
controlled
pointthebased
transition
on thepoint
information
based onfrom
thethe
information
pressure from the pressure
sensors installed on
sensors
the flexible
installed
skin.onTothe
design
flexible
andskin.
validate
To design
the morphing
and validate
wingthe morphing wing
control system, some
control
numerical
system,simulations,
some numericalbenchsimulations,
tests, and wind
benchtunnel
tests,tests
and wind tunnel tests
were performed. Forweretheperformed.
open loop architecture,
For the open several
loop architecture,
controllers several
were developed
controllers were developed
and tested [2–4,19–33].
and tested
Some[2–4,19–33].
experimentally Somevalidated
experimentally
open loopvalidated
controllers
open areloop controllers are
outlined in the nextoutlined
sections, inas
thewell
nextassections,
the architecture
as well asand
thevalidation
architecture
results
andofvalidation
the results of the
optimized closed loop
optimized
controlclosed
method loopdeveloped
control method
throughout
developed
the morphing
throughoutwingthe morphing wing
project. project.
2.
 The generator2.component, Thewhich
generator
is approximately
component, 34 per
which iscent
approximately
of the wind tur-
34 per cent of the wind tu
bine cost, includes the electrical
bine cost,generator,
includes thetheelectrical
control electronics,
generator, the
andcontrol
most electronics, and mos
likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary
likely agearbox,
gearbox (e.g.
adjustable-speed
planetary gearbox,
drive or
adjustable-speed
continuously drive or continuous
variable transmission) component
variable transmission)
for converting
component
the low speed
for converting
incomingthe low speed incoming
rotation to high speed rotation
rotation suitable
to high speed
for generating
rotation suitable
electricity.
for generating electricity.
3. The structural3.support component,
The structural which
support
is approximately
component, which
15 periscent
approximately
of the 15 per cent of th
wind turbine cost, includes
windtheturbine
towercost,
and includes
rotor yawthe
mechanism.
tower and rotor yaw mechanism.
Cornelia Altenbuchner, James E. HubbardJr., in Modern Flexible Multi-Body Dy-
namics Modeling Methodology for Flapping Wing Vehicles, 2018
 Cornelia Altenbuchner, James E. HubbardJr., in Modern Flexible Multi-Body Dy-
namics Modeling Methodology for Flapping Wing Vehicles, 2018

6.3.1 Integrated
6.3.1
Forces
Integrated
of the Avian
ForcesFlight
of theRobotic
Avian Flight
SystemRobotic System
Observe the integrated
Observe
forces
theofintegrated
aero-modelforces
A and
of aero-model
inertia forcesA due
and to
inertia
the wings
forces due to the wings
in comparison to experimental
in comparison data
to experimental
E1 (Fig. 6.23) data
below.
E1That
(Fig. 6.23)
is the constraint
below. That is the constraint
configuration of model
configuration
and experiment
of modelshown
and experiment
in Fig. 6.23.shown in Fig. 6.23.

Figure 6.23. Verification
Figure 6.23.
bench Verification
test—modelbench
3 A—scale
test—model
ML101 3(6.17 Hz).
A—scale FMBD,
ML101 (6.17 Hz). FMBD,
flexible multi-bodyflexible
dynamics;
multi-body
HFI, horizontal
dynamics;
force
HFI,
inertia;
horizontal
HPF, force
horizontal
inertia;
propul-
HPF, horizontal propul-
sive force; VPF, vertical
sive force;
propulsive
VPF, vertical
force. propulsive force.

The mean absoluteTheerror

meancomparing
absolutethe
error
VPFcomparing
E1 to aero-model
the VPF AE1isto
2.9611N
aero-modelwith aA is 2.9611N with a
mean error of 1.01N/STD
mean error3.68N.
of 1.01N/STD
The magnitudes
3.68N.ofThe
inertia
magnitudes
forces dueof to
inertia
the wing
forces due to the wing
VFI are comparatively
VFI small
are comparatively
and the mainsmall
difference
and thein main
integrated
difference
forcein results
integrated
in force results in
both (experimentalboth
and (experimental
simulation of constrained
and simulation
vehicles)
of constrained
stems fromvehicles)
the aerody-
stems from the aerody-
namic modeling assumptions
namic modelingused.assumptions
Aero-model Aused.
usesAero-model
three blade Aelements
uses threeforblade
the elements for the
proof of concept study
proofofofmodeling
concept study
methodology.
of modeling methodology.

The mean absoluteThe errormean

in horizontal
absolute error
direction
in horizontal
indicatesdirection
an overprediction
indicates due
an overprediction
to due to
the circulatory forcetheassumption
circulatory used
force(according
assumption toused
Harmon).
(according
The mean
to Harmon).
absoluteThe mean absolute
error in the horizontal
errordirection
in the horizontal
is 4.59N direction
with a meanis 4.59N
error with
of 1.25N
a mean anderror
an of 1.25N and an
STD of 5.03N. ThisSTD proved
of 5.03N.
the methodology
This provedof thethe
methodology
experimentalofkinematics–based
the experimental kinematics–based
aero-model A in the aero-model
FMBDM. UsingA in thethree
FMBDM.
blade elements,
Using three tracking
blade elements,
behavior totracking
ex- behavior to ex-
perimental data usingperimental
quasi-steady
data using
aerodynamic
quasi-steady
assumptions
aerodynamic
worked assumptions
considerably
worked considerably
well. Originally, thewell.
errorOriginally,
was also thought
the errortowas
stem
alsofrom
thought
neglected
to steminertia
fromforces
neglected inertia forces
in an aerodynamicsinmodel.
an aerodynamics
Inertia forces
model.
have Inertia
been found
forcestohave
be considerably
been found to small
be considerably small
and the main contributions
and the mainof error
contributions
stem fromofaerodynamic
error stem fromassumptions.
aerodynamicModelassumptions.
A Model A
was used in combination with an FMBDM with only one wing reference frame CW.
Three body representation (one wing body of each wing) resulted in the main error
in tracking wing kinematics (such as wing tip kinematics) and discussed earlier in
Section 6.1.3.
was used in combination with an FMBDM with only one wing reference frame CW.
Three body representation (one wing body of each wing) resulted in the main error
in tracking wing kinematics (such as wing tip kinematics) and discussed earlier in
Section 6.1.3.
of the wind turbine being one of the oldest devices for exploiting the energy of the
wind, some of the most basic aerodynamic mechanisms are not yet fully understood.
 of the wind turbine being one of the oldest devices for exploiting the energy of the
wind, some of the most basic aerodynamic mechanisms are not yet fully understood.

Wind turbines are subjected

Wind turbines
to atmospheric
are subjected
turbulence,
to atmospheric
wind shear
turbulence,
from the wind
ground
shear from the ground
effect, wind directions
effect,
that
wind
change
directions
both inthat
time
change
and inboth
space,
in time
and effects
and in from
space, and effects from
the wake of neighboring
the wake
windof neighboring
turbines. Thesewind
effects
turbines.
together
Theseform
effects
the together
ordinary form the ordinary
operating conditions
operating
experienced
conditions
by theexperienced
blades. As a by
consequence,
the blades. As thea forces
consequence,
vary the forces vary
in time and space and
in time
a dynamical
and space description
and a dynamical
is an intrinsic
description
part of
is an
theintrinsic
aerodynamic
part of the aerodynamic
analysis. analysis.

At high wind velocities,

At highwhere
winda velocities,
large part where
of the blade
a largeofpart
stall-regulated
of the bladeturbines
of stall-regulated turbines
operates in deep stall,
operates
the power
in deep
output
stall, isthe
extremely
power output
difficultis extremely
to determine difficult
within
to determine within
an acceptable accuracy.
an acceptable
When boundary
accuracy.layerWhen
separation
boundary occurs,
layer separation
the centrifugal
occurs,
forcethe centrifugal force
tends to push the airflow
tends toatpush
the blade
the airflow
towardatthe thetip,
blade
resulting
towardinthethetip,
aerodynamic
resulting in the aerodynamic
lift being higher than
lift being
what ithigher
wouldthan
be on what a nonrotating
it would beblade.
on a nonrotating blade.

When the wind changesWhen direction,

the wind changes
misalignment
direction,
withmisalignment
the rotationalwith
axis the
occurs,
rotational axis occurs,
resulting in yaw error.
resulting
Yaw error
in yawcauses
error.periodic
Yaw errorvariation
causes inperiodic
the angle
variation
of attack
in the angle of attack
and invalidates theandassumption
invalidatesof the
axisymmetric
assumption inflow
of axisymmetric
conditions. inflow
Furthermore,
conditions.
it Furthermore, it
gives rise to radial gives
flow components
rise to radial in
flow
thecomponents
boundary layer.
in the
Thus,
boundary
both the
layer.
airfoil
Thus, both the airfoil
characteristics andcharacteristics
the wake are subject
and thetowake
complicated
are subject
three-dimensional
to complicated three-dimensional
(3D) and (3D) and
unsteady flow behavior.
unsteady flow behavior.

In the following, a In
brief
theintroduction
following, a is
brief
given
introduction
to wind turbine
is givenaerodynamics.
to wind turbine It isaerodynamics. It is
not possible in a short
not possible
form to introduce
in a short form
to all to
aspects
introduce
of rotor
to all
aerodynamics
aspects of rotor
and aerodynamics and
the scope is on conventional
the scope isaerodynamic
on conventional
modeling,
aerodynamic
as it is still
modeling,
used byasindustry
it is still used by industry
in the design of newin the
turbines,
designand
of new
on state-of-the-art
turbines, and on methods
state-of-the-art
for analyzing
methodswindfor analyzing wind
turbine rotors and turbine
wakes. Specifically,
rotors and wakes.
the basics
Specifically,
of momentum
the basics theory,
of momentum
which theory, which
still form the backbone
still form
in rotor
the design
backbone of wind
in rotor
turbines,
designareof wind
introduced.
turbines,
Next,
are introduced. Next,
state-of-the-art advanced
state-of-the-art
aerodynamic
advanced
modelsaerodynamic
is presented.
models
This includes
is presented.
vortex
This includes vortex
models, generalized models,
actuatorgeneralized
disk/line models,
actuatorand
disk/line
computational
models, andfluidcomputational
dynamics fluid dynamics
(CFD). Finally, a short
(CFD).
introduction
Finally, a short
is given
introduction
to rotor optimization
is given to rotor
and modeling
optimization
of and modeling of
aerodynamically generated
aerodynamically
noise. generated noise.
Cornelia Altenbuchner, James E. HubbardJr., in Modern Flexible Multi-Body Dy-
namics Modeling Methodology for Flapping Wing Vehicles, 2018
 Cornelia Altenbuchner, James E. HubbardJr., in Modern Flexible Multi-Body Dy-
namics Modeling Methodology for Flapping Wing Vehicles, 2018

5.1 The Aerodynamic

5.1 The Model
Aerodynamic
Versions
Model
Formulated
Versions Formulated
Three aerodynamicThreemodelsaerodynamic
A, B, and Cmodels
developed
A, B,inand
theCcourse
developed
of this
in study
the course of this study
resulted in AEROLEF resulted
and AEROIEC.
in AEROLEF These
andaerodynamic
AEROIEC. These models
aerodynamic
were used models
as time were used as time
variant externally applied
variant wing
externally
loadsapplied
and differ
wingin loads
aerodynamic
and differmodel
in aerodynamic
assumptions model assumptions
(e.g., blade element(e.g.,
refinement
blade element
and experimental
refinementdata and source).
experimental
Differences
data source).
betweenDifferences between
models A, B, and Cmodels
are specified
A, B, and
in Table 5.1.
C are specified
ModelinCTable 5.1.
is the updated
Modelaerodynamic
C is the updated aerodynamic
model with improvements
model withto blade
improvements
element refinement
to blade element
and aerodynamic
refinementmodeling
and aerodynamic modeling
assumptions. The codes
assumptions.
AEROLEF The
and
codes
AEROIEC
AEROLEFusedandmodel
AEROIEC
C assumptions
used model andC assumptions and
are discussed in detail
are discussed
below. in detail below.

Table 5.1. Aerodynamic
Table 5.1.
model Aerodynamic
versions overview
model versions overview

Model name: Aero-model AMain

Model assumptions-
name: Aero-model AMain assumptions-
: Blade element theory: (BET)—coarse
Blade element BEtheory
grid,(BET)—coarse BE grid,
model assumptions are model
adjusted
assumptions
for clamped
are adjusted for clamped
conditionsNumber of conditionsNumber
blade elements: 3Input
of blade elements: 3Input
kinematics:Vicon Vision—E1
kinematics:Vicon
bench testVision—E1
(ML101, bench test (ML101,
MSK004)Model code:MSK004) Model
Aero-model code:
A load exper-
Aero-model A load exper-
imental bench test(MATLAB:
imentalAEROALEB.m)
bench test(MATLAB: AEROALEB.m)
Model name: Aero-model
ModelBAssumptions : BET BAssumptions: BET
name: Aero-model
medium–refined BET medium–refined
grid, model assumptions
BET grid, model assumptions
are for free-flight conditionsNumber
are for free-flightof conditionsNumber
blade el- of blade el-
ements: 8Input kinematics:Vicon
ements: 8InputVision
kinematics:Vicon
®—E2 Vision ®—E2
Flight Test (ML101)Model
Flightcode
Test: (ML101)
Aero-modelModel
B code: Aero-model B
load experimental freeload
flight(MATLAB:
experimental
AEROB-
free flight(MATLAB: AEROB-
LEF.m) LEF.m)
Model name: Aero-model
ModelCAssumptions-
name: Aero-model CAssumptions-
: BET-refined BET grid,: BET-refined
model assumptions
BET grid,are
model assumptions are
for free-flight conditions,
for free-flight
input kinematics
conditions,
for- input kinematics for-
mulated in terms of generalized
mulated incoordinates
terms of generalized
of coordinates of
a five-body flexible multi-body
a five-body dynamics
flexible mod-
multi-body dynamics mod-
el of ornithopter, dynamic
el of stall
ornithopter,
includedNumber
dynamic stall includedNumber
of elements: 13Modelofcodeelements: 13Model
: Aero load exper-code: Aero load exper-
imental free flight(MATLAB:
imentalAEROLEF.m)Input
free flight(MATLAB: AEROLEF.m)Input
kinematics:Vicon Vision—E2
kinematics:Vicon
flight test (ML101)-
Vision—E2 flight test (ML101)-
Model code: Aero loadModel codeexperimen-
initialized : Aero load initialized experimen-
tal coupled(MATLAB:AEROIEC.m)Input
tal coupled(MATLAB:AEROIEC.m)Input
kinemat- kinemat-
ics:Output of five-bodyics:Output
dynamicsof model,
five-body
initial-
dynamics model, initial-
ization is through Vicon
ization
Vision—E2
is through
flight
Vicon
test Vision—E2 flight test
(ML101) (ML101)
Figure 5.1. Blade element
Figure 5.1.
gridBlade
schematic
element
aero-model
grid schematic
A. aero-model A.

Figure 5.2. (A) Blade

Figure 5.2.
element grid
(A) Blade
schematic
element
aero-model
grid schematic
B. (B) Blade
aero-model
element
B. (BE)
(B) Blade element (BE)
grid schematic aero-model
grid schematic
C. aero-model C.
element selection, and accounted for circulatory and noncirculatory effects. Blade
element selection was further refined in model C, where there was a 35% improve-
ment in correlation of integrated forces to experimental data E2. Like model B,
final aerodynamic model C also utilized free-flight test kinematics E2 with a further
refined blade element selection. Model B was further improved to aerodynamic
model C, mainly by the inclusion of dynamic stall assumptions. Implementation
of aerodynamic model C is described in detail in this chapter. That is the workflow
of the model C. Implementation of earlier model iterations of model A and B is
analogous. For models A, B, and C, assumptions used and improvements between
the models versions are also discussed in the reminder of this chapter.
element selection, and accounted for circulatory and noncirculatory effects. Blade
element selection was further refined in model C, where there was a 35% improve-
ment in correlation of integrated forces to experimental data E2. Like model B,
final aerodynamic model C also utilized free-flight test kinematics E2 with a further
refined blade element selection. Model B was further improved to aerodynamic
model C, mainly by the inclusion of dynamic stall assumptions. Implementation
of aerodynamic model C is described in detail in this chapter. That is the workflow
of the model C. Implementation of earlier model iterations of model A and B is
analogous. For models A, B, and C, assumptions used and improvements between
the models versions are also discussed in the reminder of this chapter.
Figure 2.12. Modeling
Figure 2.12.
methodology:
Modeling
workflow
methodology:
step 3. workflow step 3.

Figure 2.13. Modeling
Figure 2.13.
methodology:
Modeling
workflow
methodology:
stage 4. workflow stage 4.

Figure 2.14. Modeling
Figure 2.14.
methodology:
Modeling
workflow
methodology:
stage 5. workflow stage 5.

Figure 2.15. Modeling
Figure 2.15.
methodology:
Modeling
workflow
methodology:
stage 6. workflow stage 6.

Figure 2.16. Modeling
Figure 2.16.
methodology:
Modeling
workflow
methodology:
stage 7. workflow stage 7.
During the first stage of the development methodology according to (Fig. 2.10) the
wing kinematics obtained in the free-flight experiment serve as input for the aero-
dynamic model. The output of aerodynamic model within its modeling assumptions
results in TV and spatially distributed forces on the wing.
 During the first stage of the development methodology according to (Fig. 2.10) the
wing kinematics obtained in the free-flight experiment serve as input for the aero-
dynamic model. The output of aerodynamic model within its modeling assumptions
results in TV and spatially distributed forces on the wing.

Integrated forces are

Integrated
compared forces
withare
thecompared
integratedwith
forces
theobtained
integrated
through
forces obtained through
free-flight test datafree-flight
in the second
test data
stageinofthe
thesecond
modelstage
development.
of the model
Aerodynamic
development. Aerodynamic
modeling assumptionsmodeling
are adjusted
assumptions
to correlate
are adjusted
systemtoIDcorrelate
model and
system
aerodynamic
ID model and aerodynamic
model results. Themodel
aerodynamic
results.model
The aerodynamic
and flexiblemodel
MBD model
and flexible
are verified
MBD model
inde- are verified inde-
pendently before they
pendently
are interfaced
before they
into are
a comprehensive
interfaced intomodel.
a comprehensive model.

Therefore, in the third

Therefore,
step ofinthe
themodel
third development,
step of the model
flexible
development,
MBD model flexible
outputMBD model output
is verified by employing
is verified
inertial
by employing
forces and inertial
wing kinematics
forces andobtained
wing kinematics
though the
obtained though the
vacuum chamber experiment.
vacuum chamberLeadingexperiment.
edge sparLeading
kinematics
edgeserve
sparaskinematics
input variable
serve as input variable
(Fig. 2.12). (Fig. 2.12).

In the next step of In

thethe
model
next development,
step of the model
aerodynamic
development,
and flexible
aerodynamic
MBD models
and flexible MBD models
are combined. Theare distributed
combined.forces
The resulting
distributed
from
forces
the resulting
aerodynamics
from model
the aerodynamics
are model are
applied on the structural
appliedrepresentation
on the structural
of the
representation
wing in the flexible
of the wing
MBDinmodel
the flexible MBD model
(Fig. 2.13). (Fig. 2.13).

The output kinematics

The output
and integrated
kinematicsforces
andare
integrated
verified against
forces are
theverified
experiment
against
in the experiment in
the following stage.
theThe
following
model isstage.
iterated
Thetomodel
archive
is iterated
correlation
to archive
to experiments
correlation
in to experiments in
workflow stage 5 (Fig. 2.14).
workflow stage 5 (Fig. 2.14).

The output of the iterated

The output
flexible
of the
MBDiterated
model flexible
considering
MBD model
aeroelasticity
considering
is wing
aeroelasticity is wing
kinematics body forces
kinematics
and wing
bodystress
forcesandand
strain
wing(Fig. 2.15).
stress andThe
strain
overall
(Fig. 2.15).
model The overall model
operates with wingoperates
kinematics
withobtained
wing kinematics
from Viconobtained
Free Flight
fromexperiment
Vicon Free atFlight
this experiment at this
stage. stage.

At the final stage ofAtthethemodel

final stage
development,
of the model
the input
development,
kinematicstheisinput
removed
kinematics
and is removed and
the model is coupled.theOutput
model iswing
coupled.
kinematics
Output serves
wingas
kinematics
input kinematics.
serves asThe
input
model
kinematics. The model
is initialized by experimental
is initialized
kinematics
by experimental
(Fig. 2.16).
kinematics (Fig. 2.16).

The configuration The

of the
configuration
ornithopter of
model
the ornithopter
can now be model
changed
canand
nowthe
becoupled
changed and the coupled
model can now serve
model
for design
can nowoptimization
serve for design
purposes.
optimization purposes.

In summary, wing In
kinematics
summary,obtained
wing kinematics
from experiment
obtainedserves
from experiment
as input variable
servesforas input variable for
model development.model
Individual
development.
models Individual
are correlated
models
against
are experiment,
correlated against
integrat-
experiment, integrat-
ed into a comprehensive
ed intomodel,
a comprehensive
and furthermodel,
correlated.
and further
Experimental
correlated.
kinematics
Experimental kinematics
is removed and theisresulting
removedmodel
and theis resulting
coupled tomodel
archive
is coupled
a modelto toarchive
changea model to change
configurations. This
configurations.
model is initialized
This model
by experimental
is initialized
kinematics.
by experimental kinematics.
ScienceDirect is Elsevier’s
ScienceDirect
leading information
is Elsevier’s leading
solutioninformation
for researchers.
solution for researchers.
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier
Copyright
B.V.©
or2018
its licensors
Elsevieror
B.V.
contributors.
or its licensors
ScienceDirect
or contributors.
® is a registered
ScienceDirect
trademark
® is a registered
of Elseviertrademark
B.V. Terms
ofand
Elsevier
conditions
B.V. Terms
apply.and conditions