MIDTERM REPORT

MATH 213 –
DIFFERENTIAL
Cerillo, Abrahaim Joshua D.
Bayot, Joshua Matthews S.
Adriano, Rhod Christian C.
De Jesus, Jan Lorenz M.
Balintos, Hans Gabriel R.
BSAeE 2-9

ENGR. JIM CONRAD ASPIRIN

January 13, 2021
 Honesty Clause

As an institution of higher learning, students are expected to display the highest degree of
honesty and professionalism in their classwork, requirements, and activities; thus, in no case
that cheating—or any form of it, may it be plagiarism, copying other students' works, and
fabrication of materials—shall be tolerated. The college assumes as a simple and minimal
preferred of habits in academic matters that students be truthful and that they publish for
deposit solely the merchandise of their personal efforts.

RHOD CHRISRTIAN C. ADRIANO

JOSHUA MATTHEW S. BAYOT

ABRAHAIM JOSHUA D. CERILLO

HANS GABRIEL R. BALINTOS

JAN LORENZ M. DE JESUS

Decomposition and Growth: Engineering Economy

The path to having an engineering profession requires the knowledge and mastery of
mathematical and natural sciences which is possible only through years of study and experience
gained through practice that allows for the development of skills that benefit both the
professional and their projects through proper material and economic management. Keeping
the balance between expense and utility is vital for an engineer to keep on working
continuously. As engineering deals with the ways of designing and manufacturing, factors such
as cost and production would eventually come as a hindrance to some extent.

The engineering economics subject covers the costs and benefits associated with
engineering projects, determining whether or not the engineer grants any money from their
investments. From planning to manufacturing, all aspects require the engineer to have an
understanding of economic principles as everything comes with a cost. A common dilemma
would be during the selection phase of materials needed for a project. The only reasonable and
practical thing to do is to choose a more cost-efficient option, lest the initial funds were to
provide a bit more allowance to choose a more costly but better alternative but to choose
without properly calculating the possible costs of the project would not only mean
incompetency in the engineer’s side but would also spell possible doom unto the future of the
project as well.

An introductory topic to engineering economics is the time value of money. Essentially, it

is knowing whether the value of a certain currency grows or depreciates with time.

The following is the compound interest formula:

𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
Where: F – future value

P – present value

i – interest rate

n – number of interest periods

This gives us the future value of money, given that the present value, interest rate, and
a specific number of interest periods are provided.

Notice how the compound interest formula follows the same form as the general
solution for exponential growth

𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑘𝑡
where the value of C would be the present value, k as the interest rate, and n acting as
the time.
We are given the problem:

If you had $5000 and invested it at 10%, what would it be worth in 10 years?

Now we have:

P = $5000

𝑖 = 10%

𝑛 = 10

A cashflow diagram is constructed to visualize the growth of the initial value

F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

𝑖 = 10%
$5000

Using the compound interest formula we get

𝐹 = 5000(1 + 0.10)10
𝐹 = $12968.71
Therefore the $5000 investment would give us an amount of $12968.71 in 10 years.

Now to look for the present value instead, we would have to rearrange the compound interest
formula.

𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
𝐹
𝑃 = (1+𝑖)𝑛 or 𝑃 = 𝐹(1 + 𝑖)−𝑛

Another problem:

You have just won a $1 million lottery. The award will be paid out in 60 years. What is
the present value of what you will be getting based on a 16% per annum interest rate?

Using the new formula we get:

1000000
𝑃 = (1+0.16)60

𝑃 = $135.68
Newton’s Law of Cooling: Thermodynamics

Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of change in the temperature of a body is
proportional to the difference between its temperature and its environment. Also, the greater
the temperature of the object than its environment, the faster its temperature will decrease. If
we refer to the first law of Thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy, it states how
energy cannot be created nor destroyed. This gives us the implication that when an object’s
thermal heat (as another form of energy) decreases, it isn’t lost but instead transferred to
another medium as heat or another form of energy.

When studying thermodynamics, scientists often refer to a diagram called a

thermodynamic system. This includes both a system and its surroundings. The limitations of the
system are determined by its boundaries. The boundaries signify the end of the system and the
start of the surroundings. The surroundings may vary on whether they include other
thermodynamic systems or non-thermodynamic systems. This allows us to determine what
factors affect the thermodynamics of the system, furthermore acting as a reference or criteria in
analyzing the flow of energy between thermodynamic bodies.

A form of energy transfer within a system and its surroundings is thermal conduction.
Thermal conduction is when thermal energy is transferred through the process of conduction.
We must remember that whenever electrons move between atoms, a current is produced.
Along with this, heat is also created due to the movement and collision of the electrons.
Thermal conduction itself refers to the ‘diffusion’ of thermal energy within objects that make
contact. Diffusion is a term referring to the movement of substances from high concentrated
areas to low concentrated areas, meaning that the heat, in thermal conduction, transfers from
an object with higher thermal energy to an object with lower thermal energy. For thermal
conduction to occur, both the system and its surroundings must have different temperatures
and must maintain direct contact, otherwise, if the distance was present, then radiation would
instead occur.

The rate equation for heat, applicable for thermal conduction is written as:

𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝑑
Where: Q – heat

A – surface area where heat is transferred

k – thermal conductivity constant

∆T – temperature difference between the material transferring heat and the

conducting material
 d – distance traveled by the heat/thickness of the material

Sample problem:

A windowpane has the following dimensions: w=0.65m; h=1.25m; and is 2cm thick.
Glass has conduction constant of 0.84. One side of the glass has a temperature of 5°C
while the other has 20°C. On one side, how much heat is transferred to the colder side?

Using the rate of thermal conductivity formula:

𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝑑
We isolate Q by multiplying both sides by 𝑡
𝑡𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑑
Then input the values

(3600𝑠)(0.84)(0.65𝑚 × 1.25𝑚)(20°𝐶 − 5°𝐶)

𝑄=
(0.02𝑚)
𝑄 = 1.84 × 106 𝐽
Mixture (Non-reacting Fluids): Thermodynamics/Aerodynamics

In the chemical industry, flow problems or mixing problems occur quite frequently. This portion
will explain how to solve the basic model involving a single tank. First, we need to familiarize ourselves
with some fundamental concepts.
𝑚
Density (ρ) is defined as the mass (m) per unit of volume (V) of a substance. 𝜌 = 𝑉
𝑚
The mass flow rate (ṁ ) is the flow of the mass of a substance per unit of time. ṁ = 𝑡
𝑉
The volume flow rate (V̇ ) is the flow of the volume of a substance per unit of time. V̇ = 𝑡
ṁ
Therefore, the density of a substance can be expressed as 𝜌 =
V̇

Then, the mass flow rate is: ṁ = 𝜌V̇

The figure above shows a tank with two pipes, an inlet, and an outlet pipe. The inlet pipe
provides a fluid with density (𝜌𝑖𝑛 ) and mass flow rate ṁ𝑖𝑛 . At the same time, the other outlet, the
outlet pipe releases the mixed fluid inside the tank at a particular density (𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) and mass flow rate
ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡 .

It is important to bear in mind that the time rate of change of the mass of the substance is equal
to the difference between the mass flow rate of the fluid entering the tank and the mass flow rate of the
resulting mixture that is leaving the tank.
𝑑𝑚
= ṁ𝑖𝑛 − ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
But ṁ = 𝜌V̇ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 V̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡

It is important to remember also that V = volume of the fluid entering the tank plus volume of
the fluid initially in the tank minus volume of the fluid leaving the tank.
Examples:

1. A cylindrical tank has 40 gallons of a salt solution containing 2lb dissolved salt per gallon. A salt
solution of concentration 3lb salt/gallon flows into the tank at 4gal/min. How much salt is in the
tank at any time if the well-stirred mixture flows out at 4gal/min?

Analysis:

The focus on this problem is the concentration of the salt. As stated in the problem, the salt
solution is continuously flowing inside the tank. Therefore, the density of the mixture inside the tank will
always change at any given time (t ) as a result of the change of mass of the salt in the mixture. Volume
(V) matches the volume of the tank which is equal to the volume of the fluid entering the tank plus the
volume of the fluid that is initially in the tank minus the volume of the fluid leaving the tank.
4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑉= (𝑡) + 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 − (𝑡) = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Solution:

3 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

𝜌𝑖𝑛 = ; V̇𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
ṁ𝑖𝑛 = ( )( ) = 12
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ; V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 1 𝑚
ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ( )( )=
40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
@𝑡 = 0 ; 𝑉 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ; 𝜌 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙

The figure above shows the salt concentration that is entering the tank at a density of 𝜌𝑖𝑛 =
3 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝑔𝑎𝑙
and a volume flow rate V̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
. The fluid inside the tank is now a mixture. As the
fluid enters the tank, the mass of salt in the mixture is changing. We represent this unknown mass as
 𝑚
“m”. And of course, its density changes 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = . Remember that the 40 gal is the volume of the
40 𝑔𝑎𝑙
4 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
tank and the density of the mixture leaving the tank is V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
.

𝑑𝑚
= ṁ𝑖𝑛 − ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 V̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Substitute: (You can disregard first the units for easy solving.)
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= (3)(4) − (4)
𝑑𝑡 40
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
= 12 −
𝑑𝑡 40
The resulting DE is linear in the form:
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
+ = 12
𝑑𝑡 10
1 𝑡
Use the process for solving linear DE. Its I.F. is 𝑒 ∫10𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 10
𝑚
𝑑𝑚 + 𝑑𝑡 = 12𝑑𝑡
10
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor:
𝑡 𝑚 𝑡
𝑒 10 (𝑑𝑚 + 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑒 10 (12𝑑𝑡)
10
Integrate both sides:
𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑡
𝑒 10 𝑑𝑚 + (𝑒 10 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 10 (12𝑑𝑡)
10
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑚 1
∫ [𝑒 10 𝑑𝑚 + 10 (𝑒 10 )] 𝑑𝑡 = 12(10) ∫ 𝑒 10 (10)𝑑𝑡

𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶

Determine the arbitrary constant using the boundary condition in the problem:

As stated in the problem, the cylindrical tank has 40 gallons of a salt solution containing 2 lb
dissolved salt per gallon.
2 𝑙𝑏𝑠
@𝑡 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 = 40 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ( ) = 80 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑔𝑎𝑙
 𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶
0 0
80𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶
𝐶 = 80 − 120
𝐶 = −40
As we found out the value of “C”, we can solve for the amount of salt in the concentration at
any given time “t” is :
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + 𝐶
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 + (−40)
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝑒 10 = 120𝑒 10 − 40
𝑡
120𝑒 10 40
𝑚= 𝑡 − 𝑡
𝑒 10 𝑒 10
𝑡
𝑚 = 120 − 40𝑒 10

2. In a tank are 100 liters of brine containing 50 kg. total of dissolved salt. Pure water is allowed to
run into the tank at the rate of 3 liters a minute. Brine runs out of the tank at the rate of 2 liters
a minute. The instantaneous concentration in the tank is kept uniform by stirring. How much
salt is in the tank at the end of one hour?

Analysis:

The inlet volume flow rate is not equal to the outlet volume flow rate.

Solution:

3𝐿 0𝐿
𝜌𝑖𝑛 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘); V̇𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 ṁ𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑚 2𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ; V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
100 + 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
@𝑡 = 0 ; 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
− 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 @𝑡 = 0 𝑖𝑠 50 𝑘𝑔
Therefore; t = time
3𝐿 2𝐿
𝑉 = 100𝐿 + (𝑡) − (𝑡)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3𝐿 2𝐿
𝑉 = 100𝐿 + (𝑡) − (𝑡)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
You can remove the units first for easy solving.

𝑉 = 100 + 𝑡

𝑑𝑚
= ṁ𝑖𝑛 − ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
= 𝜌𝑖𝑛 V̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 V̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
=0− (2)
𝑑𝑡 100 + 𝑡
By separation of variables,
𝑑𝑚 2𝑑𝑡
=−
𝑚 100 + 𝑡
Integrate both sides:
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑡
∫ = −2 ∫
𝑑𝑡 100 + 𝑡
ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 𝑡) + 𝐶
Based on the initial condition 𝑚 = 50𝑘𝑔 @𝑡 = 0

ln 50 = −2 ln(100 + 0) + 𝐶
C = ln 50 + 2 ln 100
C = 13.122363374
 Since we found the value of “C” we can now find the amount of salt in the tank after 1hr or 60
mins.

ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 𝑡) + 𝐶
ln 𝑚 = −2 ln(100 + 60) + 13.122363374
Convert to exponential form:

𝑚 = 𝑒 −2 ln(160)+13.122363374

𝑚 = 19.53124993351 𝑜𝑟 19.53 𝑘𝑔

Electric Circuits: Elementary Electrical Engineering

The figure below shows RLC-circuit. It occurs as a basic building block of large electric networks
in computers and elsewhere. Q in Coulombs is the charge on the capacitor relate to current as a
function of time by:
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Obtained by KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) by equating the voltage drops across the resistor and
the inductor to the EMF (electromotive force)
𝑄
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + = 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
Where: 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑄
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + = 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑄 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
1
𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
 Eliminate both integrals with respect to “t” time
1
𝑑 (𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑑(𝐸𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝐶
1
𝐿𝐼 ′ ′ + 𝑅𝐼′ + 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑜 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
This shows that the current in an RCL- circuit is obtained as the solution of this non-homogenous
2nd order D. E.
1
The general solution can be obtained by adding the general solution of 𝐼 ′ ′ + 𝑅𝐼′ + 𝐶
𝐼 =
𝐸𝑜 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 and its particular solution 𝐼𝑝 where 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔𝑡 .

Constants a and b can be determined by the following relationship. For simplicity, a and b can be
found as:
−𝐸𝑜 𝑆 𝐸𝑜 𝑅
𝑎= 2 2
; 𝑏= 2
𝑅 + 𝑆 𝑅 + 𝑆2
1
Where S reactance; 𝑆 = 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶

Example:

Solve the resulting ODE for the current I (t) A (amperes), where “t” is time. Assume that the
circuit contains as an EMF E (t) (electromotive force) a battery of E = 48 V (volts), which is constant, a
resistor of R = 11 Ω (ohms), and an inductor of L = 0.1 H (henrys) and that the current is initially zero.

Solution:

I= Current; V= Voltage; R= Resistance; V = IR (via Ohm’s Law)

A current I in the circuit cause a voltage drop IR across the resistor and a voltage drop 𝐿𝐼’ =
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 across the conductor and the sum of the two voltage drops is equivalent to the EMF.
𝑑𝑡

In general, the KVL states that “The voltage (EMF) impressed on a closed loop is equal to the
sum of the voltage drops across all the other elements of the loop.”

Therefore, the voltage drop across the conductor + voltage drop across the resistor = EMF of
battery

𝐿𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐸
Its Standard form,
𝑅 𝐸
𝐼′ + 𝐼=
𝐿 𝐿
We can notice that the equation above is in a linear differential equation.

But E = 48 V, R = 11Ω and L = 0.1 H, therefore

 𝑑𝐼 11 48
+ 𝐼=
𝑑𝑡 0.1 0.1
𝑑𝐼
+ 110 𝐼 = 480
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 + 110𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 480 𝑑𝑡
Remember the process of solving for Linear DE in the form of:
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Upon checking, (𝑥) = 110 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥) = 480 , then the integrating factor would be 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 =
𝑒 ∫ 110𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 110𝑡 .

Multiply the integrating factor to the linear DE.

𝑒 110𝑡 (𝑑𝐼 + 110𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑒 110𝑡 (480 𝑑𝑡)

∫ 𝑒 110𝑡 dl + 110 𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 480 ∫(𝑒 110𝑡 dt)

Because of the integrating factor, the left side is now integrative using the concept of the
derivative of a product. Therefore,
1
𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 = 480 ( ) ∫(𝑒 110𝑡 ) (110)𝑑𝑡
110
𝑒 110𝑡
𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 = 480 ( )+𝐶
110
480 110𝑡
𝑒 110𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑒 +𝐶
110
Simplify:
480 𝐶
𝐼= + 110𝑡
110 𝑒
48
𝐼 = + 𝐶𝑒 −110𝑡
11

Second-Order Differential Equations

Example 1

A spring with a mass of 2 kg has a natural length of m. A force of N is required to maintain it

stretched to a length of m. If the spring is stretched to a length of m and then released with initial
velocity 0, find the position of the mass at any time.
Solution:

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑒’𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠

𝑘(0.2) = 25.6
25.6
𝑠𝑜 𝑘 = = 128, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘, 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚 = 2, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
0.2
𝑑2 𝑥
2 + 128𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐1 cos 8𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 8𝑡
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥(0) = 0.2. 𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑥(0)
= 𝑐1 . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑐1 = 0.2. 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = −8𝑐1 sin 8𝑡 + 8𝑐2 cos 8𝑡
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 ′ (0) = 0, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑐2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝟏
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟖𝒕
𝟓
Consider the motion of an object with mass m at the end of a spring that is either vertical or
horizontal on a level surface. If a spring is stretched x units from its natural length, then it exerts
a force that is proportional to x: restoring force = -kx, where k is a positive constant (called the
spring constant). If we ignore any external resisting forces (due to air resistance or friction) then,
by Newton’s Second Law (force equals mass times acceleration), we have
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
This is a second-order linear differential equation. Its auxiliary equation is 𝑚𝑟 2 + 𝑘 = 0 with roots
+ 𝑘
𝑟 = 𝜔𝑖, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = √𝑚. Thus the general solution is
−
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

Example 2

Suppose that the spring of the first example shown is immersed in a fluid with damping constant
𝑐 = 40. Find the position of the mass at any time t if it starts from the equilibrium position and is
given a push to start it with an initial velocity of 0.6m/s.

Solution:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑘 = 128, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
+ 40 + 128𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ 20 + 64𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 2 + 20𝑟 + 64
= 0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 − 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 16, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −16𝑡

𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥(0) = 0, 𝑠𝑜 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 0. 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = −4𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 − 16𝑐2 𝑒 −16𝑡

𝑠𝑜
𝑥 ′ (0) = −4𝑐1 − 16𝑐2 = 0.6
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐2 = −𝑐1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 12𝑐1 = 0.6 𝑜𝑟 𝑐1 = 0.05. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓(𝒆−𝟒𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟏𝟔𝒕 )

Consider the motion of a spring that is subject to a frictional force or a damping force. An example
is the damping force supplied by a shock absorber in a car or a bicycle. We assume that the
damping force is proportional to the velocity of the mass and acts in the direction opposite to the
motion. Thus
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = −𝑐
𝑑𝑡
where is a positive constant, called the damping constant. Thus, in this case, it gives.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡