EEL 2 Course Lecture 1-1

EE Elective II
EEL 2 Lecture 1-1

Fundamentals of Pneumatics
• Physical Fundamentals
• Air is abundant gas mixture with the following composition:
• Nitrogen approx. 78% vol
• Oxygen approx. 21% vol.
• It also contains traces of carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen, neon,
helium, krypton and xenon.
• To assist in the understanding of the natural laws as well as the
behavior of air, the physical dimensions which are employed. The
data is taken from the "International System of Units", Sl for short.
• The pressure prevailing directly on the earth's surface is known as
atmospheric pressure (Patm). This pressure is also referred to as
reference pressure. The range above this pressure is known as excess
pressure range (Pg > 0), the range below is referred to as vacuum
range (Pg < 0).
• The atmospheric differential pressure pe is calculated according to
the formula:
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
• Atmospheric pressure does not have a constant value. It varies with the
geographical location and the weather.
• The absolute pressure Pabs is the value relative to pressure Zero - Vacuum. It is
equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the excess pressure or
vacuum. In practice, pressure gauges which only indicate the excess pressure are
generally used. The absolute pressure value.
• Pabs is approximately 100 kPa (1 bar) higher.
• Generally, in pneumatics all data concerning air quantity refers to the so- called
standard state. According to DIN 1343, the standard state is the status of a solid,
fluid or gaseous substance defined by standard temperature and pressure.
• Characteristic of Air
• A characteristic of air is its minimal cohesion, i.e. the forces between
the air molecules are to be disregarded for operating conditions
usual in pneumatics. In common with all gases, air has no particular
shape. Its shape changes with the slightest resistance, i.e. it assumes
the shape of its surroundings.
• Boyle-Mariotte’s Law. Air can be compressed, and it endeavors to
expand. The applicable relationship is given in Boyle-Mariottes Law.
At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure, i.e., the product of
absolute pressure and volume is constant for a given mass of gas.
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝐶
*Review Ideal gas laws in Thermodynamics
• During the few decades various automation techniques has been
introduced in the field of manufacturing in order to enhance the
overall industrial productivity.
• Among the various technologies that are playing important role in
rapid growth of industries, fluid power is unique.
• During past decade number of applications have been developed
based on Pneumatics.
• Pneumatics has long since played an important role as a technology in
the performance of mechanical work. It is also used in the
development of automation solutions.
• In most applications, compressed air is used for one or more of the
following functions:
• To determine the status of processors (sensors)
• Information processing (processors)
• Switching of actuators by means of final control elements
• Carrying out work (actuators)
• To be able to control machinery and installations necessitates the
construction of a generally complex logic interconnection of statuses
and switching conditions. This occurs as a result of the interaction of
sensors, processors, control elements and actuators in pneumatic or
partly pneumatic systems.
• The technological progress made in material, design and production
processes has further improved the quality and diversity of
pneumatic components and thereby contributed to their widely
spread use in automation.
• Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and
applications of compressed air in our daily life in general and
manufacturing automation. Pneumatic systems use air as the medium
which is abundantly available and can be exhausted into the
atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.
• A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit
and control energy. Pneumatic systems are used in controlling train
doors, automatic production lines, mechanical clamps, etc.
Normal Air Compressor Compressed Air Control valve Actuator

• Advantages of Pneumatic Systems
• Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society, especially
in the industrial sectors for the driving of automatic machines.
Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.
• High effectiveness. Many factories have equipped their production
lines with compressed air supplies and movable compressors. There is
an unlimited supply of air in our atmosphere to produce compressed
air. Moreover, the use of compressed air is not restricted by distance,
as it can easily be transported through pipes. After use, compressed
air can be released directly into the atmosphere without the need of
processing.
• High durability and reliability. Pneumatic components are extremely
durable and can not be damage easily. Compared to electromotive
components, pneumatic components are more durable and reliable.
Air can also be easily transported in pipelines, even over large
distances. Compressed air can be stored in reservoirs and removed as
required. In addition, the reservoir is transportable. Compressed air is
relatively insensitive temperature fluctuations. This ensures reliable
operation, even under extreme conditions.
• Simple design. The designs of pneumatic components are relatively
simple. They are thus more suitable for use in simple automatic
control systems. The operating components are of simple
construction and therefore relatively inexpensive. Pneumatic tools
and operating components can be loaded to the point of stopping
and are therefore overload safe.
• High adaptability to harsh environment. Compared to the elements
of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature,
dust, corrosion, etc.
• Safety. Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems
because they can work in inflammable environment without causing
fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in pneumatic system
will only lead to sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike
electromotive components, pneumatic components do not burn or
get overheated when overloaded.
• Easy selection of speed and pressure. The speeds of rectilinear and
oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and
subject to few limitations. The pressure and the volume of air can
easily be adjusted by a pressure regulator.
• Environmentally friendly. The operation of pneumatic systems do not
produce pollutants. The air released is also processed in special ways.
Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments that
demand high level of cleanliness. One example is the production lines
of integrated circuits. Unlubricated exhaust air is clean. Any un-
lubricated air that escapes through leaking pipes or components does
not cause contamination.
• Economical. As pneumatic components are not expensive, the costs
of pneumatic systems are quite low. Moreover, as pneumatic systems
are very durable, the cost of repair is significantly lower than that of
other systems.
• Limitations of Pneumatic Systems
• Relatively low accuracy. As pneumatic systems are powered by the
force provided by compressed air, their operation is subject to the
volume of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change when
compressed or heated, the supply of air to the system may not be
accurate, causing a decrease in the overall accuracy of the system.
Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force requirement.
Under normal working pressure of 600 to 700 KPa (6 to 7 bar) and
dependent on the travel and speed, the output is limited between 40
000 to 50 000 Newton.
• Low loading. As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very
large, a pneumatic system cannot drive loads that are too heavy.
• Long preparation time. Compressed air must be processed before
use to ensure the absence of water vapor or dust. Otherwise, the
moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out quickly
due to friction. Compressed air requires good preparation and
constant piston speeds.
• High noise level. The exhaust air is loud. This problem can be solved
using sound absorption material and silencers.
• Applications
• The reason for using pneumatics, or any other type of energy transmission on a
machine, is to perform work. The accomplishment of work requires the
application of kinetic energy to a resisting object resulting in the object moving
through a distance. In a pneumatic system, energy is stored in a potential state
under the form of compressed air. Working energy (kinetic energy and pressure)
results in a pneumatic system when the compressed air can expand. For example,
a tank is charged to 100 PSIA with compressed air. When the valve at the tank
outlet is opened, the air inside the tank expands until the pressure inside the tank
equals the atmospheric pressure. Air expansion takes the form of airflow.
• To perform any applicable amount of work then, a device is needed which can
supply an air tank with enough air at a desired pressure.
• Some industrial applications employing pneumatics:
• General methods of material handling:
• Clamping
• Shifting
• Positioning
• Orienting
• Branching of material flow
• General applications: • Stacking of components
• Packaging • Stamping and embossing of
• Filling components
• Metering
• Locking
• Driving of axes
• Door control
• Transfer of materials
• Turning and inverting of parts
• Sorting of parts
Points switch for two Pneumatic cutter

conveyor belts
• Standardization
• For a uniform definition & standardization of pneumatic components
were initiated by German organization like VDI & VDMA. This led to
DIN & CETOP & later to DIN ISO standards & recommendations for a
uniform consistent terminology in pneumatics. System engineer must
draw pneumatic circuit that installation engineer & maintenance
person can read & understand easily. Therefore, standardization was
required.
• CETOP : Comité Européen des Transmissions Oléohydrauliques et
Pneumatiques is a federation of European manufacturing, which is
involved, since 1962.
• DIN : Deutsches Institute fur Normung E.V.
• VDI : Verin Deutscher Ingenieure (Association of German Engineers)
• VDMA : Verband Deutscher Maschinen und Anlagenbau (Association
of Mechanical Engineers)
• ISO 1219-1 2006 : fluid power system & component – Graphic
symbols & circuit diagram.
• ISO 5599 : Port marking of pneumatic direction control valve.
• ISO 6432, 6431 : Mounting dimension of pneumatic cylinders.
• CETOP RP41 : Hydraulic & Pneumatic system circuit diagram.
• And many more…
• Choice of working media:
• Electrical current
• Fluids
• Compressed air
• Combination of above
• Selection criteria for the working section:
• Force, stroke, type of motion, speed, service life, safety and reliability, energy
costs, controllability, storage.
• Choice of control media:
• Mechanical connections, electrical current, fluids, compressed air.
• Selection criteria for the control section:
• Reliability of components
• Sensitivity to environmental influences
• Ease of maintenance and repair
• Switching time of components
• Signal speed
• Space requirements
• Service life
• Modification of the control system
• Training requirements for operation and maintenance
• Pneumatics and control system development
• The product development in pneumatics can be considered in several
areas:
• Actuators
• Sensors and input devices
• Processors
• Accessories
• Control system
• The following factors must be considered in the development of
pneumatic control systems:
• Reliability
• Ease of maintenance
• Cost of spare parts
• Assembly and connection
• Maintenance and repair costs
• Interchangeability and adaptability
• Compact design
• Economic efficiency
• Documentation
• Structure and signal flow of pneumatic systems
• Pneumatic systems consists of an interconnection of different groups
of elements. This group of elements forms a control path for signal
flow, starting from the signal section (input) through to the actuating
section (output). Control elements control the actuating elements in
accordance with the signals received from the processing elements.
• The primary levels in a pneumatic system are:
• Energy supply
• Input elements (sensors)
• Processing elements (processors)
• Control elements
• Power components (actuators)
• These elements in the system are represented by symbols which
indicate the function of the element.
• A directional control valve can be used as an input, processing or
control element. The distinguishing feature for the allocation of the
individual components to the respective groups of elements is the
configuration within a pneumatic system.
Components of a Pneumatic
System
• It is a knowledge that any system must consist of a group of
components which work together to perform a task. A pneumatic
system consists of a group of pneumatic components connected so
that a signal (compressed air) is passed through the system to make
something happen at the output. These group of components can be
divided into five categories according to their function in the
pneumatic circuit as follows:
System
1. Supply elements: these elements are the sources of power that
drives the system which are the compressors.
2. Input elements: these elements are used to send signals to the final
control elements and come in two forms; either as components that is
actuated by the operator like push buttons or sensors that determine
the status of the power elements such as limit switches and proximity
sensors.
3. Processing elements: these elements may perform operations on
the input signals before sending the signal to the final control elements
such as nonreturn valves, directional control valves and presser control
valves.
System
4. Final control elements: to control the motion of actuators such as
directional control valves.
5. Power elements (actuators): these are the outputs of the pneumatic
system which use the stored potential energy to perform a certain task
such as pneumatic cylinders and motors.
System
• Air generation and distribution
• The compressed air supply for a pneumatic system should be
adequately calculated and made available in the appropriate quality.
• Air is compressed by the air compressor and delivered to an air
distribution system in the factory. To ensure the quality of the air is
acceptable, air service equipment is utilized to prepare the air before
being applied to the control system.
• Malfunctions can be considerably reduced in the system if the
compressed air is correctly prepared. Several aspects must be
considered in the preparation of the service air:
System
• Quantity of air required to meet the • Temperature of the air and effects on
demands of the system the system
• Type of compressor to be used to • Line sizes and valve sizes to meet
produce the quantity required demand
• Pressure requirements • Material selection to meet
• Storage required environmental and system
requirements
• Requirements for air cleanliness
• Drainage points and exhaust outlets in
• Acceptable humidity levels to reduce the distribution system
corrosion and sticky operation
• Layout of the distribution system to
• Lubrication requirements, if necessary meet demand.
System
• As a rule, pneumatic components are designed for a maximum
operating pressure of 800-1000 kPa (8 - 10 bar) but in practice it is
recommended to operate at between 500-600 kPa (5 and 6 bar) for
economic use. Due to the pressure losses in the distribution system
the compressor should deliver between 650-700 kPa (6.5 and 7) bar
to attain these figures.
• A reservoir should be fitted to reduce pressure fluctuations. In some
cases, the term 'receiver' is also used to describe a reservoir.
• The compressor fills the reservoir which is available as a storage tank.
System
• The pipe diameter of the air distribution system should be selected in
such a way that the pressure loss from the pressurized reservoir to
the consuming device ideally does not exceed approx. 10 kPa (0.1
bar). The selection of the pipe diameter is governed by:
• Flow rate
• Line length
• Permissible pressure loss
• Operating pressure
• Number of flow control points in the line
System
System
• Ring circuits are most frequently used as main lines. This method of installing
pressure lines also achieves a constant supply in the case of high air consumption.
The pipelines must be installed in the direction of flow with a gradient of 1 to 2%.
This is particularly important in the case of branch lines. Condensate can be
removed from the lines at the lowest point.
• Any branching of air consumption points where lines run horizontally should
always be installed on the upper side of the main line.
• Branching for condensate removal are installed on the underside of the main line.
• Shut-off valves can be used to block sections of compressed air lines if these are
not required or need to be closed down for repair or maintenance purposes.
System
• The air service unit is a combination of the following :
• Compressed air filter (with water separator)
• Compressed air regulator
• Compressed air lubricator
• However, the use of a lubricator does not need to be provided for in
the power section of a control system unless necessary, since the
compressed air in the control section does not necessarily need to be
lubricated.
System
• The correct combination, size and type of these elements are determined by the
application and the control system demand. An air service unit is fitted at each
control system in the network to ensure the quality of air for each individual task.
• Compressed air filter. The compressed air filter has the job of removing all
contaminants from the compressed air flowing through it as well as water which
has already condensed. The compressed air enters the filter bowl through guide
slots. Liquid particles and larger particles of dirt are separated centrifugally
collecting in the lower part of the filter bowl. The collected condensate must be
drained before the level exceeds the maximum condensate mark, as it will
otherwise be reæntrained in the air stream.
• Compressed air regulator. The purpose of the regulator is to keep the
operating pressure of the system (secondary pressure) virtually
constant regardless of fluctuations in the line pressure (primary
pressure) and the air consumption.
• The purpose of the lubricator is to deliver a metered quantity of oil
mist into a leg of the air distribution system when necessary for the
operation of the pneumatic system.
System
• Valves
• The function of valves is to control the pressure or flow rate of pressure media.
Depending on design, these can be divided into the following categories:
• Directional control valves
• Input/signaling elements
• Processing elements
• Control elements
• Non-return valves
• Flow control valves
• Pressure control valves
• Shut-off valves
System
• Directional control valves. The directional control valve controls the
passage of air signals by generating, cancelling or redirecting signals.
• The valve is described by:
• Number of ports or openings (ways): 2-way, 3-way, 4-way, etc.
• Number of positions: 2 positions, 3 positions, etc.
• Methods of actuation of the valve: manually actuated,
mechanically actuated,
pneumatically actuated,
electrically actuated.
System
• Methods of return actuation: Spring return, air return, etc.
• As a signaling element the directional control valve is operated for
example, by a roller lever to detect the piston rod position of a
cylinder.
• As a processing element the directional control valve redirects or
cancels signals depending on the signal inputs received.
• As a control element the directional control valve must deliver the
required quantity of air to match the power component
requirements.
System
System
System
• Non-return valves. The non-return valve allows a signal to flow
through the device in one direction and in the other direction blocks
the flow. Amongst others, this principle is applied in shuttle valves or
quick exhaust valves. The non-return valve in the form of a basic
element of other valve types is shown in a broken outline in the
illustration.
System
System
• Flow control valve. The flow control valve restricts or throttles the air
in a particular direction to reduce the flow rate of the air and hence
control the signal flow. Ideally it should be possible to infinitely vary
the restrictor from fully open to completely closed. The flow control
valve should be fitted as close to the working element as is possible
and must be adjusted to match the requirements of the application. If
the flow control valve is fitted with a check valve then the function of
flow-control is unidirectional with full free flow in one direction.
System
System
• Pressure control valves. Pressure control valves are utilized in
pneumatic systems. There are three main groups:
• Pressure limiting valves
• Pressure regulating valves
• Pressure sequence valves
• The pressure limiting valves are utilized on the up-stream side of the
compressor to ensure the receiver pressure is limited, for safety, and
that the supply pressure to the system is set to the correct pressure.
System
• The pressure regulating valve keeps the pressure constant
irrespective of any pressure fluctuations in the system. The valve
regulates the pressure via a built-in diaphragm.
• The pressure sequence valve is used if a pressure-dependent signal is
required for the advancing of a control system.
• When the applied control signal reaches the set pressure, the 3/2-
way valve incorporated at this point is actuated. Conversely, the valve
reverses, if the control signal falls below the set pressure.
System
System
• Combination valves. The combined functions of various elements can
produce a new function. An example is the time delay valve which is
the combination of a one-way flow control valve, a reservoir and a
3/2-way directional control valve.
• Depending on the setting of the throttling screw, a greater or lesser
amount of air flows per unit of time into the air reservoir. When the
necessary control pressure has built up, the valve switches to through
flow. This switching position is maintained for as long as the control
signal is applied.
System
• Other combinational valves include the:
• Two-hand start unit
• Pulse generator
• Stepper modules
• Memory modules
System
• Processing elements (processors)
• To support the directional control valves at the processing level, there
are various elements which condition the control signals for a task.
The elements are:
• Dual pressure valve (AND function)
• Shuttle valve (OR function)
• A shuttle valve permits the combination of two input signals into an
OR function. The OR gate has inputs and one output. An output signal
is generated, if pressure is applied at one of the two inputs.
System
System
• The further development of processing elements in pneumatics has
brought about the modular systems, which incorporate directional
control valve functions and logic elements to perform a combined
processing task. This reduces size, cost and complexity of the system.
System
System
• Power components
• The power section consists of control elements and power
components or actuators. The actuator group includes various types
of linear and rotary actuators of varying size and construction. The
actuators are complemented by the control elements, which transfer
the required quantity of air to drive the actuator. Normally this valve
will be directly connected to the main air supply and fitted close to
the actuator to minimize losses due to resistance.
System
System
• Actuators can be further broken down into groups:
• Linear actuators
• Single-acting cylinder
• Double-acting cylinder
• Rotary actuators
• Air motors
• Rotary actuators
System
System
• Systems
• Generally, the actuation of a cylinder is affected via a directional
control valve. The choice of such a directional control valve (number
of connections, number of switching positions, type pf actuation) is
dependent on the respective application.
• Control circuit for the single-acting cylinder. Typical problem: The
piston rod of a single-acting cylinder is to advance when a push
button is operated. When the push button is released, the piston is to
automatically return to the initial position.
System
• Solution: A 3/2-way valve controls the single-acting cylinder. The valve
switches from the initial position into the flow position, when the
push-button actuator is pressed. The circuit includes the following
primary features:
• Single-acting cylinder, spring return
• 3/2-way directional control valve: push button for operation and spring for
return force
• Supply air source connected to the 3/2-way valve
• Air connection between valve and cylinder
System
System
• The 3/2-way control valve has 3 ports. The supply port, the exhaust
port and the outlet port. The relationship between these ports is
determined by the passages through the valve. The possible switching
positions are shown in the above illustration.
• Control circuit of a double-acting cylinder. Typical problem: The
piston rod of a double-acting cylinder is to advance when a push
button is operated and to return to the initial position when the push
button is released. The double-acting cylinder can carry out work in
both directions of motion, due to the full air supply pressure being
available for extension and retraction.
System
• Solution: A 5/2-way directional control valve controls the double-
acting cylinder. A signal is generated or reset on the valve, if a push-
button actuator is pressed or released. The circuit includes:
• Double-acting cylinder
• 5/2-way directional control valve: push button for operation and
• spring for return force
• Supply air source connected to the 5/2-way valve
• Air connections between valve and cylinder
System

EEL 2 Course Lecture 1-1

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EE Elective II

EEL 2 Lecture 1-1

Normal Air Compressor Compressed Air Control valve Actuator

Points switch for two Pneumatic cutter

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