Limitations of Bernoulli’s Equation:

01) The Velocity of a Liquid particle in the centre of a pipe is maximum and gradually decreases towards the
walls of the pipe due to friction.
02) There are always some external forces acting on the Liquid, which affects the Flow of Liquid.
03) In Turbulent Flow, some Kinetic Energy is converted into Heat Energy and in a Viscous Flow; some
Energy is lost due to Shear Forces.
04) If the Liquid is flowing through a curved path, the Energy due to Centrifugal Forces should also be taken
into account.

The Darcy Weisbach equation gives the head loss in turbulent flow for a circular pipe.

hf = 4 f l x v2
d 2g
Where:
f is the friction factor
l is the length of pipe being consider
d is the pipe diameter
v is the mean velocity of the fluid

The friction factor f depends on the velocity of flow, the pipe diameter, the fluid density and viscosity and
the roughness of the pipe.

Expression for the force exerted by the jet on a flat vertical plate moving in the direction of
the jet:
Explain the term priming related to centrifugal pump. Why priming is necessary for a centrifugal
pump.
Priming is the process in which the impeller of a centrifugal pump will get fully sub merged in liquid without
any air trap inside. This is especially required when there is a first start up.

As impeller cannot impart enough energy to air to go out of casing and suck water so priming is compulsory
for in case of centrifugal pump

The priming of positive displacement pumps is required only at the time of first starting.
In this case priming means filling liquid in casing and aim to diminish the clearance volume.
It can be removed the air by their own pumping action. This is called self priming.
Priming is not required in reciprocating pumps. But a centrifugal pump is not self priming, thus priming is
required.

Explain the following with mathematical expression with respect to centrifugal pumps:
1. Manometric Efficiency:It is the ratio of the manometric head to the ideal head imparted by the impeller
to the fluid.
U V

ηma =
Hm
=
( 2
g )
u2
−Hydraulic losses
=
H m
H + Hydraulic losses
( U gV
2 u2
) U V
( g )
2 u2 m

2. Mechanical Efficiency: It is the ratio of the energy transferred by the impeller to the fluid to the
mechanical energy delivered to the pump at the shaft.
wimpeller U2 V u2
ηm = =
w shaft U 2 V u 2+ Mechanical losses
3. Volumetric Efficiency: It is the ratio of the amount of fluid delivered by the delivery pipe to the amount
of fluid entering the impeller though suction pipe.
Actual discharge Q Qd
η v= = d=
Theoretical discharge Q s Qd + QL
Where QL is the amount of fluid leakage loss.
4. Overall Efficiency: It is the ratio of actual hydraulic energy output by the pump to the mechanical energy
input to the pump at the shaft. The overall pump efficiency is the product of hydraulic efficiency, volumetric
efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
ηo =η H η v η m
Where hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of the useful pump output head (static head) to the ideal head
imparted by the impeller to the fluid
h
ηH=
U2 V u2
( g )
Introduction to Francis Turbine – Diagram, Working Principle:
The Francis turbine is mixed flow reaction turbine. This turbine is used for medium heads with medium
discharge. Water enters the runner and flows towards the centre of wheel in the radial.
Francis turbine consists mainly of the following parts
a) Spiral or scroll casing
b) Guide mechanism
c) Runner and turbine main
d) Draft tube direction and leaves parallel to the axis of the turbine.

a. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress
or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness" or "internal
friction"
The gas viscosity generally increases with pressure. The increase of temperature decreases the liquid
viscosity, whereas it increases the gas viscosity at low and moderate pressures. At high pressure, the gas
viscosity behaviour approaches that of liquid

A streamline is one that drawn is tangential to the velocity vector at every point in the flow at a given instant
and forms a powerful tool in understanding flows. This definition leads to the equation for streamlines.

where u,v, and w are the velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively
as sketched.
b. Streakline concentrates on fluid particles that have gone through a fixed station or point. At some
instant of time the position of all these particles are marked and a line is drawn through them.
Such a line is called a streak line. Timeline is generated by drawing a line through adjacent
particles in flow at any instant of time.
In a steady flow the streamline and streak line all coincide. In an unsteady flow they can be different.
Streamlines are easily generated mathematically while streak lines are obtained through experiments.
c. Hydraulic gradient line:
Hydraulic gradient line is basically defined as the line which will give the sum of pressure head and
datum head or potential head of a fluid flowing through a pipe with respect to some reference line.

Hydraulic gradient line = Pressure head + Potential head or datum head

H.G.L = P/ρg + Z
Where, H.G.L = Hydraulic gradient line , P/ρg = Pressure head, Z = Potential head or datum head
d. Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force. It is shown, for example, in the floating of some objects on the surface of water,
even though they are denser than water, and in the ability of some insects (e.g., water striders) to
 run on water’s surface. This property is caused by cohesion of similar molecules and is
responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.
Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing-
up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper, in
some non-porous materials such as liquified carbon fiber, and in a cell.
e.

A velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various components of

velocities of the working fluid in a turbomachine. Velocity triangles may be drawn for both the inlet
and outlet sections of any turbomachine.
f. The specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine which would
produce unit power (one kilowatt) under unit head (one meter). The specific speed of a turbine is
given by the manufacturer (along with other ratings) and will always refer to the point of
maximum efficiency.
g. A current meter is flow measuring device to measure the flow by mechanical or electrical means.
To Measure Average Velocity of water flow, Different Methods can be used in
hydraulics engineering.
h. The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is being
finally discharged from the turbine. The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the
velocity of the discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet.
i. Centrifugal pumps are connected in series if the discharge of one pump is connected to the suction
side of a second pump. Two similar pumps, in series, operate in the same manner as a two-stage
centrifugal pump.
Each of the pumps is putting energy into the pumping fluid, so the resultant head is the sum of the
individual heads.
j. The characteristic curves of pumps plot the course of the following parameters against flow rate
(Q): head (H) (see H/Q curve), power input (P), pump efficiency (η) and NPSH, i.e. the NPSH
required by the pump. The characteristic curve's shape is primarily determined by the pump type
(i.e. impeller, pump casing or specific speed. Secondary influences such as cavitation,
manufacturing tolerances, size and physical properties of the fluid handled (e.g. viscosity, solids
transport or pulp pumping are not taken into account in these diagrams.