GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Which is not the function of surfactant

in gaseous exchange in the lungs?
A. Prevents the alveoli from collapsing
B. Moistens the inner surface of the alveoli
C. Increase the surface tension of water.
D. Reduces the energy required to stretch the
lungs.
STPM U2/2020
 TODAY’S LESSON

7.1 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS

The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
blood
 What I need to
know…..
Transport of O2 in Blood
 Describe the partial pressure
of O2 in the alveolus & blood
capillary.
 Relate the affinity of O2 to
haemoglobin at the lungs/
alveolus & at the respiring
tissue.
 Explain the formation of
oxyhaemoglobin at the lungs
& dissociation of haemoglobin
in respiring tissues.
Transport of CO2 in Blood
 Explanation on the formation
of:
 Carbonic Acid
 Carbaminohaemoglobin
 Bicarbonate / Hydrogen
Carbonate Ions.
 Explanation must include
Chloride Shift & the formation
of Haemoglobinic Acid.
Oxygen diffuses through the thin wall of each alveolus & then
through the thin walls of the surrounding capillaries to reach
the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the
alveoli.

Source: Biology 10th Ed; Solomon

Source: Biology 10th Ed; Solomon
• Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in
the alveoli.
• Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of
the alveoli and adjacent capillaries into the red blood
cells. The oxygen is then carried by the blood to the body
tissues.
• Carbon dioxide produced by the body’s metabolism
returns to the lung via the blood. It then diffuses across
the capillary and alveolar walls into the air to be removed
from the body with expiration.
• The alveoli have a structure specialised for efficient
gaseous exchange:
1. Walls are extremely thin.
2. They have a large surface area in relation to volume.
3. They are fluid lined enabling gases to dissolve.
4. They are surrounded by numerous capillaries.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE ALVEOLI
Gas exchange at the respiratory membrane is rapid due to
several factors:
•The large surface area available for diffusion due to the high
number of alveoli in the lungs. There are between 300-500
million alveoli with an internal surface area approximately
equivalent to the size of a tennis court.
•The distance for diffusion is short as the respiratory
membrane is thin
•The small diameter of the pulmonary capillaries means that
the red blood cells have to "squeeze" through. The red blood
cells therefore come into contact with the capillary wall so
respiratory gases do not have to travel through a lot of plasma
to reach them
 OXYGEN TRANSPORT
• Oxygen has a limited solubility in blood, in fact
only about 1.5 % of oxygen carried in the
blood is dissolved in the blood plasma
• The majority of oxygen is transported in blood
by haemoglobin
• The reaction of oxygen with haemoglobin is
temporary and completely reversible

Haemoglobin + Oxygen Oxyhaemoglobin

Hb + O2 HbO2
• Haemoglobin loads/unloads one O2 molecule at a time so Hb
can exist as Hb (deoxyhaemoglobin), HbO2, HbO4, HbO6 or
HbO8 (fully saturated oxyhaemoglobin).

• The binding of oxygen to haemoglobin is dependent on the

partial pressure of oxygen (the partial pressure of a gas is the
pressure one particular gas exerts in a mixture of gases –
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure).
• Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in oxygen-rich
situations, such as the pulmonary capillaries. Oxygen
diffuses rapidly from the alveoli to the capillaries due to the
initial large difference in partial pressures (high in the
alveoli, low in the capillaries).

• Equilibrium is never reached as oxygen is constantly being

absorbed into the capillaries but new oxygen is
continuously being brought to the alveoli.

• Oxygen is released by haemoglobin in oxygen-deficient

situations, such as exercising muscle. When oxygen loaded
blood reaches exercising tissues there is another large
difference in partial pressures (high in blood, low in tissues),
so oxygen diffuses into the tissues.
 Oxygen-Haemoglobin
Dissociation Curve
The relationship between the
partial pressure of oxygen and
the percentage of haemoglobin
that has combined with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin (%
haemoglobin saturation) is
shown by the oxygen-
haemoglobin dissociation curve
Oxygen Transport
AtIn high PO2, the
the loading andpercentage
unloading of
oxygen, there is a cooperation
saturation
between
of haemoglobin
these four
is
haem
very high;
groups. it isoxygen
When combined
binds towith
one
very large
of the amounts
groups, of Ochange
the others
2.
shape slightly and their attraction to
oxygen increases. The loading of
the first oxygen, results in the rapid
loading of the next three (forming
oxyhemoglobin).
At low PO2, the percentage
At the otherofend,
saturation when one group
haemoglobin is
unloads it's oxygen, the other three
very low, that is the
rapidly unload as their groups
haemoglobin
change shape again is combined
having less
with very for
attraction little O 2.
oxygen.
 CO-OPERATIVE BINDING OF OXYGEN
BY HAEMOGLOBIN
• Binding of oxygen to haemoglobin is known as co-operative
binding because the binding of successive O2 molecules
facilitates binding of the next. Binding of the 1st O2 molecule
increases the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen and hence
facilitates the binding of the 2nd O2 molelcule. Binding of the 2nd
O2 molecule facilitates the binding of the 3rd O2 molecule and so
on. The affinity of haemoglobin for the 4th O2 molecule is
approximately 300 times that for the 1st. This co-operative
binding explains the sigmoidal shape of the oxygen dissociation
curve.
• Haemoglobin can exist in two conformational states:
– Relaxed (R) state - this state corresponds to the quaternary
strucure of oxyhaemoglobin & favours oxygen binding
– Tense (T) state - this state corresponds to the quaternary
structure of deoxyhaemoglobin & has a lower binding affinity
 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
There are 3 ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood:
1. DISSOLVED CO2
• Carbon dioxide is much more soluble in blood than oxygen
• About 5 % of carbon dioxide is transported unchanged, simply
dissolved in the plasma

2. BOUND TO HAEMOGLOBIN AND PLASMA PROTEINS

• Carbon dioxide combines reversibly with haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin. Carbon dioxide does not bind to iron, as
oxygen does, but to amino groups on the polypeptide chains of
haemoglobin.
• Carbon dioxide also binds to amino groups on the polypeptide
chains of plasma proteins
• About 10 % of carbon dioxide is transported bound to haemoglobin
and plasma proteins
 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT

3. BICARBONATE IONS (HCO3- )

• The majority of carbon dioxide is transported in this way
• Carbon dioxide enters red blood cells in the tissue
capillaries where it combines with water to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3). This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase (C.A.), which is found in the red blood
cells. Carbonic acid then dissociates to form bicarbonate
ions (HCO3- ) and hydrogen ions (H+).

C.A.
CO2 + H 20 H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
•This reaction also occurs outside
the red blood cells, in the plasma,
but is much slower due to the lack
of carbonic anhydrase.

•The hydrogen ions, formed from

the dissociated carbonic acid,
combine with the haemoglobin in
the red blood cell.

•Bicarbonate ions diffuse out of

the red blood cell into the plasma
whilst chloride ions (Cl-) diffuse in
to take their place. This is known
as the chloride shift.
What is the significance of
The diagram above shows
the reversal of the reactions
which occurs at the lungs.

Bicarbonate ions enter the

red blood cells and combine
with hydrogen ions to form
carbonic acid.

This is broken down into

carbon dioxide and water.

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of

the red blood cells and into
the alveoli.
 Describe how
carbon dioxide is
transported in the
human body.
STPM 2016
Reinforcement
Exercise
Reinforcement
Exercise