University of Iowa

Iowa Research Online

Theses and Dissertations

1915

Physiology of color blindness with special reference to a case of

deuteranopia
George Carter Albright
State University of Iowa

Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd

This work has been identified with a Creative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0. Material in the
public domain. No restrictions on use.

This thesis is available at Iowa Research Online: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/3909

Recommended Citation
Albright, George Carter. "Physiology of color blindness with special reference to a case of deuteranopia."
MS (Master of Science) thesis, State University of Iowa, 1915.
https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.ei5lcfip

Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd

 PHYSIOLOGY OP COLOR BLINDNESS

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A CASE OF DEUTERANOPIA

A Study Pursued by

George Carter Albright, B. A., M.D.

In partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree,

Master of Science

State University of Iowa

1914-1915
 The function of the eye, as of any other organ in

the human body, is first and foremost to enable the in­

dividual to live, and to live in harmony with his surround­

ings. This function may be ascribed to the eye of any

animal that has developed to the point where the eye is

a separate and distinct organ. Whether or no the abili­

ty of the individual to go further and analyse the sensa­

tions that come to him through the eye, applying to the

differing sensations the terms that we are wont to call

color, is a process of development of this or that part

of the visual tracts is for the present a matter of in­

difference. The average human being does distinguish

color, and through years we have come to apply to certain

sensations certain names, and call those sensations cer­

tain colors. What these are, we need not strive to de­

fine. Blue is blue, green is green, and the means where­

by we distinguish blue from green are not known. Theories

have been advanced to explain, but they are only theories,

or even more correctly hypotheses.

Attention was directed, in the latter part of the

eighteenth century by Dalton, to the fact that some indi­

viduals aid not see colors the same as the majority of

men did, he himself being so distinguished. Then a

little later Newton demonstrated that white light is made

 2

up of a mixture of colors, of which the average individ­

ual could recognize six, some few could see seven, and

still others could see but four. To this latter class

those who do not see colors as does the average individ­

ual, the term color blind has been applied. Since that

time, thru numberless studies, it has been shown that

about four per cent of males, and a fraction of one per

cent of females are color blind; that there is a certain

regularity in the colors that these numbers are unable

to see; and further that this decreased function is con­

fined fairly closely to families. The color blind vary

in the character and amount of their color blindness.

There is an inability to see any color, achromatopsia.

To such the world of color is simply a series of black

and white pictures. These are rare. Much more common

are those whose ability to see colors is diminished, the

condition of dyschromatopsia. This again is subdivided

into the rare, those who cannot see blue and yellow, and

the common, those who cannot see red and green. In fact

the existence of a true condition of blue-yellow blind­

ness is questioned by some, and only a very few, if any,

cases have been reported.

This leaves, then, color blindness in the main to

be a condition of diminished ability to see red and green,

or red or green. That is, one is much more deficient than

the other, for example, red poor and green is fairly good;

or green is poor and red fairly good.

Although the visible spectrum consists of six or sev­

en colors, there are only three fundamental, out of which

 3

by proper combination, all the others can be made. These

are red, green and blue. Yellow also exists as a funda­

mental color, but since it can also be made by combining

red and green, it is not included in the three. Persons

who see all three of these colors sure said to be trichro-

mates. Those who see only two, who are blind for one

are dichromates. On examination of the spectrum by the

normal person the range of color from the red to the vio­

let end extends for a certain standard distance, measured

in wave lengths of the light rays. The red-green blind

are found to differ among themselves on examining the

spectrum. To some it is shorter, and the portion of

greatest brightness is found in the green (normal being

the yellow). These are called protanopes. Others see

the full length of the spectrum, the maximum brightness

being in the yellow, and these are known as deuteran-

opes.

Color blindness is congenital or acquired— -the for­

mer due to some defect in parent, the latter to drugs or

inflammatory conditions of retina or optic nerve(3).

Whatever attempts are made to study these phenomena,

all recognize that the problem is a physiological one, one

of function; and also that the seat of the difference in

vision between the color blind and normal is in the retina,

not in the cortical center. It is also well known that

only certain parts of the retina in the normal individual

 4

sense colors, and that this color sensing area is still

further divided up into zones for certain colors as will

be explained later.

Anatomy of the Retina.

The retina is the spread out terminal filaments of the

optic nerve. It is a soft inelastic membrane, completely

transparent during life except for the blood stream in the

vessels. It is made up of some nine layers, the only one
of which we are concerned with being the outer layer, the

rods and cones, lying next to the choroid of the eye. These

are the sensing elements, and being outside, the rays of

light in order to act upon them must traverse all the other
layers from the vitreous out to the rods and cones.

On weak magnification the rods and cones are seen to

be a finely striated layer, with its striations at right

angles to the inner surface of the choroid. On higher

magnification this layer is seen to consist of two elements;

(a) the rods with a length corresponding to the entire thick­

ness of only about two mu., and (b) the cones, flask-form
structures that are much shorter and thicker, not occupy­
ing the entire thickness of the layer. The exact form

of the cones varies with the location, those at the fovea

being long and slender like the rods, and those at the per­

iphery much shorter and thicker. The distribution of

these two elements is of importance. Beginning at the

foveola in the fovea we have an area according to Fritsch

(1 ) with a diameter of 0 . 1 5 where only cones are tobe

found. Outside this field the rods appear, at first

 5

scattering, then surrounding the individual cones as a

circle. Cones and rods are found in the retina from the

fovea outward in gradually changing numbers, the rods in­

creasing, the cones decreasing, until at the periphery,

near the ora serrata we have only rods. This arrange­

ment of elements is important to remember in connection

with one of the prominent theories of color blindness.

In addition to this we find in the rods a substance that

varies in amount owing to light and dark, known as visual

purple or rhodopsin. This substance is not found in the

cones. It increases in the rods in the dark, and bleach­

es out rapidly on being exposed to the light. This can

be nicely demonstrated in the frog b y exposing the dark

adapted retina with its visual purple to the light. Under

proper conditions a photograph of an open window with cross

bars can be obtained, the light bleaching the purple, the

bars leaving it unaffected (2). Although this substance

is affected by light, being decomposed by light and build­

ing up again in the dark, it is not to be thought that its

decomposition is in any way responsible for the sensation

of light that the mind receives. Animals that possess no

visual purple have keen vision, and in the human eye the

spot of keenest vision, namely, the foveola, has no rods

and therefore no visual purple. Just what is the differ­

ence in function between the rods and cones is not known.

Theories have been advanced that the rods see white and

black only while the cones see these and colors also, but
 6

no definite proof is forthcoming. From the fact, how­

ever, that we see with those portions of the retina in

which only one of them can be found we know that both

have to do with the sensation of sight. No histological

or pathological changes have ever been demonstrated in

eyes that are color blind, consequently it is not known

that there are any such. No differences of distribu­

tion of the two have been observed in the eye of the

colorblind as compared with the normal.

In various times there have been a number of attempts

made to explain the phenomena of color vision. These at­

tempts have been known as theories, though it is not amiss

to say that they are more properly simply hypotheses. None

have succeeded in expalining all the facts of color vision

and blindness, nor do all of them taken together answer

some of the fundamental questions involved, simply because

there is no method of experimental verification. Some of

the leading theories follow.

1. The Young-Helmholtz Theory,

This theory was proposed by Thomas Young

in about 1807 (4) and was later added to by Helmholtz. It

starts with the assumption that there are three fundamental

color sensations, red, green and violet, to which there

were three corresponding photo-chemical substances. By

the action of colored light, say red, the red photochemi­

cal substance was dissociated, the nerve impulse traveled

along special nerve fibers for red to the proper center in

 7

in the brain. In a similar way the green substance was

dissociated with green sensation that is carried along its

own special fibres to its own center, different from that

of red. Thus all three color sensations are carried to

their respective centers in the brain, each along its own

path. White or gray light was seen by a proper combina­

tion of the three fundamentals, or under certain conditions

two of them,- the complementary colors, e.g., red and green.

Black was the result of an absence of any stimulation.

Yellow, blue and the other colors were produced by the

varying proportions of the three fundamentals. All three

of the fundamental substances were acted upon by all the

rays of the spectrum, but the red substance was affected

most by the rays of longest length, the red rays. This

is made clear by the drawing.

2. The Hering Theory.

Like the young-Helmholtz theory, the Her­

ing Theory supposes three photochemical substances of such

a nature as to give six different qualities of sensation.

Two qualities are secured from each photochemical sub­

stance, one from the destruction or breaking down of the

substance, called disassimilation, the katabolic process,

 8

the other from the construction or building up of the sub­

stance, celled assimilation, the anabolic process. The

three fundamental color substances, according to the Her-

ing theory, are red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.

In tabular form according to Howell these may be stated

(5) thus:

Photo-chemical substance Retinal Process Sensation

red-green disassimilation red

assimilation green

yellow-blue disassimilation yellow

assimilation blue

white-black disassimilation white

assimilation black

According to this theory the partially color blind

persons, for example, red-green blind, are so because the

red-green photochemical substance is lacking. Blue-yellow

blind are so because the blue-yellow substance is lacking.

Total color blindness would be due to the absence of all

four color substances, leaving only the white and black; and
hence the world would be a series of white and black and

gray pictures. He accounts for the formation of gray or

white by complementary colors by this reasoning. The com­

plementary colorsubstances are antagonistic, and if the

proper combination of any two such be shown, they each des­

troy the other, and the white-black substance present is

stimulated by the light entering the retina to send the

sensation of white or gray to the consciousness. All

light rays, according to this theory, disassociate the

white-black substance.
 9

Hering's theory has two modifications that are of

importance in that they try to explain certain defects of

the original theory. The first of these is the theory

proposed by Ebbinghaus. He (6) substitutes for the as­

similative and disassimilative processes of Hering, a

"conception of progressive and antagonistic stages of de­

composition of three visual substances. In particular,

Ebbinghaus makes the following suppositions; The rod

pigment, called the visual purple, by its first stage of

decomposition occasions sensations of yellow. In its

second phase this substance is yellow, not purple, and

its decomposition causes sensations of blue. There is

a second, an objectively red-green substance in the cones,

and the first and second processes of its decomposition oc­

casion the colors of red and green; it has never been ob­

served because in its green phase it is complementary to

the visual purple. A third white-black invisible sub­

stance occasions white and black by its progressive decom­

position." There are certain so vital objections to this

theory that it is not seriously considered. For example,

the decomposition of these substances is progressive. Hence

they cannot account for a mixture of colors or the forma­

tion of shades and tints. What is a more vital objection

is that he assumes visual purple to be the substance essen­

tial to color, a fact already shown above to be untrue. Fur­

ther, if his theory were true, to see green one would first

sense yellow, then blue, and finally green.

A second modification of the theory of Hering is that
 10

of Mueller. It is of much greater importance in that it

supplies a rational process and one that is well known,-

for an irrational principle, known in no other field: the

principle of assimilation causing a sensation; physiolog­

ically an anomaly if not an impossibility. Mueller's

theory is, that in place of assimilation and disassimilation

we have simply a reversible chemical process going on in

the photochemical substances. Such a conception of the

process is much more easily reconciled to known facts of

science than is Hering's original idea.

3. The theory of Mrs. C. L. Franklin.

In connection with the Franklin theory must

be mentioned the names of Koenig and Von Kries, who agree

with Mrs. Franklin in so far as they go, that is, that the

rods have to do with the conditioning of colorless light

sensations. Von Kries agrees with Mrs. Franklin further

in that the changes in the cones condition the color sensa­

tions.

Mrs. Franklin presents her theory (7 ) in an attempt

to explain the defects of the other two theories and at the

same time have a theory that conforms to the known anatomy

of the eye. Briefly, this theory considers the color sens­

ing a process of evolution. In the earliest primitive reti­

na colorless light only was perceived, as is still found

in the peripheral portion of the retina. Colorless sensa­

tions are doe to decomposition of a white-black substance

present both on the rods and comes, on the latter, however,

in such a differentiated condition as to he capable of giv­

ing rise to color sensations. Rods can perceive only

white-black and gray series. In the process of develop­

ment the molecules of the white-black substance on the

cones became differentiated, so that different parts of

it responded to different wave lengths of light. This

took place supposedly in two stages, the first being that

part responded to the longer wave lengths, giving rise

to sensations of yellow; the second part responded to

the shorter wave lengths, and gave rise to the sensation

of blue. In the outer part of the periphery of the reti­

na, at the outer part of the part containing both rods

and cones, and of necessity within the part containing

rods only, this differentiation still exists, and we

seer white, black, blue and yellow. It also existed, by

this theory, in the fovea of the red-green blind individ­

ual. The second stage of development is the differentia­

tion takes place in the part of the retina used mostly, that

is in the macular region. Thus it is that the field for

red and green is much less than the f i e l d for yellow

and blue.

Summed up, then, we find that in and around the

fovea we have, in the normal retina, an area of uncertain

extent that perceives all the colors of the spectrum,

white and black. Outside of this area there is another

zone where blue, yellow, white and black are perceived.

Outside this zone is the third zone, extending nearly or

quite to the ora serrata, in which zone only white and black

are sensed. In the macular region, where the yellow

 12

substance has differentiated into red and green, yellow

i s perceived by stimulation of the proper proportions

of red-green molecules. If all three components are

disassociated we have our earliest sensation- gray.

Of course in the portion of the retina where rods exist

gray is seen by the dissociation of the white-black

substance of the rods as well as by the cones. In the

foveola, where only cones exist gray is seen only by

total dissociation of the photochemical substance in

the cones. One point is important to remember, that

the undifferentiated gray substance on the rods is very

easily disassociated, so that gray is seen by very slight

stimulation; while the more differentiated substance of

the cones is more difficultly dissociated. Hence the

gray of mixed colors requires greater digree of stimu­

lation that the white-black gray.

According to this theory the totally color blind

have an atavistic retina, the photochemical substance

exists on rods and cones alike in the undifferentiated

state. The color blind of the common type, red-green,

possess an undeveloped retina, the color substance has

stopped short of complete differentiation, and exists on

the cones in its first stage of development, that is

into blue and yellow. It must be admitted that the

theory cannot account for the extremely rare cases of

blue-yellow colorblindness, with red and green color

sensing practically or quite normal.

 13

Heredity in Color Blindness.

The fact that color blindness adheres fairly close­

ly to certain families has already been mentioned. With­

out going into detail regarding the theories of heredity

involved it may be said that color blindness is a condi­

tion sex limited in occurrence and in its transmission.

Practiaally all colorblind persons are males, though

some few cases of female color blindness exist. The

children of color blind fathers are rarely or never

colorblind, be they sons or daughters. The children

of the sons of the colorblind father axe not colorblind

, but, the children of the daughters of a colorblind

father are according to the Mendelian law of heredity

(8), affected as follows: One-half of the sons will

be colorblind. This law holds provided the father of

the daughters children is not color blind. Should he

be so, half of the daughters will also be color blind.

Now, if the color blind daughter of such a union h a s

children all of the sons will be likewise affected.

According to the Mendelian terminology colorblindness

is a characteristic dominant in the male, and recessive

in the female, practically sex limited in its occurrence

to the male, and also sex limited in its transmission

by the female. This line of descent is shown by the

following chart.
 14

Expectation of Colorblindness in Offspring -Mendel.

- Father and mother without factor causing condition

- Female heterozygous for factor, not affected, one-half sons

affected.

- male heterozygous for factor.

- Female homozygous for factor, affected, all sons affected.

- Male homozygous for factor , affected, all his sons affected.

 15

While the typical form of colorblindness is the

red-green, it is seldom that the inability to sense

red and green is equally deficient, There exists a

more marked deficiency for either red or green, but

both are defective. There have been cases in which

the difference was so pronounced that the term red

blind or green blind has been applied to the individ­

ual. If any of the present theories are correct, how­

ever, there can be no case of pure red blindness or of

pure green blindness. Careful tests have been devised

by physiologists and psychologists to determine just

what colors are not sensed, and to what extent for each

color the individual is deficient.

The primary object of the p r esent study of this

paper is to work out the particular type of colorblind­

ness of a sophomore medical student, Mr. T. , whose color­

blindness was discovered in the course of routine exami­

nation in the department of Physiology of the College

of Medicine. He had known for a long time that his

sensing of colors was different from that of his sister,

and thought it different from that of other members of

the family. Preliminary tests made by use of the Holm­

gren wools and by haying him pick out the books with

red bindings in the library of the Department tended to

show that he is practically normal for reds and very

deficient for greens. At the suggestion of Doctor

McClintock and with his kind assistance the study of the

case was undertaken. The writer wishes at this time to

 l6

acknowledge his appreciation of the help and guidance

of Doctor McClintock, and his gratitude to Dr. Mabel

Williams of the Department of Psychology of the Uni­

versity of Iowa, and to the Department of Physics of

the University, for many courtesies shown and assist­

ance rendered.

The tests made included practically all the stand­

ard tests, together with many of the finer tests of color

discrimination and confusion, in so far as the necessary

equipment was available. The results of these tests

are given in tabular form, and if the subject was asked

to describe a certain phenomenon his exact description

is quoted. The tests used include Holmgren's wools,

Nagel's color confusion cards, Hayes' (9 ) rings for

testing color thresholds, Lovibond's tinpmeter, spectrum,

spectroscope, and perimeter.

Test with Holmgren wools.

This test was made in the afternoon with good light.

A gray background was used. The technic of the test

was that laid down as standard: the matching of certain

skeins given him. At no time was the name of any color

asked for or suggested. The result of this test is

shown in the first exhibit. In each case the first

piece is the one given him to be matched. After the

four standard colors had been matched the observer said,

"Now if you'll let me pick out the greens for you I'll

be glad to do so." The results of this selection are

shown as the last part of the first exhibit. When

 17

asked, how he selected the colors he said that green

to him was a "dead" color, while red was a "live" color.

This test was also carried out earlier without

saving the colors selected. For matching the red

standard he selected light brown, yellowish red, reds,

light gray, pink and yellow. For the matches to the

yellow standard he selected yellows and light green.

Matching blue he selected blues and greenish blue. To

match the standard green he selected grays and a few

greens.
 18

Nagel's color confusion tests.

 19

Part I.

1. Asked for the cards containing red spots, he select­

ed All, A 8 , A 6 .

2. Asked for the cards that contained red spots only,

he selected A12, and said there was no other card.

3.a) Asked for the cards containing green only, he select­

ed A9, A13, A15.

b) Asked for the cards containing grey only, he select­

ed A15.

c) Asked for the cards containing grey, he selected

A 8 , and said that it was rather a greenish grey.

PartII.

4. Asked to name the colors in B1, he replied that they

were orange and red.

5.a) Asked to name the colors in B2, he called dark

brown, brown; called reds reds; and did not know light

brown.

b) Asked what colors present on B3, he replied that

they were all green.

c) Asked for the colors present on B4, he replied

reds and browns.

Supplementary A.

6 .a) Asked for all the cards in set A containing red

or reddish spots he selected A 6, All, and A12.

7.a) Asked to select all the cards containing green,

he said that all the cards contained green.

b) Asked for those containing green only, he select­

ed A4, A8, A14.

 20

8 . Asked to name the colors on B 1, called brown green,

called greenish red.

Asked to name the colors on B2, named reds correctly,

called browns green.

Hayes rotating discs for the determination of the color

threshold.

These were made in accordance with the recommend­

ation of Hayes, white discs with a radius of 95 mm. were

made. Upon these were pasted circular rings of the four

standard Hering colors, 5 mm. in width, and at a distance

of 60mm. from the center, one strip on each disc. On a

fifth disc was placed a strip of H e r i n g ' s neutral grey,

number 14, made the same as the colored circles. They were

slit and so placed on the color wheel that any one could

be exposed at will, and as large or as small an arc of the

color exposed as was desired. The experiment was carried

on as follows: The observer Bat at a distance of one met­

er from the color wheel. Care was taken to have good

light. *
A screen was lowered in front of the color mixer

and a small sector of a color exposed. It was set rot­

ating, the screen lifted, and the observer asked to name

the color. This was repeated for all the colors. At

intervals the neutral grey was thrown into confuse the ob­

server. At no time did the observer see the wheel stand­

ing still with any part of a circle exposed. The observer

did not know before tie experiment how many colors were on the col­

or wheel. The results are given in tabular form, though

 21

it must be noted that the colors wdremaixed up at will,

at one time red, at another any color chosen in no defi­

nite order.

Red Green Blue Yellow

Deg. Named Deg . Named Deg. Named Deg. Named

125 Greenish 180 Orange or 4 Yellow

yellow
180 Olive Green 180 Greenish 20 Pinkish

220 Greenish 195 Reddish

250 Greenish 220 Greenish

250 Greenish 230 Reddish

Green or red
250 Greenish
Can not tell
255 Green or red 270 Greenish

265 Red or green 360 Cannot tell

,
y
a
r
g calls it 40Blue
285 Greenish

315 Red

Hering's Neutral Gray #14.

Deg. Named

105 Reddish

180 Reddish

195 Vermillion

280 Deep vermillion

350 Gray, Has lost its vermillion

Some of the observer's comments on the above expos­

ures are of interest. On exposing 220 degrees of red

he called it greenish. Immediately following this

220 degrees of green were exposed. He called this

greenish also, saying that it was like the preceding one

 22

only less intense. Reducing the amount of green to

195 he called it reddish, "slightly more so than the

one preceding". Exposing 180 degrees of red he called

it greenish, or olive green. Immediately changing

to green 180 he said that this was greenish but less

so than the one just preceding. During the test he

repeatedly said that if he could only get closer to

the wheel he thought he could tell the colors better.

Privilege was given, though the results were not record­

ed, but seemed to make no difference.

It is interesting to compare the threshold of this

observer with those of the protanope, two deuteranopes,

and an average test of forty women who made no mistakes

with the Nagel test, reported by Hayes (10). In the

following figures an X indicates that the observer could

not name the color although the full circle were exposed.

Observer Red Green Blue Yellow

M r . T. 315 X 4 4

Miss G.S.Protanope X 105 65 50

Miss M.S. Beuter 110 X 35 22

Miss I.B. Deuter 148 180 55 90

Average of forty 21 22 25 21
Normals

Although the blue and yellow thresholds of our case

seem very low, repeated tests on the one day failed to

cause any mistakes at this limit. On another day he

did, however, require a sector or 37 degrees to recognise

the blue.
 23

This one test is sufficient to show that although

his sensation of green is much more deficient than that

for red, yet he is red-green blind.

Testing for color threshold with the Lovibond's tinto­

meter.

In this experiment standard color glasses of vary­

ing intensity or depth of color beginning with the non-

determinable and running up to the deep color, from .1

up to 20.0, the depth of color being those of Lovibond’s

instrument, are used. The observer looks through two

small openings placed about 16 inches from the eyes, so

that he uses binocular vision for both openings. A

small amount of color is placed in one opening, the other

is simply white glass. The observer is now directed to

look and to tell what he sees, if there is any difference

and if so where. The colored glasses are first on one

side, then on the other, in no definite order. Occasion­

ally a plain white control is slipped in. The amount

of the color is slowly increased until he gets it right

a sufficient number of times out of ten; this is his

color threshold. In the table the sign c is correct

and w is wrong.

Amount of Color

Blue .8 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50

w w w w c c c
w c c c c c
w c
w w?
c w
c
w
w
 24

His threshold for blue may therefore be considered as

about .8 Normal , average of 5 ,- .839

Amount of Color

Yellow .3 .4 .5
w c c
w w c
w w c
w c c
c c
c c

His threshold for yellow may therefore be taken as be­

tween . 3 and .4 Normal, average of 5,-

.476
Amount of Color

Red 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

w w w c c
w w w c
w c c
w c
w c c

His threshold for red may be taken as between 2.00 and

2.50 Normal, average of 4,- .452

Green

Green is made by using blue and yellow in super­

position. Initial shows the color called, other symbols

are the same.

1y 1b 1y 5h 6y 6b 10y 10b 1 5y 1 5h 20y 20b 30 y 30b

y b c? c? y c? c?
y y w w c?
y y y y c?
y y y c c
y y y
y y
From this it is seen that his sensing of green in

any degree of intensity of amount is extremely doubtful.

His green color sense is practically nil.

 25

Description of the spectrum.

A spectrum about sixteen inches in length was thrown

by an arc light upon a white surface, and the observer

asked to describe it. Beginning at the red end he stat­

ed that he saw red to a certain point, as far as normal

observers see it. The red extended to about one half

of the red portion, when he said there was a trifle of

orange, and then a broad band of yellow extending near­

ly to the blue. Then there was a band of gray, about

two inches in width between the yellow and blue. Blue

was seen in a broad band, the band reaching through the

purple as far as the normal observer present saw it or

farther. This confirms the spectroscopic tests given

later in respect to the extent of his spectrum. The

gray band was described without any suggestion on the

part of those present.

Spectroscope.

The spectroscope was illuminated by an arc light.

Ten readings were made at each end of the spectrum, the

observer alternating with another reader so as to avoid

any fatigue. Since departures from an average are im­

portant the entire number of readings is given. Readings

are given in wave lengths, mumu.

Violet end: 400, 3 8 7 . 3 8 6 , 3 8 8 , 399, 3 8 7 , 3 8 3 , 391, 3 9 6 ,

386, Av. 3 9 0 . 3

Red End: 6 7 9 , 6 7 4 , 6 8 8 , 6 8 0 , 6 7 3 , 6 6 8 , 684, 6 7 5 , 6 7 4 ,

688. Av. 6 7 7 . 2
 26

The limitations of the spectrum as determined by

observations on three supposedly normal individuals (11)

are as follows:

Observer Red end Violet end

Mr. K. 701± 8 411± 4

Dr. S. 693±5 428±4

Mr. S. 6 8 2 ±8 430±4

Mr. T (Observer) 6 77.2 3 9 0 .3

Normal (Calkins) 687. 392.

From this table it will be seen that the observer ’ s

spectrum is not shortened, and he is according to Whipple’s

classification as given earlier (12), a deuteranope.

Perimeter.

The observer'3 fields were taken with the Hardy

perimeter. New standard colors were inserted into the

disc just before starting to take the fields. The fields

are attached on the usual perimeter chart. For white,

blue and yellow the fields are normal, and no errors were

made that were in any way unusual or abnormal. The red fi

field in each eye was constricted, more in the left than in

the right. The green field is not shown because the observ­

er was never sure of the color, in fact the name green was

not mentioned by the observer at any time during the taking

of the fields. His notation of the colors red and green

are given in detail in the four quadrants,

 27

Right Eye 90 - 0 Temporal 270 - 180 nasal

Angle Color shown Called by observer

90 Green Yellow at 40,reddish

pink at 20
Red White at 50, blue at 40,
green at 2 5 , red at 10

0 (tem ) Green Yellow at 6 0 , pink at 30 ,

reddish at center.
Red Yellow at 60, pink at 30

270 Green Yellow at 50, red at 25.

Red Red at 40

180 (nas) Green Yellow at 40, red at 25

Red White at 50, yellow at
40, red at 20.

Left Eye 9 0 - 0 Nasal 270 - 180 Temperal

Angle Color Shown Called by observer

90 Green Yellowish at 40, pink at

25.
Red White at 35, Yellowish
red at 2 5 , red at 2 0 .

0 (Nas) Green White at 40, pink at 20,

red at 1 0 .
Red Yellow at 45, pink at 30 ,
red at 20

270 Green White at 6 0 , yellow at

5 0 , red at 2 0 .
Red Yellow at 55, pink at 28,
reddish at 1 5 .

180 (Tem ) Green White at 6 0 , pink at 35,

red at 20.
Red Yellow at 45, pink at 35,
red at 20.

To the writer the above is very interesting in

the way it suggests the possible development of the

yellow substance into red-green. Without exception

the sequence of change from the periphery inward was

from the white, into yellow, into pink or red. In

taking a large number of perimetric charts on normal

 28

eyes the writer has observed the marked constancy with

which red is first called yellow as it is brought in

from the periphery.

This completes the experiments or tests made upon

the observer, Mr. T. One other investigation was car­

ried out that is interesting. Holmgren wools were sent

to the family of Mr. T . , and two brothers and the father

were tested by use of the wools. The selections made

by these are attached to the exhibit card. It is very

interesting to note that the same type of selection of

colors obtains in all three brothers. The father is

apparently normal, which makes the line of transmission

through the mother, in accordance with the usual line of

transmission according to the Mendelian law.

From our study of the case we arrive at the following

conclusions:

1L. The case studied is a deuteranope, that is, his

spectrum is not shortened.

2. He is a red-green blind individual, although

he is manifestly more deficient in his sensing of green

than he is of red.

3. The difference in his sensing of red and green

is most likely due to a sensing of the difference of in­

tensities, for as he said in describing them, "Red is a

live color, while green is a dead one". On another oc­

casion he picked up a skein of standard red wool and

said,- , "That color whatever it may be, is a stimulat­

ing color. It typifies my idea of energy. Where I got

 29

it I do not know, but that is the way it seems!"

4. In his heredity he follows fairly closely the

Mendelian law of heredity for color blindness. The

rough test that was made of the rest of the family would

indicate that not only is the color blindness transmitted

to the three brothers from the maternal grandparent(?)but

that the particular sensing of red better than green was

also part of the transmission, since all three brothers

are alike in so far as the one rough test of the Holmgren

wools would show.

 30

Bibliography

1. Fritsch in, Anatomy and Histology of the Eyeball.

Selzmann. Transl. by E. V. L. Brown.

2. Howell, Text book of Physiology, Fifth Edition, p 333.

3. Baird, Problem of Color Blindness, Psychological Bu l ­

letin v , 1908.

4. Howell, Textbook of Physiology, fifth Ed. p.353.

5. Ibid, p 3 5 7 .

6. Calkins, Introduction to Psychology, p.465.

7. Mind, Vol. 2. p 4 7 3 . 1 8 9 3 .

8. Mendel's Principles of Heredity.

9. Hayes, Color Sensations of the Partially Color Blind.

Amer. Jour. Psychol. July, 1911.

10. Ibid.

11. Doctor Williams, Dept. Psychology, University of Iowa.

12. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests.

Other references read in preparation of work:

Jennings, Color Vision and Color Blindness

Hill (Editor), Further Advances in Psychology.

Edridge-Green, Colour Blindness.

Abney, Recent Researches in the Problem of Color

vision.